UMTS RF Optimization

Contents
1 RF Optimization............................................................................................................................................1
1.1 RF Optimization Flow Chart...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Single Site Spot Check........................................................................................................................1
1.2.1 Checking the Antenna Feeder System......................................................................................2
1.2.2 Checking Foreground and Background Configuration............................................................2
1.2.3 Checking Single Site Functions...............................................................................................3
1.3 Coverage Test.......................................................................................................................................3
1.4 Data Analysis and Troubleshooting.....................................................................................................4
1.4.1 Feeder Problem.........................................................................................................................4
1.4.2 Antenna and Environment Problems........................................................................................5
1.4.3 Pilot Pollution Problem............................................................................................................6
1.4.4 Handoff Problem......................................................................................................................9
1.4.5 Other RF Problems.................................................................................................................10
1.5 Making an Antenna Feeder Adjustment Scheme..............................................................................10
1.5.1 RF Optimization Methods......................................................................................................11
1.5.2 RF Optimization Influence.....................................................................................................11
1.5.3 Influence of RF Optimization on KPI....................................................................................12
1.6 Implementing Antenna Adjustment...................................................................................................13
1.7 Optimization Verification..................................................................................................................13
2 UMTS Antenna...........................................................................................................................................15
2.1 Basic Antenna Knowledge.................................................................................................................15
2.2 Antenna Classification and Application............................................................................................18
2.2.1 Omni Antenna.........................................................................................................................18
i

2.2.2 Directional Antenna................................................................................................................18

2.2.3 Mechanical Antenna...............................................................................................................19
2.2.4 Electrical Antenna...................................................................................................................19
2.3 Antenna Downtilt Adjustment Influence...........................................................................................20
2.3.1 Antenna Downtilt Modes........................................................................................................20
2.3.2 Relationship between CDMA Antenna Downtilt and Cell Coverage Radius........................22
2.4 Introduction to Common Directional Antennas................................................................................24
2.5 Summary............................................................................................................................................26
3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory............................................................................................27
3.1 Electromagnetic Wave Space Propagation Model............................................................................27
3.2 Earth Reflection Model.....................................................................................................................29
3.3 Energy Loss Through Medium..........................................................................................................29
3.3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................29
3.3.2 Reflection and Transmittance Loss........................................................................................30
3.4 Diffraction loss..................................................................................................................................32
3.4.1 Fresnel Zone and Knife-Edge Diffraction Model..................................................................33
3.4.2 Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction............................................................................................34
3.5 Scattering Loss...................................................................................................................................34

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1 RF Optimization
1.1 RF Optimization Flow Chart

Figure 1 RF optimization flow chart

1.2 Single Site Spot Check

Purpose: To make sure the equipment is working normally, so as to prevent equipment
failure from affecting overall network performance.
Person in charge: Equipment engineer
Input: Site Commissioning Report
Output: Single Site Spot Check Report
Work details:
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Before network optimization is started, all sites should have been checked and should
be assuredly able to work normally. In an actual project, however, it is usual that some
base stations fail to work normally due to lax or absent single site check, affecting
startup of subsequent optimization work. To ensure orderly performance of network
optimization, spot check is necessary for single sites. Single site spot check needs to
implement the following tasks:
1)

Select sites for spot check according to project size and network situation. Usually
about 20% of the sites should be included. Moreover, the selected sites must
involve all site types, including sites in each area.

2)

Put forth items that need to be checked according to the contents indicated in the
Site Commissioning Report. Make a spot check plan.

3)

Accompany customer service engineers to check the selected sites as planned, and
put forth information that needs correction for any site with problems.

4)

When all the selected sites are spot-checked, and over 20% of them are found with
problems, it is necessary to recheck other sites not involved in this spot check. If
no problem is found, skip the recheck.

5)

Complete a Single Site Spot Check Report based on the single site check results
for the purpose of troubleshooting.

1.2.1 Checking the Antenna Feeder System

1)

Ascend the rooftop to check the site longitude and latitude, antenna mount height,
antenna downtilt, and directional angle for consistence with the planned values.
For the towers that are not mountable, complete the check on the ground.

2)

Turn on the power amplifier of one sector, and turn off the others. If the power
amplifier gives no alarm, measure the pilot signal strength beneath this sector.
Typically the Ec value is about 55dBm.

3)

This step is performed simultaneously with Step 2 to check whether the cell
scrambling code is consistent with the planned value.

1.2.2 Checking Foreground and Background Configuration

1)

Check whether the neighbor list configuration is consistent with the planned
value.

2)

In the case of idling, the RTWP value (namely the uplink RSSI) of each cell on
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

Node B background should range from -107 ~ -104dBm.

3)

Check the version number of each type of software in use.

4) Set parameters in the search window. There are settings in both LMT and OMC-R,
and the setting in LMT is valid.

1.2.3 Checking Single Site Functions

Open all cells, and perform service tests for CS and PS domains respectively. Conduct
softer handoff test, and conduct soft handoff test again for the areas involved in soft
handoff.

