The themes of jealousy, pride, and revenge have consistently interested scholars throughout

Othello's critical history. With the development of psychoanalysis and its application to literary
characters, twentieth-century critics have expanded on earlier interpretations of the play's three primary
characters and suggested new explanations and motivations for their actions.
Interpretations of Othello's character are often negative, focusing on his pride and jealousy as
fatal flaws. Robert Hapgood (1966) has described Othello as excessively self-righteous and judgemental
and argued that the play should make viewers wary of their own tendencies to judge. Focusing his
analysis on the play's structure, Larry S. Champion (1973) has written that Shakespeare's "economy of
design" centers attention on the "destruction of character resulting from a lack of self-knowledge,
which is the consequence of the vanity of one's insistence on viewing everything through the distorting
medium of his [Othello's] own self-importance." Othello's egocentricity, Champion argued, rendered him
exceedingly susceptible to jealousy and fabrications concerning his wife. Other scholars have employed
psychoanalytic theories in their interpretations of Othello's character. Stephen Reid (1968), for example,
has suggested an unresolved Oedipus complex as the source of Othello's delusional jealousy. Reid argued
that Othello's mother rejected him for his father and this "treachery" on her part led him to reject women.
Similarly, Robert Rogers (1969) has viewed Othello as a composite character composed of conflicting
tendencies and has identified the Oedipus complex as a primary factor in explaining Othello's behavior.
Opinion on the character of Desdemona has been sharply divided. While some critics have
depicted her as an innocent, passive victim, others have described her as wanton, domineering, and at
least partially responsible for her fate. Robert Dickes (1970) has contended that Desdemona is a
domineering character who actively strives to achieve her ends and harbors an unconscious death-wish.
As evidence of this nature, Dickes observes her wooing of Othello and her efforts to have Cassio
reinstated and attributes the motivation for her actionswhich ultimately lead to her deathto the
Oedipus complex. Desdemona, he argued, "chose as a love object a man representative of her father.
Forced by the prompting of her superego, she then atoned for this incestuous choice by behaving in such a
way as to make Othello even more certain in his jealousy." W. D. Adamson (1980), however, has

interpreted Desdemona's "ambiguous-looking behavior" as a sign of her innocence and positive moral
standing. He maintained that Othello is the "tragedy of an unworldly woman calumniated and murdered
by a sex-obsessed tyrant who insists on thinking the worst as she insists on the best." Other scholars
who have centered their attention on Desdemona have sought to shift interpretation of the play away from
the tragedy of an individual. Julian C. Rice (1974) has suggested that Desdemona resembles Othello more
than she transcends him and that the play is primarily a tragedy of human nature, while Irene G. Dash
(1981) has asserted that Othello is a study of the complexities of marriage.
One of the play's most perplexing characters, Iago's actions appear to lack a clear sense of motive.
A dominant theme in Othello criticism, therefore, has been an effort to explain Iago's motivations. Some
scholars, such as Daniel Stempel (1969), have conceded that Shakespeare's text does not offer a solution
to the question of Iago's motives and was never intended to do so. Stempel has maintained that "Iago
embodies the mystery of the evil will, an enigma which Shakespeare strove to realize, not to analyze."
Many commentators, however, have contended that simply labeling Iago as the personification of evil
does not do justice to Shakespeare's skills of character development. Fred West (1978), for instance, has
suggested that Shakespeare created a profound and accurate portrait of a psychopath in Iago. As such,
West continued, "Iago's only motivation is an immature urge toward instant pleasure." Gordon Ross
Smith (1959) has maintained that Iago's" actions and his hatred of Desdemonawhose marriage usurped
his place in Othello's affectionsare attributable to his repressed homosexual feelings toward Othello and
Cassio. Other critics, such as Leslie Y. Rabkin and Jeffrey Brown (1973), have argued that Iago is a sadist
who suffers from a sense of hopelessness and self-contempt and that he attempts to deal with these
emotions by projecting his feelings onto others and working to destroy their sense of peace and joy.
"Tragedy resides in the heart of character," Smith concluded. "Its inescapable quality is justified by what
responsibility each person ultimately carries for what he has become, but its tragic qualities derive from
the helplessness of people to escape from what they essentially are."

Beginning with the opening lines of the play, Othello remains at a distance from much of the
action that concerns and affects him. Roderigo and Iago refer ambiguously to a he or him for
much of the first scene. When they begin to specify whom they are talking about, especially once
they stand beneath Brabanzios window, they do so with racial epithets, not names. These include
the Moor (I.i.57), the thick-lips (I.i.66), an old black ram (I.i.88), and a Barbary horse
(I.i.113). Although Othello appears at the beginning of the second scene, we do not hear his
name until well into Act I, scene iii (I.iii.48). Later, Othellos will be the last of the three ships to
arrive at Cyprus in Act II, scene i; Othello will stand apart while Cassio and Iago supposedly
discuss Desdemona in Act IV, scene i; and Othello will assume that Cassio is dead without being
present when the fight takes place in Act V, scene i. Othellos status as an outsider may be the
reason he is such easy prey for Iago.
Although Othello is a cultural and racial outsider in Venice, his skill as a soldier and leader is
nevertheless valuable and necessary to the state, and he is an integral part of Venetian civic
society. He is in great demand by the duke and senate, as evidenced by Cassios comment that
the senate sent about three several quests to look for Othello (I.ii.46). The Venetian
government trusts Othello enough to put him in full martial and political command of Cyprus;
indeed, in his dying speech, Othello reminds the Venetians of the service he has done their
state (V.ii.348).
Those who consider Othello their social and civic peer, such as Desdemona and Brabantio,
nevertheless seem drawn to him because of his exotic qualities. Othello admits as much when he
tells the duke about his friendship with Brabantio. He says, -[Desdemonas] father loved me, oft
invited me, / Still questioned me the story of my life / From year to year (I.iii.127129). Othello

is also able to captivate his peers with his speech. The dukes reply to Othellos speech about
how he wooed Desdemona with his tales of adventure is: I think this tale would win my
daughter too (I.iii.170).
Othello sometimes makes a point of presenting himself as an outsider, whether because he
recognizes his exotic appeal or because he is self-conscious of and defensive about his difference
from other Venetians. For example, in spite of his obvious eloquence in Act I, scene iii, he
protests, Rude am I in my speech, / And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace (I.iii.81
82). While Othello is never rude in his speech, he does allow his eloquence to suffer as he is put
under increasing strain by Iagos plots. In the final moments of the play, Othello regains his
composure and, once again, seduces both his onstage and offstage audiences with his words. The
speech that precedes his suicide is a tale that could woo almost anyone. It is the tension between
Othellos victimization at the hands of a foreign culture and his own willingness to torment
himself that makes him a tragic figure rather than simply Iagos ridiculous puppet.