India : Soils and Indian Soils Types

Soil definition soil is an upper layer of Earth which has been derived from the rocks and
organic matter through agencies of decay and disintegration .

agents of weathering and erosion break the mountains and rocks into smallpieces and
convert them in small and fine grains.
decayed plants and animals elements are also added in the soil which is known as
humus .

the soil formation is a very slow process and has taken thousands of years to form .

Various agents of weathering and denudation have acted upon the parent rock material to
produce a thin layer of soil on earth .

Importance of soil on earth

soil is very important for us because agriculture production is totally based on fertility of
soil
population on earth mostly reside in those area where soil is fertile .

soil used for production of food grains and livelihood of people ,

Soil formation process and agents which play an important role in soil formation
there are many agents which play an important role in formation of soil like animals .insects
,rock material , relief and man .
1. Parent material

the main material for soil formation comes from the mountains and rocks .

the rocks are exposed to the process of weathering and suffer decay and decomposition .

in this process the rocks are converted into fine grains which work as a base for soil
formation

for example -himalaya plays an important role in formation of soil in northern plain ,by
deposition material from himalaya by himalayan rivers .

2.Relief

relief also play an important role in formation of soil .one of the best example is steep
slope of land .
steep slope of land encourage swift flow of water and hinders the process of soil
formation .

area with low slope experience deposition and have deep layer of soil.

3. climate

climate is most important soil formation factor .climate play an important role in
formation of soil.
most important climatic factor is seasonal rainfall and temperature .

4.Natural Vegetation

Natural vegetation in india contain some of most fertile soil in india .because natural
vegetation adds humus in soil thus increase soil fertility .decayed leaf of plant add humus
in soil.
so we can say that natural vegetation and soil has a close relationship .

The indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified the soils of india into 8
Groups
1. Alluvial Soils
2. Black Soils
3. Red and Yellow soils
4. Laterite soils
5. Mountains soils
6. Desert or Arid Soils
7. Saline Soils
8. Peaty or Organic soils
1. Alluvial soils

the soil covers 40 percent part of total geographical area of India.

This soil covers an area of 15 lakh sq km in India and mainly contributes in the
development of agriculture.

Alluvial soils are formed due to depositional work done by rivers in plains .valleys,flood
plain and deltas

The sutlej- Ganga basin has the largest depositional basin of Alluvial soils.

This soil is very fertile in india and this plain is considered as the one of the most fertile
areas of the world .

the deltas of the Godavari.The Mahanadi,the Krishana ,the kavery are also abound by the
Alluvial soil.

Alluvial soil also found in the Assam valley ,Western plains , and Gujarat Plains.

These soils can be sandy and loamy in nature .

They are rich in potash but poor in phosphorous.in the upper ganga plain two different
types of soils are formed

1. Khadar khadar is new alluvial soil which is deposited by floods every year annually
and enrich soil.
2. Bhangar Bhangar represents the older alluvial soil which is deposited away from flood
plains.

color of alluvial soil differ from the light grey to ash grey.Alluvial soils are very
important for the growth of the various crops like cereals and pulses.

2. Black soils

These soils are also known as Regur soils or Black cotton soils because these soils are
famous for the cultivation of Cotton.
The Black soils is formed by solidification of lava spread over large area of deccan
plateau.

Now days these soils are found in Karnataka,Maharashtra,MP,Gujarat ,AP and Tamil
Nadu .

in the lower part of Krishna and Godavari Basin n Black soils is quite deep.

Black soils cover about 30 percent of the total area of country .

Black soils are generally clayey,deep and impermeable .these soils has the capacity to
retain moisture for the longer duration compare to other soils .

when moisture and water evaporated then soils develop cracks .

Black soils are very rich in minerals contents because these soils were formed due to
volcanic activities.

these soils contains high quantities of iron,Aluminium,Magnesium and lime.however

they are poor in organic matter,nitrogen and Phosphorous.

3. Red and yellow Soils

These soils are formed by decomposition of Granite ( igneous) and Gneiss (metamorphic
rocks )
These soils are Reddish in color .because presence of iron oxide in it.

These soils mainly found in Peninsular India.

They cover almost whole Tamil Nadu,Karnataka,orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

These soils also found in santhal Paragana and chhotta Nagpur Plateau.

These soils lacks in Nitrogen,Phosphorous Acid and organic matter and are less fertile.

They are mainly used for cultivation of Coarse grains ,pulses and oilseeds .