1.3 Coverage Test

Purpose: To know the coverage range of each site in the network, and the
corresponding areas that can provide different rates of services
Person in charge: Test engineer
Input: None
Output: Drive test data
Work details:
The RF optimization phase needs no detailed special service test, and what should be
done is to have knowledge of the network coverage by the following means.
1)

Cell cluster coverage test

2)

Whole network coverage test

This coverage test uses Scanner plus test mobile phone to collect data simultaneously.
The test data collected by the mobile phone is helpful to judge the uplink coverage, and
know the change of signal in each section of the road if call hold is performed
simultaneously.
Different rates of services require different signal conditions. The table below lists the
pilot signal strength and quality reference values of border coverage corresponding to
common services.
Table 1 Reference values of border coverage corresponding to common services
Service

Border reference value

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UMTS RF Optimization

CS12.2K voice

-105dBm/-13dB

CS64K video

-98dBm/-10dB

PS64K

-100dBm/-11dB

PS128K

-95dBm/-10dB

PS384K

-85dBm/-8dB

The data in this table is provided only for general reference, and the object of RF
optimization performed after site commissioning is usually an idle network, where the
service border will shrink with increasing number of users.

1.4 Data Analysis and Troubleshooting

Purpose: To analyze the test data to judge the network coverage level and locate the
areas with problems for troubleshooting.
Person in charge: Optimization engineer
Input: Drive test data
Output: Pre-optimization Test Report
Work details:
Network coverage judgment:
1)

Cell cluster coverage test. Know the distribution of each cell in the context of
mutual signal inhibition in a cell cluster, and, in combination with site spacing and
network planning results, identify the cells that do not meet coverage requirement.

2)

Whole network coverage test. Know the distribution of signal throughout the
whole network, the same as 1.

Mastery of antenna knowledge is one of the prerequisites of RF optimization. For

information about antenna, please refer to chapter 5.
The problems common to RF optimization will be detailed in the following sections.

1.4.1 Feeder Problem

According to the result of single site coverage test, check whether the coverage signal
of each actual test area is consistent with that of the planned coverage cells. Analyze
whether there is incorrect feeder connection.
Cause:

Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

Typically a directional site has three cells, each of which uses two feeders (one for both
receiving and transmitting and the other for only receiving) as its antenna. On the base
station side, the feeders are further connected to NODE B cabinet through a jumper.
This series of connections is prone to error during construction of the engineering
team. The two feeders connected to one antenna are likely to be connected to any one
or two cells, so the symptom of incorrect feeder connection is that a signal transmitted
by one antenna of three cells could come from any one or two of the three cells in this
site.
Analysis:
During optimization, it is necessary to check whether each coverage signal actually
measured in an area of each base station is consistent with the planned coverage cell.
Normally, the strongest signal in this direction near each antenna should be the cell
corresponding to this antenna. In the case of occurrence of a strong signal of other
cells, first check whether there is incorrect feeder connection.
Solution:
If incorrect feeder connection is found, contact an equipment engineer concerned to
ascend the site to check feeder connection.

1.4.2 Antenna and Environment Problems

According to the result of the whole network coverage test, check whether the coverage
signal of each actual test area contains any overshooting signal or any signal with
coverage obviously smaller than expected. For any problem area, ascend the site to
check whether the antenna directional angle, downtilt, and mount height are consistent
with the design. A further check can be conducted on whether there is any obstruction
in the main lobe direction, and whether the pole is vertical.
Cause:
The main cause of inconsistence of actual antenna directional angle and downtilt with
the design is that the engineering team fails to follow completely the workflow,
drawings, and planned data for construction. In addition, the precision of some devices
in use, such as a compass, may also cause some error. Generally, a five-degree
directional angle error is acceptable, while a downtilt error of over two degrees may
have an obvious effect on the coverage.
During optimization, sometimes obvious obstructions may be found in the main lobe
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UMTS RF Optimization

direction. Such a result may cause a certain coverage hole, but this problem can be
improved by proper adjustment of the antenna directional angle. The actual antenna
downtilt may sometimes deviate from the design. The possible cause is that the antenna
pole is not vertical to the ground or the measurement is not accurate.
Analysis:
An easy way to measure the downtilt is using the antenna-attached scale label provided
by the antenna manufacturer. This method needs first to paste a correct scale label to
the antenna and then make fine adjustment against the scale. A more accurate method
to measure the downtilt is to use a gradienter directly. The prerequisite of these two
methods is that the antenna pole or support is installed vertical to the ground, ensuring
that the measured antenna downtilt is actually its downtilt relative to the ground.
Therefore, for those antennas that are mounted on a tower or whose poles are mounted
on walls, it is a must to measure whether their poles are vertical to the ground.
Solution:
The problems above can be found by measurement with special tools. Upon finding
such a problem, notify the engineering team to correct it. If there is an obstruction or a
pole cannot be vertical to the ground, improvement is possible by adjusting the
directional angle and downtilt. Decrease of downtilt is liable to cause overshooting and
increase interference, while increase of downtilt tends to cause a coverage hole.
Moreover, excessive downtilt may also cause beam distortion, resulting in new
interference. Therefore, proper adjustment is very important to guarantee the whole
network performance.
Generally speaking, directional angle adjustment is helpful to solve the problem of
large-area weak coverage, while downtilt adjustment can solve a problem of coverage
distance. It is a prerequisite of quality assurance that the engineering team follows the
flow strictly for construction. Equipment engineers verification after installation is
also very important.

