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Peter Newmark developed theories of translation that described it as both a science and an art. He defined translation as rendering the author's intended meaning into another language in a way accessible to readers of varying education levels. Newmark discussed various translation methods from word-for-word to semantic and communicative translation. He emphasized accurately conveying meaning and considered semantic translation for expressive texts and communicative translation for informative and vocative texts. Newmark's translation theory addressed issues like text style, setting, quality of writing, connotations, and cultural aspects to produce translations with an equivalent effect on readers as the original text.
Peter Newmark developed theories of translation that described it as both a science and an art. He defined translation as rendering the author's intended meaning into another language in a way accessible to readers of varying education levels. Newmark discussed various translation methods from word-for-word to semantic and communicative translation. He emphasized accurately conveying meaning and considered semantic translation for expressive texts and communicative translation for informative and vocative texts. Newmark's translation theory addressed issues like text style, setting, quality of writing, connotations, and cultural aspects to produce translations with an equivalent effect on readers as the original text.
Peter Newmark developed theories of translation that described it as both a science and an art. He defined translation as rendering the author's intended meaning into another language in a way accessible to readers of varying education levels. Newmark discussed various translation methods from word-for-word to semantic and communicative translation. He emphasized accurately conveying meaning and considered semantic translation for expressive texts and communicative translation for informative and vocative texts. Newmark's translation theory addressed issues like text style, setting, quality of writing, connotations, and cultural aspects to produce translations with an equivalent effect on readers as the original text.
Peter Newmark developed translation theory in striking and sometimes
controversial ways, describing the conversion of a text from one language to another as both a science and an art He developed translation theory in striking and sometimes controversial ways, describing the conversion of a text from one language to another as both a science and an art. He defines translation as a way of rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. Translation is an instrument of education as well as of truth precisely because it has to reach readers whose cultural and educational level is different from, and often 'lower' or earlier, than, that of the readers of the original . He says that translation theory is concerned with the translation method appropriately used for a certain type of text, and it is therefore dependent on a functional theory of language. However, in a wider sense, translation theory is the body of knowledge that we have about translating, extending from general principles to guidelines, suggestions and hints . It is concerned with minutiae (the meanings of semi-colons, italics, misprints) as well as generalities (presentation, the thread of thought underlying a piece), and both may be equally important in the context. Translation theory is pointless and sterile if it does not arise from the problems of translation practice, from the need to stand back and reflect, to consider all the factors, within the text and outside it, before coming to a decisin. It is important to know:
THE INTENTION OF THE TEXT
THE INTENTION OF THE TRANSLATOR
TEXT STYLES: Following Nida, we distinguish four types of (literary or
non-literary) text: Narrative: a dynamic sequence of events Description: which is static, with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives, adjectival nouns. Dialogue, with emphasis on colloquialisms and phaticisms.
SETTING :You have to make several assumptions about the SL
Leadership. . The three typical reader types are perhaps the expert, the educated layman, and the uninformed.
THE QUALITY OF THE WRITING: If the text is well written, i, e. the
manner is as important as the matter, the right words arc in the right places, with a minimum of redundancy, you have to regard every nuance of the author's meaning (particularly if it is subtle and difficult) as having precedence over the reader's response - assuming they are not required to act or react promptly; on the contrary, assuming hopefully that they will read your translation at least twice .
CONNOTATIONS AND DENOTATIONS : in a non-literary text the
denotations of a word normally come before its connotations. But in a literary text, you have to give precedence to its connotations, since, if it is any good, it is an allegory, a comment on society, at the time and now, as well as on its strict setting. THE LAST READING: Finally, you should note the cultural aspect of the SL text; you should underline all neologisms, metaphors, cultural words and institutional terms peculiar to the SI. or third language, proper names, technical terms and Untranslatable' words.
As regards the process of transalting, Newmark says: It is operational. It
begins with choosing a method of approach. Secondly, when we are translating, we translate with four levels more or less consciously in mind: (1) The textual level, the level of language, where we begin and which we continually (but not continuously) go back to. (2) The referential level, the level of objects and events, real or imaginary, which we progressively have to visualise and build up, and which is an essential part, first of the comprehension, then of the reproduction process. (3) This level encompasses both comprehension and reproduction: it presents an overall picture, to which we may have to adjust the language level. (4) the level of naturalness, of common language appropriate to the writer or the speaker in a certain situation.This level of naturalness is concerned only with reproduction. (5) The revision procedure, which may be concentrated or staggered according to the situation. This procedure constitutes at least half of the complete process.
Newmark suggests that all translations are based implicitly on a theory of
language. According to Buhler, the three main functions of language are the
expressive, the informative - he called it 'representation' - and the vocative
('appeal') functions:
THE EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION:The core of the expressive function is
the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response. INFORMATIVE FUNCTION : The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. THE VOCATIVE FUNCTION: The core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee. The first factor in all vocative texts is the relationship between the writer and the readership, which is realised in various types of socially or personally determined grammatical relations or forms of address. The second factor is that these texts must be written in a language that is immediately comprehensible to the readership. THE AESTHETIC FUNCTION: This is language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. THE PHATIC FUNCTION: The phatic function of language is used for maintaining friendly contact with the addressee rather than for imparting foreign information. THE METALINGUAL FUNCTION: Lastly, the metalingual function of language indicates a language's ability to explain, name, and criticise its own features.
Finally, Newmark enumerates the different translation methods. They are:
Word-for-word translation: The SL word-order is preserved and the words
translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. Literal translation:The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. Faithful translation: A faithful Translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. Semantic translation:Semantic translation differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value. Adaptation: This is the 'freest' form of translation. Free translation: It reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Idiomatic translation:Idiomatic translation reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.
Communicative translation: It attempts to render the exact contextual
meaning of the original in such a wav that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the Leadership.
Newmark considers that only semantic and communicative translation fulfil
the two main aims of translation, which are first, accuracy, and second, economy. Semantic translation is used for 'expressive' texts, communicative for 'informative' and 'vocative' texts. But semantic and communicative translation must also be seen as wholes. Semantic translation is personal and individual, follows the thought processes of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact. At a pinch, a semantic translation has to interpret, a communicative translation to explain, Theoretically, communicative translation. Newmark points out that there is an equivalent effect which is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation, bearing in mind that it is an unlikely result in two cases: (a) if the purpose of the SL text is to affect and the TL translation is to inform (or vice versa); (b) if there is a pronounced cultural gap between the SL and the TL text. However, in the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential; it is the criterion by which the effectiveness, and therefore the value, of the translation of notices, instructions, publicity . propaganda, persuasive or eristic writing, and perhaps popular fiction, is to be assessed. In semantic translation, the first problem is that for serious imaginative literature, there are individual readers rather than a readership. Secondly, whilst the reader is not entirely neglected, the Translator is essentially trying to render the effect the SL text has on himself not on any putative readership. However, the more cultural a text, the less is equivalent effect even conceivable unless The reader is imaginative, sensitive and steeped in the SL culture.