4.Laterite Soils

These soils are formed due to coming of dry and wet seasons alternately.
laterite soils mainly found in those areas where rainfall occur more than 200 cms .

Generally speaking soils with higher altitudes are more acidic than those of lower
altitudes.

More rainfall causes leaching away of laterite rocks because of which parts of silica and
lime go down and compound or iron and aluminium are left in form of soils.

these soils are found mainly in Hilly areas of Rajmahal .Eastern and Western Ghats
,Karnataka and some parts of orissa.

these soils lack in nitrogen ,potash, Humus,the paucity of lime makes these soils acidic
.so they are suitable for the cultivation of Tea.

5. Arid or Desert soils

The color of these soils range from Red to Brown .

Most of these soils are sandy and saline .

in some areas salt contents is very high that common salt is obtained from water by
evaporation .

These soils are rich in phosphorous and iron but deficient in humus and Nitrogen.

These are infertile soils which are alkaline in nature .

coarse cereals like jowar ,Bajara and ragi are produced in these soils .

6. Saline and Alkaline Soils

These soils are also called Reh, Usar, or Kallar.

the saline soils also contains higher proportion of Sodium, Potassium And Magnesium.

they are saline and contains more salts due to dry condition and poor drainage .

these soils are found in Arid and semi arid and the Swampy and waterlogged areas.

they are sandy and loamy and lack in nitrogen and calcium.

saline soils are mainly found in Western Gujarat,Eastern coast deltas and sunderbans
areas.

in the green revolutions areas also alluvial soils are becoming saline soils due to
excessive use of irrigation and fertilizers.

These soils are deficient in Nitrogen and lime.

in coastal areas coconut trees are found plenty in these soils.

7. Mountains Soils

these soils are found in those areas where high amount of rainfall occur .
most of these forest soils are found in himalayan areas .

these soils contain thin layer because of their development in mountian slopes.

these soils are rich in fossils but they are under composed so humic acid formed and
soils became acidic.

these soils are poor in potash ,phosphorus and lime.

these soils are affected by problem of soil erosion .

mostly Tea,Coffee and fruits are grown in these soils.

8. Peaty or Organic Soils

these soils re found in those areas where high amount of rainfall occur .
they have good growth of vegetation and are rich in humus and organic matter.

peaty soils are heavy and brown in color but at several places these soils are alkaline in
nature.

these soils are too much Acidic.

these soils are formed by the deposition of too much organic matter in marshy areas.

DEFINITION

OF

SOIL

Soil can be simply defined as a mixture of small rock particles/debris and organic materials/
humus which develop on the earth surface and support growth of plants.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION URVARA

VS

USARA

In India, soil had been classified from the ancient period itself even though it was not
as detail as the modern classifications.
In the ancient period, the classification was based on only two things; whether the
soil is fertile or sterile. Thus the classification were:

1. Urvara [fertile]
2. Usara [sterile]

SOIL CLASSIFICATION AGENCIES

INVOLVED

In the modern period, when men started to know about the various characteristics of
soil they began to classify soil on the basis of texture, colour, moisture etc.
When the Soil survey of India was established in 1956, they studied soils of India
and their characteristics.
The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning, an institute
under the control of Indian Council of Agriculture Research did a lot of studies on
Indian soil.

MAJOR

CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN SOILS

1. Alluvial soil [43%]

2. Red soil [18.5%]
3. Black / regur soil [15%]
4. Arid / desert soil
5. Laterite soil
6. Saline soil
7. Peaty / marshy soil
8. Forest soil
9. Sub-mountain soil
10. Snowfields

ALLUVIAL

SOIL:

Mostly available soil in India (about 43%) which covers an area of 143 sq.km.
Widespread in northern plains and river valleys.

In peninsular-India, they are mostly found in deltas and estuaries.

Humus, lime and organic matters are present.

Highly fertile.

Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputhra plain, Narmada-Tapi plain etc are examples.

They are depositional soil transported and deposited by rivers, streams etc.

Sand content decreases from west to east of the country.

New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.

Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey.

Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.

Rich in: potash

Poor in: phosphorous.

Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated mainly.

ED SOIL:

Seen mainly in low rainfall area.

Also known as Omnibus group.

Porous, friable structure.

Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).

Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.

Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.

Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.

Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are cultivated.

BLACK

SOIL

REGUR SOIL:

Regur means cotton best soil for cotton cultivation.