1.4.3 Pilot Pollution Problem

In a new site during optimization phase after commissioning, the network load is light,
so there are large overlapped areas between sectors and the signal is complex. This may
result in pilot pollution.
Formation of pilot pollution: Pilot pollution usually has three causes:
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

High site overshooting. If the space link loss caused when an antenna pilot signal from
a remote high site reaches a test point is the same as the link loss caused when a pilot
signal from a near low site reaches the same test point, it is probable that several pilot
pollution areas with close Ec/Io values are caused at this test point. Furthermore,
presence of a high site may usually cause a large antenna downtilt, resulting in antenna
beam distortion. And the coverage waveform may squeeze against the side lobe,
resulting in pilot pollution in the side lobe coverage area.

R1
R2
Base station coverage area
Neighbor base station
Base station

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of pilot pollution due to high site overshooting

Ring layout of base stations. As the base stations are arranged into a ring, the ring
center can receive a few pilot signals from around, and the pilot Ec/Io values are close.

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of pilot pollution due to ring layout of base stations

Signal distortion caused by street effect and strong reflectors. Due to the propagation
characteristics near the UMTS downlink 2000M frequency, the downlink signal has
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UMTS RF Optimization

strong reflection, and propagation of remote pilot signal along tubular streets is likely
to cause interference to coverage areas of other cells. Moreover, strong reflection of
signal by some buildings and walls may also cause pollution to nearby pilot coverage.
Influence of pilot pollution: Pilot pollution has a negative effect on network
performance. The symptom and analysis are detailed as follows:
1)

Access is difficult, and call failure probability is increased: Before UE originates a

call, it has been performing cell reselection. Due to existence of several pilots with
close Ec/Io and reselection lagging, UE will not immediately reselect the cell with
the best Ec/Io. Especially when UE is moving rapidly, it usually originates a call
in a cell with poor pilot Ec/Io. When a call starts, UE first initiates random uplink
access, and meanwhile waits for an ACK message. If successful, UE will initiate
RRC signaling exchange with UTRAN. In this process, UE will not perform
handoff as there is no interaction of measurement control or measurement report.
RRC interaction must be completed before RNC can deliver a measurement
control message and wait for a measurement report submitted from UE. That is to
say, during the above-described process until UE submits a measurement report,
UE performs operations with UTRAN within the cell where the call is originated.
Once UE starts moving, the signal of this cell may go bad, and it is possible to
prevent receiving and transmitting of subsequent signaling and result in call
failure.

2)

The call failure probability of high-speed data service is increased obviously.

Generally speaking, high-speed data services need higher pilot Ec/Io and more
stable radio environment, but in the case of pilot pollution, it is hard to find a pilot
signal in the steadily strongest position, and this is extremely unfavorable to cal
access of high-speed services.

3)

Handoff failure. When mobile stations move in this area, as there are many strong
pilot signals and mutual change occurs rapidly, frequent handoff occurs to mobile
stations as a result. In such a state of soft handoff, the mobile stations need to
communicate with multiple base stations simultaneously. Although diversity gain
can improve the call quality of this mobile station, according to ZTE research,
handoff gain is negative at the instant of handoff, that is, not only there is no gain,
but the possibility of handoff failure is increased.

4)

Capacity loss: frequent handoff may decrease system capacity, especially the
downlink capacity being limited, and one UE communicates with multiple cells,
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

increasing downlink load on the base station, but decreasing system capacity.
Solution: The key of pilot pollution optimization is to form a main pilot. In the RF
optimization phase, the adjustment means available include:
1)

First consider adjustment of the antenna directional angle and downtilt.

2)

Adjust pilot signal power of some cells.

3)

Adjust antenna mount height

4)

Adjust antenna position

5)

Use electronic adjustable antennas

6)

Add sources

1.4.4 Handoff Problem

Cause:
Handoff problems generally lie in length of the handoff area and strength change of
each signal in the handoff area. If the handoff area is too small, there may be no
sufficient time for completing handoff process in the case of driving too fast, and
handoff may fail as a result. A too large handoff area is likely to occupy excessive
system resources. Moreover, too frequent change (not a signal gradually weakening
and another gradually strengthening) of strength of each signal in the handoff area may
cause frequent handoff and ping-pong effect. This may occupy excessive system
resources, and increase probability of call drop.
Analysis:
For handoff problems, the key is to control the handoff area position and length, and
ensure the strength of signals involved in the handoff in the handoff area can change
smoothly. The handoff area position and length should be taken into preliminary
consideration in planning. During optimization, make adjustment based on actual
environment, and determine the handoff area length in consideration of the average
time needed for one time of handoff and the usual driving speed in this area. Try to
keep the handoff area away from a corner, as the obstruction of a corner itself may
cause extra propagation loss and quick signal attenuation, thus reducing the handoff
area length. If impossible to keep away, try to ensure the signal strength around the
corner has sufficient margin to offset the loss at the corner. Also try to keep the handoff
area away from any crossroad, high-traffic area, and VIP service area.
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UMTS RF Optimization

For the relationship between antenna downtilt and coverage distance, please refer to
section 2.3.
Solution:
Change the handoff area position and signal distribution by adjusting the antenna
directional angle and downtilt. If the handoff area is too small, reduce the downtilt or
adjust the antenna direction properly. If the signals in the handoff area change too
frequently, consider adjusting the downtilt and directional angle to ensure signal
strength in individual cells changes smoothly.

