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Sebastian Navarro
Dr. Fisk
Final Examination POLI 145C
13 December 2013
Russia's Reversion
Post Cold-War international relations among states have been deemed to be aligned with
the "end of history" concept, which suggests that western liberalization will eventually be
adopted by all states, and the "return to history" concept, which suggests that competing ideas
regarding regimes, economies and ideals continue to challenge western ideas. Successes of
countries with differing implementations of power spark debate whether hard, soft or "smart"
power are most effective in achieving foreign policy goals. Foreign policy in Russia seeks to
regain regional influence and international superiority; nonetheless, their actions in attempt to
achieve such goals have exemplified to be in the direction of the "return to history" concept
through military aggression, economic authoritarianism and uncooperative behavior with foreign
nations. Such a foreign policy embodied by Russia does not exemplify smart power, as they do
not employ tactics such as restricted military use, economic liberalization and international
appeal. To regain international superiority and regional influence, it is essential for Russia to
adopt a foreign policy that surrounds smart power implications, as their aggressive demeanor
will only negatively affect their attempt at resurgence of power and influence; employing such
power will not only help a struggling government, but a struggle population as well.
The concepts of the "end of history" and the "return to history" have been respectively
asserted by many in describing the nature of politics in the post Cold War era. The "end of

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history" concept refers to the international wave of liberalism that occurred after the end of the
Cold War, thus suggesting that democracy, globalization, and liberalization of economies will
eventually be undertaken by every country. This concept became a widely speculated notion of
how international politics was becoming in the post Cold War world as the success of liberalism
attracted states to adopt such characteristics. Naturally, the interconnectedness that liberalization
evokes suggests that more countries working together will diminish the possibility for conflict
between major states (Fukuyama). The concept of "return to history" is the notion that
international relations has reverted from what was once thought as liberalization of politics and
economies back to a struggle over predominance between liberal democratic regimes and
authoritarian capitalist regimes, ultimately creating a multilateral power structure in international
politics. A multipolar world suggests that conflict, though not necessarily military in nature,
between states will persist in the twenty-first century (Kagan). In Russia's case, their future
strength is questionable as they are unable to cooperate and compete in the post Cold War era
due to their "return to history" foreign policy.
The post Cold War world has exemplified different faces of power including hard power,
soft power and smart power, all of which entail different consequences. Hard power is regarded
as a form of power which utilizes military or economic force to coerce foreign states to act in
accordance to a particular state's preference. An example of hard power in history were NATO
bombings of Bosnia and Kosovo to pressure Serbians to cease the genocide of Muslims in 1999.
Soft power is regarded as a form of power in which a state appeals to other states by means of
humanitarian work, culture attraction, regime credibility and any other factor that would increase
international popularity of a state through non-violent, non-aggressive means (Nye 95). In

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theory, international appeal as a result of soft power will assist a country in attaining their foreign
policy goals (Nye 108). An example of soft power in foreign policy is the attempt of Tony Blair
to gain foreign investment in Palestine (Lecture: European Foreign Policy). Smart power,
according to political scientist Joseph Nye, effectively wields hard and soft power together by
including characteristics such as international cooperation with amicable and rogue states alike, a
restricted utilization of military resources, attraction of domestic culture, maintaining a valid
domestic regime such as democracy, and anticipating the impact of future international changes
(Nye 231-234). A state that exemplifies smart power will utilize their available hard and soft
power resources in a manner that would help achieve their foreign policy goals. An example of a
state that adopts smart power in their foreign policy is Switzerland; though Switzerland has
minimal hard power and limited soft power in comparison to other European countries, they
effectively use smart power by providing a secrecy-based banking system that attracts much
foreign investment. International cooperation with other states has prompted Switzerland to
become a relatively influential and powerful nation who would have otherwise not be as
influential if it only included hard and soft power in their foreign policy. The manner by which
each of these powers are employed largely determine whether a state's foreign policy is headed
in the direction of the "end of history" or the "return to history".
Hard and soft power respectively alone are not very effective in attaining foreign policy
goals; nonetheless, a hybrid of the two powers expressed as smart power is the most effective
way for a state to achieve foreign policy goals in the post Cold War era. A nation that solely
relies on hard power will be regarded as aggressive and ultimately unsuccessful in attaining their
policy goals; therefore, a state should not rely solely on hard power. For example, the United