Most of the Deccan is occupied by Black soil.

Mature soil.

High water retaining capacity.

Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.

Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when

dried.

Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium.

Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter.

Colour: Deep black to light black.

Texture: Clayey.

LATERITE

SOIL:

Name from Latin word Later which means Brick.

Become so soft when wet and so hard when dried.

In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.

Formed as a result of high leaching.

Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.

Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by the bacteria as it is high
temperature and humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants. Thus,
humus content is low.

Rich in: Iron and Aluminum

Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus

Colour: Red colour due to iron oxide.

Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly.

DESERT /

ARID SOIL:

Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.

Deposited mainly by wind activities.

High salt content.

Lack of moisture and Humus.

Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is high which restricts the infiltration of
water.

Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.

Texture: Sandy

Colour: Red to Brown.

PEATY /

MARSHY SOIL:

Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity.

Growth of vegetation is very less.

A large quantity of dead organic matter/humus which makes the soil alkaline.

Heavy soil with black colour.

FOREST

SOIL:

Regions of high rainfall.

Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.

MOUNTAIN

SOIL:

In the mountain regions of the country.

Immature soil with low humus and acidic.

DIFFERENT SOIL TYPES IN INDIA: UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENCES

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This post is a continuation of our previous article on Soils of India: Classification and
Characteristics. The Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) set up an All India Soil
Survey Committee in 1953 which divided the Indian soils into eight major groups. For ease of
understanding and comparative study, this post about the 8 soil types is prepared in tabular form,
highlighting the key differences.

DIFFERENT

SOIL TYPES IN INDIA :

UNDERSTAND

THE DIFFERENCES

1. Alluvial soils
2. Black (or Regur soil)
3. Red and Yellow soils
4. Laterite soils
5. Arid and desert soils
6. Saline and alkaline soils
7. Peaty and marshy soils
8. Forest and mountain soils

TYPES OF
SOILS

Alluvial

Black
soil)

STATES

WHERE

FOUND

RICH

Mainly found in the

plains of Gujarat, Potash
Punjab, Haryana, UP, Lime
Bihar, Jharkhand etc.

IN:

LACKS

IN:

CROPS
GROWN

Large variety of
rabi and kharif
and Nitrogen
and crops such as
Phosphorous
wheat,
rice,
sugarcane,
cotton, jute etc.

Deccan
plateauMaharashtra, Madhya
Lime,
Iron,
Cotton,
Pradesh,
Gujarat,
Phosphorous,
(Regur
Magnesia and
sugarcane, jowar,
Andhra Pradesh,Tamil
Nitrogen
and
Alumina,
tobacco, wheat,
Nadu,
Valleys
of
organic matter
Potash
rice etc.
Krishna
and
Godavari.

Red

Eastern and southern

part of the deccan
Nitrogen,
Wheat,
rice,
plateau,
Orissa,
Iron and Potash Phosphorous and cotton, sugarcane
Chattisgarh
and
humus.
and pulses
southern parts of the
middle Ganga plain.

Laterite

Karnataka,
Kerala,
Organic matter,
Tamilnadu,
Madhya Iron oxide and Nitrogen,
Cashewnuts, tea,
Pradesh, Assam and potash
Phosphate
and coffee, rubber
Orissa hills.
Calcium

Arid and Desert Western

Rajastan, Soluble salts, Humus, Nitrogen Only
drought
north Gujarat and phosphate
resistant and salt
southern Punjab
tolerant
crops
such as barley,

rape,
cotton,
millets maize and
pulses

Saline and
Alkaline

Western Gujarat,
deltas of eastern
coast, Sunderban
areas of West Bengal,
Punjab and Haryana

Sodium,
Potassium,
Magnesium

Nitrogen and
Calcium

Unfit for

Classifications of Cropping System:

Depending on the resources and technology available, different types of cropping systems are
adopted on farms, which are as below.
Mono-cropping or Single Cropping: Mono-cropping refers to growing only one crop on a
particular land year after year. Or Practice of growing only one crop in a piece of land year after
year e.g. growing only rabbi crops in dry lands or only said crops in diary lands (Lands situated
in river basins which often remain flooded during rainy season). This is due to climatologically
and socio economic conditions or due to specialization of a farmer in growing a particular crop.
Groundnut or cotton or sorghum is grown year due to limitation of rainfall. Flue-cured tobacco is
grown in Gnter (A.P.) due to specialization of a farmer in growing a particular crop. Rice crop
is grown, as it is not possible to grow any other crops, in canal irrigated areas, and under water
logged conditions.