1.4.5

Other RF Problems
During RF optimization, it also should be noted to make sure the base station
transmitting power works normally from the base station RF end to the antenna side.
Standing wave ratio is an important index. Before optimization, it is necessary to make
sure the standing wave ratio in each cell of the base station is smaller than 1.3 on the
UMTS operating frequency. This work should be implemented by an equipment
engineer with a standing wave ratio tester.
Meanwhile, the power output from each power amplifier port should be kept within a
stable range.

1.5 Making an Antenna Feeder Adjustment Scheme

Purpose: To provide a feasible adjustment scheme based on the analysis result of
coverage test data in combination with actual sites and ambient environment.
Person in charge: Optimization engineer
Input: Pre-optimization Test Report, and data analysis result
Output: Antenna Feeder Adjustment Scheme
Work details:
1)

Identify any area of poor coverage according to the analysis result of test data;

2)

Try to make a uniform adjustment scheme based on the cell cluster;

3)

Ascend the site to observe actual radio environment;

4)

Provide an adjustment scheme;

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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

5)

Review the adjustment scheme;

1.5.1 RF Optimization Methods

Adjust the antenna directional angle

Adjust the antenna downtilt

Adjust antenna mount height

Adjust antenna position

Adjust antenna feeder connection

Use characteristic antenna

Adjust accessories, such as a tower amplifier

1.5.2 RF Optimization Influence

RF optimization means to change the coverage distribution of downlink UMTS signal
by adjusting each engineering parameter of antenna, and thereby change the
distribution of effective coverage areas, network handoff areas, and pilot pollution
areas. Another purpose is to increase the coverage distance, and reduce the interference
between users. Adding tower amplifiers is another important approach to RF
optimization.

Improve downlink coverage quality

Change handoff areas

Change pilot pollution areas

Improve base station work performance

Change uplink coverage areas

Currently, the antenna model used most in each network is an Andrew directional
antenna Andrew umwd_06516_2d.
Antenna parameter characteristics determine the fact that the maximum directional gain
17dbi can only be obtained in the main lobe direction of a directional antenna, and the
gain may decrease in the horizontal and vertical directions other than the main lobe, so
adjusting the antenna directional angle and downtilt will affect the quality of downlink
signals received in various areas. Similarly, adjusting the antenna position and mount
height will also affect the quality of downlink signals.
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UMTS RF Optimization

When the downlink coverage quality of some sites changes, the Ec/Io of corresponding
received signals will change as well. As network handoff is judged according to the
size of Ec/Io of received signals, the network handoff area will also change even if the
handoff algorithm is not changed practically.
Pilot pollution typically means there are many signals with close Ec/Io values or there
are strong signals alien to the planning design, so changing downlink coverage quality
by adjusting engineering parameters of antenna can also eliminate some pilot pollution
areas.
Feeder connection adjustment can solve the problem of abnormal receiving and
transmitting of base station signals resulting from inverse feeder connection, and
normal standing wave ratio is another prerequisite for a base station to work normally.
Adding power amplifiers can increase effective coverage distance of a base station.
Generally, the reason for base station uplink coverage limitation is that the uplink
transmitting power of a UMTS mobile phone is only 21dBm. A tower amplifier can
offset the loss of uplink signals along the feeder.

1.5.3

Influence of RF Optimization on KPI

RF optimization has an obvious effect on the following KPIs. As each cell has different
engineering parameters and environments, their signal coverage states are also
different. Therefore, the strongest cells and handoff areas in different places of a
network have different signal coverage quality, so RF optimization influences not only
coverage, but also several indexes directly related to strength (quality) of received
signals.
1)

Coverage ratio

2)

Call success ratio

3)

Call drop ratio

4)

Handoff success ratio

For details about KPIs, please refer to appendix 3.

1.6 Implementing Antenna Adjustment

Purpose: To execute the antenna adjustment scheme
Person in charge: Equipment engineer
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

Input: Antenna Adjustment Scheme

Output: Antenna Adjustment Record
Work details:
1)

Contact the engineering team to determine the number of antennas that need
adjustment and the operation date;

2)

Contact the operators person in charge to confirm necessary procedures and

acquire an equipment room key;

3)

Monitor and verify adjusted parameters and engineering quality;

4)

Necessary auxiliary background operations;

1.7 Optimization Verification

Purpose: To test and verify the result of optimization adjustment
Person in charge: Test engineer and optimization engineer
Input: Drive test data, and Antenna Adjustment Record
Output: XX Service Area RF Optimization Report
Work details:
1)

Test engineers collect post-optimization whole network drive test data. Note that
the test conditions must be the same as before optimization;

2)

Optimization engineers analyze the test data and evaluate optimization result;

3)

If the whole network coverage fails to meet the requirement, return to the steps in
section 1.4 to test and analyze specially the areas still with problems, and provide
an analysis report and adjustment scheme;

4)

If the coverage requirement is met, this time of RF optimization is completed;

5)

Output an XX Service Area RF Optimization Report.

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2 UMTS Antenna
2.1 Basic Antenna Knowledge
The main parameters of antenna performance include pattern, gain, input impedance,
standing wave ratio, polarization, lobe width, and front-to-back ratio.
1.