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States has the strongest military in the world in terms of technology and capability and will
continue to be in such a position for decades to come, yet they are unable to use hard power in a
manner that allows them to achieve their desired foreign policy goals (Nye 222). Nonetheless,
hard power is not entirely irrelevant as it is necessary for reassuring a state's capability to exert
influence and back up their policy goals (Gelb 185). Soft power has become increasingly
adopted by states as it is effective in gaining popularity on the international stage. It is imperative
that states adopt soft power as it entails respect from other nations to a degree that will assist
them in attaining foreign policy goals. For example, recognizing a democratic regime can garner
international respect for a country and thus make them more likely to work with a greater range
of international partners. Soft power is not a definitive form of power despite its ability to garner
international cooperation, as possessing only soft power will make a state vulnerable to military
coercion from other states. Soft power and hard power are both relevant in having a foreign
policy that portrays an "end of history" concept. Smart power should therefore be the primary
focus for any country that wishes to gain their policy goals and compete internationally in the
twenty-first century. Russia has exemplified its hard power ability in aggressing its surrounding
states and possesses little soft power influence internationally, but only smart power can revert
their foreign policy to one that exemplifies an "end of history" concept.
Russian foreign policy attempts to retain a level of power over former Soviet states
similar to their predominance in the Cold War and wishes to be regarded as an international
power; Russia attempts to attain such goals through military aggression and economic
uncooperativeness which reflects a "return to history" in their foreign policy. Perestroika under
Mikhail Gorbachev gave the impression to Western Nations that Russia was adjusting their

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foreign policy in accordance to the "end of history" concept by adapting their economy and
worldly relations to compete and cooperate with the rest of the rapidly changing world in the
early 1990's (Beasley 109). Under Putin's reign, however, Russian foreign policy became
increasingly interested in maintaining control over former Soviet satellites in light of increasing
western popularity. Due to Georgia's increasing alliance with the west and possibly NATO under
President Mikhail Saakachvili, Russia attacked Georgia forces in light of the latter's occupation
of South Ossetia (Beasley 112). Such an action by Russia denotes their foreign policy goal of
persistence to remain the predominant power and influence on former Soviet states (Beasley
113). Russia's aggression is not only militaristic but economic in nature as well; Russia's
nationalization of industries have been an effort to empower themselves but have instead
weakened their international relations and economy by discouraging foreign investment
(Lecture: Russia). Russian foreign policy only adapts hard power by military aggression and
economic authoritarianism to attain their goals, which reflects their foreign policy to align with a
"return to history" concept; such a foreign policy will not empower Russia, as only adopting
smart power will due so.
Russian foreign policy does not contain any sense of smart power. Through their
aggression and constant attempt to create a resurgence in dominating former Soviet satellites,
Russia fails to include smart power in their foreign policy as they do not pursue amicable
relations with satellite states, do not utilize their military in a modest manner and do not
liberalize their economy. These behaviors exhibited by Russia entail a sense of "return to history"
foreign policy which are not empowering Russia, but rather reverting their power to the extent

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where they are becoming increasingly unable to compete economically, politically and
influentially in the post Cold War era.
By adopting characteristics of smart power such as restricted military use, a liberalized
economy and greater international cooperation, Russia will be able to achieve supremacy
internationally and legitimately exert influence in former Soviet satellites. Smart power
encompasses legitimate, restricted military use. By adopting smart power, Russia will halt
excessive military usage such as the case in Georgia and instead only use military where their
security is at stake; such military use will assist Russia in gaining legitimacy among its former
satellites as a state that is willing to cooperate rather than coerce, thus attracting former satellites
to align with Russia and empowering the latter in the region. Adopting smart power also entails
maintaining good economic relations with foreign countries. Russia must cease the
nationalization of its industries as it detracts foreign investment. Due to their ample population
and abundance of natural resources, Russia has much potential for economic gain through
liberalization; liberalizing industries will empower Russia economically through foreign
investment and consequently enable themselves to compete with the strongest of nations
internationally and gain an international regard for power. Another aspect of smart power that is
essential for Russia to pursue is the cooperation with foreign states in international institutions.
Exhibiting a sense of cooperation will give the impression to former Soviet satellites that Russia
is willing to work with other nations to promote international well-being, therefore retracting
from the notion that Russia is a rogue state that cannot be associated with. Incorporating smart
power in Russia's foreign policy will prove to their former satellites and other foreign nations
that they are a cooperative state that is striving to become an international superpower.

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Of the many countries that faced changes following the Cold War, Russia is one of the
few that faced the most of such changes. The Soviet Union experienced superpower standing in
world politics for decades, only to be weakened tremendously after the fall of the Berlin Wall
and dissolution of the USSR. The change of government set Russia to become unsteady, thus
weakening the state economically and politically. Such weakening has not only affected the
government of Russia, but the people of the nation as well. Over two decades of struggle to
maintain the pace of the rapidly changing world has caused many Russians to resort to crime and
drug abuse in these times of adversity. The Russian government have consequently attempted to
become as influential as they were regionally and internationally during the Cold War by means
of aggressing former satellites, nationalizing valuable industries, and becoming uncooperative
with nations, thus suggesting they are reverting to a "return to history" foreign policy. If Russia
truly wishes to achieve their foreign policy goals of retaining international power and regional
influence, these aggressive measures are not the way achieve them. By adopting smart power
techniques such as restricting military use, liberalizing their economy and becoming more
cooperative with foreign states, Russia will be in contending for achieving superiority among its
former, neighboring satellites and beyond. Encompassing smart power in their foreign policy
will not only assist the government of Russia that has long struggled in the post Cold War era,
but help the people in achieving higher quality of life.