Monoculture: Practice of repetitive growing only crop irrespective of its intensity as rice-ricerice in Kerala, West Bengal and Orissa.
Sole Cropping: One crop variety grown alone in pure stand at normal density.
Multiple Cropping or Polycropping: It is a cropping system where two or three crops are gown
annually on the same piece of land using high input without affecting basic fertility of the soil.
Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calendar year known as multiple
cropping. It is the intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions i.e. more number of
crops within a year and more number of crops on the same piece of land at any given period. It
includes inter-cropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
Molested (1954) has mentioned that multiples cropping is a philosophy of maximum crop
production per acre of land with minimum of soil deterioration.
1) Rice-potato-green gram.
2) Rice-mustard-maize.
3) Rice-potato-sesame.
4) Jut-rice-potato.
Cropping intensity is more that 200 per cent when the farm as a whole is considered; the
Multiple Cropping Index (MCI) is determined by the number of crops and total area planted
divided by the total arable area. When the value is three or more, it is said to be most promising
farm. This is also called as intensive cropping.
1. Polyculture: Cultivation of more than two types of crops grown together on a piece of land in
a crop season.
e.g. 1) Subabul + Papaya + Pigeon pea + Dinanath grass.
2) Mango + Pine apple + Turmeric
3) Banana + Marigold + berseem.
Relay Cropping: Growing the succeeding crop when previous crop attend its maturity stage-orsowing of the next crop immediately after the harvest of the standing crops. Or it is a system of
cropping where one crop hands over land to the crop in quick succession.
E.g. 1) Paddy-lathers
2) Paddy-Lucerne.
3) Cotton-Berseem.
4) Rice-Cauliflower-Onion-summer gourds.
Overlapping Cropping: In this system, the succeeding crop is sown in the standing crop before
harvesting. Thus, in this system, one crop is sown before the harvesting of preceding crops. Here
the lucre and berseem are broadcasted in standing paddy crop just before they are ready for
harvesting.
Advantages:

1. Minimum tillage is needed for relay cropping and primary cost of cultivation is less.
2. Weed infestation is less, as land is engaged with crops year round.
3. Crop residues are added in the soil and thus more organic matter.
4. Residual fertilizer of previous crops benefits succeeding crops.

Mix farming the growing of crops and the raring of animals on the same piece of land.
Mix cropping the planting of two or more crops alternatively on one piece of land.
Crop rotation the rotation of crops to allow greater fertility.
Cover crop those are crops that form a complete cover on the land surface to
minimize soil

Cropping activities go on all the year-round in India, provided water is available for crops. In northern
India, there are two distinct seasons, kharif (July to October), and rabi (October to March). Crops grown
between March and June are known as zaid. In some parts of the country, there are no such distinct
seasons, but there they have their own classification of seasons. The village revenue officials keep plotwise record of crops grown in each season. These are annually compiled district-wise, state-wise and on
all-India basis. From these records one could calculate the relative abundance of a crop or a group of
crops in a region. These crops are grown sole or mixed (mixed-cropping), or in a definite sequence
(rotational cropping). The land may be occupied by one crop during one season (mono-cropping), or by
two crops (double-cropping) which may be grown in a year in sequence. Of late, the trend is even more
than two crops (multiple-cropping) in a year. These intensive croppings may be done either in sequence
or even there may be relay-cropping-one crop undersown in a standing crop. With wide-rowed slow
growing cropping patterns, companion crops may be grown. There are various ways of utilising the land
intensively. It is proposed to give a synoptic view of cropping patterns prevalent in the country. Before
dealing with the cropping patterns, a brief description of the factors that determine the cropping systems
of an individual locality or region are briefly presented here.
In any locality, the prevalent cropping systems are the cumulative results of past and present decisions by
individuals, communities or governments and their agencies. These decisions are usually based on
experience, tradition, expected profit, personal preferences and resources, social and political pressures
and so on. Essentially, they are answers to some of the following questions:

What with the present pest-and-disease control methods are ecologically practicable?
What interactions occur among the ecologically practicable crops, and the chosen crops and
must be combined in a special way (rotations) in the farming systems?

Are any of the ecologically feasible crops ruled out by infrastructural factors?