Antenna input impedance

Antenna input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current at the
antenna feeding end. The optimal result of antenna-feeder connection is that the
antenna input impedance is pure resistance and equal to characteristic impedance
of the feeder. In this case, there is neither power reflection on the feeder terminal
nor standing wave on the feeder, and the antenna input impedance changes mildly
with frequency. Antenna matching is to eliminate the reactive component from the
antenna input impedance, making the reactive component as close to the
characteristics impedance of the feeder as possible. Matching quality is usually
measured with four parameters: reflection coefficient, traveling wave coefficient,
standing wave ratio, and echo loss. Between these four parameters there are fixed
value relationships, so use which one is a mere issue of habit. In routine
maintenance, the frequently used ones are standing wave ratio and echo loss.
Typically, the input impedance of mobile communication antenna is 50.

2.

Standing wave ratio

Standing wave ratio is reciprocal of traveling wave coefficient, and ranges from 1
to infinity. When standing wave ratio is 1, it means perfect match; when it is
infinity, it means total reflection, that is, complete mismatch. In a mobile
communications system, standing wave ratio is usually required to be smaller than
1.5, but in practice, VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) should be smaller than
1.2.Overlarge standing wave ratio may decrease base station coverage and
increase intrasystem interference, thus affecting base station service performance.

3.

Echo loss
Echo loss is reciprocal of the absolute value of reflection coefficient and is
represented with a decibel value. Echo loss ranges from 0dB to infinity. The
smaller the echo loss, the worse the match. The larger the echo loss, the better the
15

match. 0 means total reflection, while infinity means perfect match. In a mobile
communications system, echo loss is usually required to be larger than 14dB.
4.

Antenna polarization
Antenna polarization refers to the electric intensity direction resulting from
antenna radiation. When the electric intensity direction is vertical to the ground,
this electric wave is called vertically polarized wave; when the electric intensity
direction is parallel to the ground, this electric wave is called horizontally
polarized wave. Due to electric wave characteristics, the signal propagated in the
horizontal polarization mode may produce polarized current on the earth surface
when it travels close to the ground. This polarized current is affected by earth
impedance to generate thermal energy, resulting in quick attenuation of electric
signal. By contrast, the vertical polarization mode rarely produces polarized
current, thus avoiding immense attenuation of energy and ensuring effective
propagation of signals.
Therefore, in a mobile communications system, propagation is usually
implemented in the vertical polarization mode. In addition, a kind of dualpolarized antenna is introduced recently with development of new technologies. In
terms of design conception, it is classified into two modes: vertical & horizontal
polarization and 45 polarization. The latter is generally superior to the former in
performance, so it is adopted currently in most cases.A dual-polarized antenna
combines two antennas that are in cross-polar directions of +45 and -45 and
work simultaneously in the receiving and transmitting duplex mode, which can
reduce the number of antennas needed in each cell. Moreover, cross polarization
in 45 directions can effectively ensure good diversity reception.(Its polarized
diversity gain is about 5dB, which is 2dB higher than a single-polarized antenna.)

5.

Antenna gain
Antenna gain is used to measure ability of an antenna to receive and transmit
signals in a specific direction. It is one of the most important parameters for
selecting a base station antenna.
Generally speaking, gain is improved mainly by reducing the lobe width of
radiation on the vertical plane, but maintaining omni radiation on the horizontal
plane. Antenna gain is extremely important for operation of a mobile
communications system, because it determines signal level of the cell edge.
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

Increasing gain can enlarge the coverage range of a network in a specific

direction, or increase gain margin in a specific range. Any cellular system is a
two-way process, and increasing antenna gain can decrease the gain budget
margin of a two-way system. In addition, the parameters that represent antenna
gain are dBd and dBi. dBi means the gain relative to an isotropic antenna, with
uniform radiation in all directions; dBd means the gain relative to a symmetric
array antenna. The relationship between these two parameters is: dBi = dBd +
2.15. Under the same condition, the higher the gain, the further the electric wave
can travel. Typically, the antenna gain for a GSM directional base station is 18dBi,
and 11dBi for an omni base station.
6.

Antenna lobe width

Lobe width is another important parameter common to a directional antenna. It
refers to the width of an enclosed angle formed by the locations 3dB lower than
the peak in the antenna pattern (antenna pattern is an index for measuring ability
of an antenna to receiving and transmitting signals in each direction, and typically
represents the relationship between power strength and enclosed angle in a
graphic way.)
Vertical lobe width of an antenna is usually related to the coverage radius in the
direction corresponding to this antenna. Therefore, cell coverage quality can be
improved by adjusting the antenna verticality (pitch angle) within a certain range.
This is also a method frequently used in network optimization. This method
involves two aspects: horizontal lobe width and vertical lobe width. The halfpower angle on the horizontal plane (H-Plane Half Power beamwidth): (45, 65,
90, etc.) defines the beamwidth of the horizontal plane of an antenna. The larger
the angle, the better the coverage at the sector edge. However, increasing antenna
downtilt is more likely to cause beam distortion and overshooting. The smaller the
angle, the worse the coverage at the sector edge. Increasing antenna tilt can
improve coverage at the sector edge in terms of mobility, and relatively, is less
likely to cause overshooting across other cells.In an urban center, a base station
should adopt an antenna with a small H-Plane Half Power beamwidth as the site
spacing is small and the antenna tilt is large. For a suburb, an antenna with a large
H-Plane Half Power beamwidth should be adopted. The half-power angle on the
vertical plane (V-Plane Half Power beamwidth): (48, 33, 15, and 8) defines
the beamwidth of the vertical plane of an antenna. The smaller the half-power
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UMTS RF Optimization

angle on the vertical plane, the quicker the signals attenuate when deviated from
the main bean direction, the easier to control the coverage range precisely by
adjusting antenna tilt.
7.

Front-to-back ratio
This parameter indicates how well the antenna can suppress the back lobe. If an
antenna with a low front-to-back ratio is selected, its back lobe is likely to cause
overshooting, resulting in disorderly handoff relationships and call drop. This ratio
usually ranges from 25dB to 30dB. An antenna with a front-to-back ratio of 30dB
should be preferred.

2.2 Antenna Classification and Application

According to its directivity, a mobile communication antenna can be classified into two
types: directional mobile antenna and omni mobile antenna. For a UMTS system, an
antenna can be subcategorized into mechanical antenna and electric antenna. The
following will analyze and compare these types of antennas in terms of influence of
change of mobile antenna downtilt on antenna pattern and radio networks.

2.2.1 Omni Antenna

An omni antenna can produce uniform radiation around 360 degrees in the horizontal
pattern, namely what is referred to as non-directivity, and also can produce a beam with
a certain width in the vertical pattern. Generally, the smaller the lobe width, the larger
the gain. In a mobile communications system, an omni antenna is typically applied to a
large-area site in a suburban county, for its coverage range is large.

2.2.2 Directional Antenna

A directional antenna can produce radiation within a certain angle in the horizontal
pattern, namely what is referred to as directivity, and also can produce a beam with a
certain width in the vertical pattern. Like an omni antenna, the smaller the lobe width,
the larger the gain. In a mobile communications system, a directional antenna is
typically applied to a small-area site in an urban, for its coverage range is small, but
with high user density.
According to networking requirement, build different types of base stations, for which
different types of antennas can be selected as needed. The basis of selection is the
technical parameters described above. For example, an omni station uses an omni
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

antenna with practically the same gain in all horizontal directions, while a directional
station uses a directional antenna whose horizontal gain changes obviously. Typically,
an antenna with horizontal beamwidth (B) of 65 is selected in an urban, while an
antenna with horizontal beamwidth (B) of 65, 90 or 120 can be selected in a suburb
(depending on site type configuration and local geographic environment). In a rural, it
is the most economic to select an omni antenna that can provide large-scale coverage.

2.2.3 Mechanical Antenna

A mechanical antenna refers to a mobile antenna whose downtilt is adjusted
mechanically.
When a mechanical antenna is mounted vertical to the ground, it is necessary to change
the antenna tilt by adjusting the position of the rear support if network optimization is
required. During the adjustment, the coverage distance of its main lobe direction is
changed obviously, but the maximums of its vertical component and horizontal
component remain unchanged, so the antenna patter is likely to be distorted.
The following facts have been proved in practice: the optimal downtilt of a mechanical
antenna ranges from 1 to 5; when its downtilt changes between 5 and 10, the
antenna pattern is distorted a bit but changes not much; when its downtilt changes
between 10 and 15, the antenna pattern changes much; when it tilts downwards by
15 or more, the antenna pattern changes a lot, from the pre-tilt pear shape to the posttilt spindle shape, and although the coverage distance of the main lobe direction is
shortened obviously, the antenna pattern does not completely fall into the sectors of this
base station, and the neighbor base station sectors can also receive the signals of this
base station, thus resulting in severe intrasystem interference.
Moreover, to adjust downtilt of a mechanical antenna in routine maintenance, first
power off the whole base station. Monitoring cannot be performed when adjusting the
antenna tilt. It is troublesome to adjust downtilt of a mechanical antenna, because the
service personnel usually need to clime up to the antenna location for adjustment. The
downtilt of a mechanical antenna is a theoretical value calculated with simulation and
analysis software in a computer, and may deviate to some extent from the actual
optimal downtilt. The tilt of a mechanical antenna is adjusted by step of 1, and the
third-order intermodulation index is -120dBc.

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UMTS RF Optimization

2.2.4 Electrical Antenna

An electrical antenna refers to a mobile antenna whose downtilt is adjusted electrically.
The electrical downtilt principle is to tilt vertical antenna pattern by changing the phase
of antenna elements in the same array, changing the maximums of vertical component
and horizontal component, and changing the field strength of synthetic components. As
the field strength in all directions of an antenna increases or decreases simultaneously,
this can ensure the antenna pattern varies not much after the tilt is changed, and the
coverage distance of the main lobe direction is shortened. At time same time, the
coverage area of the whole antenna pattern is reduced in the sectors of the service cell,
but without causing interference. The following facts have been proved in practice:
when electrical antenna downtilt changes between 1and 5, the antenna pattern is
basically the same as that of a mechanical antenna; when its downtilt changes between
5and 10, the antenna pattern is improved a bit in comparison with that of a
mechanical antenna; when its downtilt changes between 10and 15, the antenna
pattern changes much in comparison with that of a mechanical antenna; when its
downtilt reaches 15, the antenna pattern is different obviously from that of a
mechanical antenna, but does not change much in shape, the coverage distance of the
main lobe direction is shortened obviously, and the whole antenna pattern falls into the
sectors of this base station. Increasing downtilt can reduce sector coverage area, but
will not cause interference. Such an antenna pattern is desirable, so an electrical
antenna can be used to reduce call loss and interference.
Moreover, an electrical antenna allows the system, without closedown, to adjust the
downtilt in the vertical pattern and monitor adjustment result in a real-time manner.
The tilt can be adjusted by a finer step (0.1), so fine adjustment is possible for the
network. The three-order intermodulation index of an electrical antenna is -150dBc,
with a difference of 30dBc from that of a mechanical antenna, and this is helpful to
eliminate adjacent channel interference and spurious interference.