Which of the crops, now remaining on the list, are most profitable (or yield most food in a
subsistence agriculture)?. In what combinations and at what level of input application would they
make the best use of local land, climate and input resources in short-term and long-term
situations bearing in mind the degree of food and income security required by the individual
farmer and the community?

What operational factors rule out or amend the size and the method of any of the economically
preferable crop combinations thereof?

Finally, are the crop combinations, the farming systems and the input levels suggested by this
process of the individual farmers compatible with his own skills, enterprise preferences, health,
age and capital?

The climatic, edaphic and socio-economic diversity of the Indian crop-production scene is dotted with
many cropping patterns. With a geographic area of 328.048 million hectares, stretching between 8 oN and
36oN latitude and between 68oE and 98oE longitude, its altitude varying from the mean sea-level to the
highest mountain ranges of the world, India presents a range and diversity of climate, flora and fauna,
with a few parallels in the world. The country presents a paradox of containing in it the station with the
highest mean annual rainfall in the world (Cherrapunji in Assam) and also dry, semi-desert area in
Rajasthan. The variability of rainfall is most important in all the states, but especially where rainfall is low.
In parts of Rajasthan and the Deccan, the variability is more than 100 per cent of the mean. Years of
drought account for only too frequent a history of crop failures, whereas the years of flood also cause very
considerable loss of agricultural production. Temperatures also vary greatly, both geographically and
seasonally. Northern and central parts of India in January have temperature comparable with those in
Europe in July, though with a greater daily range, but in these places in the pre-monsoon months the
maximum temperatures of over 40oC are reached over a large area. Frost may occur in winter in the
plains, as far south as a line drawn through Madhya Pradesh and may be heavy in Kashmir and areas
north of Punjab.
Socio-economically, the peasantry ranges from the relatively affluent Punjabi farmers who operate with a
high input intensity in agriculture to the subsistent farmers of eastern and central India. They even today,
sometimes practice shifting cultivation. Between these two extremes, various intensities of cultivation are
practised. The outstanding fact on the socio-economic is the smallness of holdings, the average farm-size
in most areas being lower than that is in most tropical countries.
Crops production, therefore, presents such an enormous diversity owing to differences in latitude, altitude
and variability of rainfall and edaphic diversity which have presented in detail in the book. Thus it may not
be possible to enumerate and describe here every type of cropping pattern prevalent in the country. Some
broad contours of farming, however, emerge. The most important element of farming in India is the
production of grains and the dominant food-chain is grain-man. On this basis, the country may be divided
broadly into five agricultural regions.

The rice region extending from the eastern part to include a very large part of the north-eastern
and the south-eastern India, with another strip along the western coast.
The wheat region, occupying most of the northern, western and central India.

The millet-sorghum region, comprising Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and the Deccan Plateau in
the centre of the Indian Peninsula.

The temperate Himalayan region of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh and some
adjoining areas. Here potatoes are as important as cereal crops (which are mainly maize and
rice), and the tree-fruits form a large part of agricultural production.

The plantation crops region of Assam and the hills of southern India where good quality tea is
produced. There is an important production of high-quality coffee in the hills of the western
peninsular India. Rubber is mostly grown in Kerala and parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There
are some large estates, but most of the growers would come under the category of small holders.
Sugarcane, which in many countries is a plantation crop, is almost entirely grown by small
holders in India.

There had been substantial investments in major irrigation works in the colonial days. The postIndependence era saw many multi-purpose irrigation works. Lately, interest in the medium and minor
irigation works has increased, especially after the drought of 1966. Thus, at present, an all-India irrigation
potential of 38.5m ha has been created and is expected to increase up 110 m ha by 2025. Irrigation,
especially the minor works, has provided a base for multiple-cropping. The All-India Co-ordinated CropsImprovement Projects run co-operatively by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and the
agricultural universities have generated short-season, photo-period-insensitive high-yeilding varieties of
various crops suitable for a high intensity of cropping. The adaptability of these varieties on the farmer's
fields has been demonstrated in the National Demonstration Programme spread all over the country. The
various developmental and the educative programmes, especially the High Yielding Varieties Programme,
have also resulted in newer cropping patterns involving intensive cropping. The area of rice has increased
in Punjab and Haryana. Similarly wheat is now grown in West Bengal and to some extent in the southern
states of the country.
All these factors have led to the present cropping patterns, which are getting more and more intensive
both in respect of the number of crops grown per year and in respect of the intensity of inputs utilized in
the production of these crops.