2.3 Antenna Downtilt Adjustment Influence

2.3.1 Antenna Downtilt Modes
Antenna downtilt modes include: mechanical downtilt, fixed electrical downtilt,
tunable electrical downtilt, and remote-controlled tunable electrical downtilt.
Mechanical downtilt means to just tilt an antenna during setup. It is inexpensive and
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

often applied when a downtilt angle is less than 10. When the antenna downtilt angle
is increased further, dents appear in the front of coverage, and both sides are pressed
flat. That is, the antenna pattern is distorted, resulting in insufficient coverage in the
front of this antenna and aggravated interference to base stations on both sides.
Another defect of mechanical downtilt is warping of the rear lobe, which may cause
interference to adjacent sectors, resulting in call drop of high-level users in nearby
areas.

No downtilt

Electrical downtilt

Mechanical downtilt

Figure 4 Comparison between base station antenna downtilt modes

The electrical downtilt principle is to tilt vertical antenna pattern by changing the phase
of antenna elements in the same array, changing the maximums of vertical component
and horizontal component, and changing the field strength of synthetic components. As
the field strength in all directions of an antenna increases or decreases simultaneously,
this can ensure the antenna pattern varies not much after the tilt is changed, and the
coverage distance of the main lobe direction is shortened. At the same time, the
coverage area of the whole antenna pattern is reduced in the sectors of the service cell,
but without causing interference.
Although electrical downtilt is relatively expensive, its downtilt angle has a wider
range (larger than 10), its antenna pattern has no obvious distortion, and the rear lobe
is also tilted simultaneously, without causing interference to near-end high-rise users.
Antenna downtilt modes can be selected according to customer and coverage
requirements. You may select a fixed electrical downtilt, tunable electrical downtilt, or
remote-controlled tunable electrical downtilt antenna. A fixed electrical downtilt
antenna with small angles plus a mechanical downtilt scheme for the commissioning
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UMTS RF Optimization

site are advantageous in performance and cost, while a remote-controlled electrical

downtilt antenna is effective to solve the coverage and interference problems in a dense
urban.

2.3.2 Relationship between CDMA Antenna Downtilt and Cell Coverage Radius
Antenna downtilt: when an antenna is mounted vertically, its transmitting direction is
horizontal. In view of co-channel interference and time dispersion, an antenna of a
small-area cellular network usually has a downtilt angle. Antenna downtilt modes
include mechanical downtilt and electrical downtilt.
An overlarge mechanical downtilt angle may result in severe distortion of the antenna
pattern, thus bringing about many uncertain factors to network coverage and
interference, so antenna downtilt angle is recommended not larger than 25 degrees, and
mechanical downtilt angle should not exceed 15 degrees.
As shown by the vertical antenna pattern curve, when the main lobe maximum drops to
3dB, namely approaching to the part of antenna pattern where gain attenuation between
rays changes most, the co-channel interference to the affected cells is minimized.
For simple and effective implementation of the this part where gain attenuation
changes most, it is of obvious significance in physics and geometry to use half-power
angle rays of the main lobe to analyze the change areas of antenna downtilt angles.
This handling process matches the current design requirement, and makes analysis and
calculation operable, for half-power lobe width is one of the required electrical
performance indexes.

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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

2.3.2.1 Relationship between Antenna Downtilt and Cell Coverage Radius in a High Traffic
Area

Figure 5 Schematic diagram of antenna downtilt in a dense urban and urban

A high traffic area here refers to an urban, especially a dense urban, where base stations
are dense and likely to interfere with each other. To enable most energy to radiate
within the coverage area and reduce interference to neighbor cells, it is necessary to
align the half power points on the main lobe with the coverage area edge when setting
an initial downtilt angle, as shown in Figure 5. The calculation formula of a downtilt
angle is as follows:

H
arctg( ) e _
L
2

(1)

In this formula,

is an initial mechanical downtilt angle;

H is effective height of this site, namely the difference between antenna mount
height and average height of ambient coverage areas;

L is the distance from the antenna of this site to the edge that needs to be covered in
this sector;

is vertical lobe width;

e_

is an electrical downtilt angle.

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UMTS RF Optimization

2.3.2.2 Relationship between Antenna Downtilt and Cell Coverage Radius in a Low Traffic
Area

Figure 6 Schematic diagram of antenna downtilt in a suburb and rural

For a low traffic area, like a suburb, rural, road, and sea, to extend coverage as far as
possible, it is workable to reduce the initial downtilt angle and align the maximum gain
point of the main lobe with the coverage area edge, as shown in Figure 6. The
calculation formula of a downtilt angle is as follows:

H
arctg( ) e _
L

(2)

2.4 Introduction to Common Directional Antennas

During RF optimization, it is an important method to adjust antenna downtilt angle and
horizon angle. Such adjustment aims to change antenna transmitting gain in some
directions and thus change reception gain in some areas on the basis that the same
environment road loss remains unchanged. Therefore, before such adjustment, it is very
important to learn about the transmitting gain in the horizontal and vertical directions
of antenna transmission.
In a radio communications system, the transmitting end is the antenna side of a base
station. A base station in a city usually uses a three-sector directional antenna. The gain
of a directional antenna determines it can obtain more power in the main lobe direction
than an omni antenna. Horizontal beamwidth and vertical beamwidth respectively
24

Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

define the horizontal and vertical angles that are 3dB weaker than the main lobe.
At present, ZTE mainly uses a directional antenna Andrew umwd_06516_2d in UMTS
networks throughout China.
Table 2 Andrew umwd_06516_2d antenna performance parameters
Name

Value

Central frequency

2110.0 MHZ

Antenna gain

17.0dBi

Electrical downtilt

2 degrees

Front-to-back ratio

30dB

Horizontal 3dB width

61.5 degrees

Vertical 3dB width

6 degrees

Polarization

Vertical polarization

Figure 7 Horizontal antenna pattern

Figure 8 Vertical antenna pattern

The gain in the main lobe direction is 17dBi, and from these two antenna patterns we
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UMTS RF Optimization

can find out the difference between antenna transmitting gain in each horizontal and
vertical direction and the main lobe direction. For example, when the difference
between a direction and the antenna transmitting direction is 90 degrees, from the
horizontal pattern we can find out the value corresponding to 90 degrees is 22, so the
antenna transmitting gain in this direction is 17 - 22 = -5dBi.

2.5 Summary

When adjusting antenna directional angle, we should consider the horizontal halfpower angle of this antenna. An undersized enclosed angle between two sector
directions and a large overlapped coverage area are likely to cause frequent
handoff and can hardly ensure proper coverage around base stations. An overlarge
enclosed angle is likely to degrade signal quality of the handoff area. Normally, a
recommended enclosed angle between directional angles ranges from 90 degrees
to 140 degrees.

When adjusting antenna downtilt angle, we should consider the vertical halfpower angle of this antenna. Regarding adjustment of mechanical downtilt angle,
1-5 degrees adjustment will not cause much beam distortion and is a common
range; 6-9 degrees adjustment is recommended for high sites or dense sites; 10-12
degrees adjustment is usually applied to high sites in an urban.

The antenna mount height is optimal when the antenna is 5-10 meters higher than
the average height of the buildings around the base station. Besides, the antenna
mount height in neighboring base stations should not differ much. Any base
station that does not satisfy these two points is liable to have coverage problems,
and needs special attention.

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3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theo

ry
When electromagnetic wave is traveling in space, the occurring power loss is mainly
the path loss resulting from space spread of electromagnetic wave, and the reflection
(transmittance), diffraction, scattering losses resulting from obstruction on the
transmission route. The factors that may influence these losses include distance
between a transmitter and a receiver, height of these two devices, material, height and
relative positions of obstructions, and electromagnetic wave frequency. These factors
describe field strength change in a long distance between a transmitter and a receiver,
which is also called a large-sized propagation model. On the other hand, the
propagation model that describes quick fluctuation of reception field strength in a short
distance or short time is called a small-sized attenuation model. Multipath transmission
is a major factor that may influence a small-sized attenuation model. As this chapter
describes only space transmission characteristics, and will not consider multipath
transmission. The following will provide a detailed analysis of various losses of a
large-sized propagation model under different conditions.

3.1 Electromagnetic Wave Space Propagation Model

Regarding electromagnetic wave space transmission, the simplest case is free space
propagation. The free space propagation model is used to predict the reception signal
field strength when a line of sight path without any obstruction exists between a
receiver and a transmitter. In this model, the reception power satisfies formula 1.1.

PR PT GT ( )G R ( )(

2
)
4d

(1.1)

Therefore, path loss can be obtained from formula 1.1.

= c/f
PL = Gr + Gt + 22 + 20 log (R/) = Gr + Gt + 22 + 20 log (Rf/c)
As indicated in these formulas, when electromagnetic wave is propagating in free
space, the reception power is in inverse proportion to the square of propagation
27

distance and frequency. However, this free space model has a small effective range.
When line of sight electromagnetic wave exists between a transmitter and a receiver,
this model is similar to an actual transmission model.

Obviously in a radio communications system, a base station will cover a complex area
populated with a large number of users. There is no line-of-sight electromagnetic wave
between most UE and NODE B. Line of sight propagation is subject to obstruction by
various buildings, trees, hills, and vehicles. Then a lot of non-line-of-sight
electromagnetic waves are generated from reflection, refraction, and diffraction by
these obstructions. This is how well-known multipath transmission comes.

Reflection

Diffraction
Transmittance

During multipath transmission, reception power attenuation is much faster than that
during free space propagation with increase of the distance between a transmitter and a
receiver. Generally speaking, in a dense urban or a room, reception power is in inverse
proportion no longer to square of the distance, but approximately to the fourth power of
the distance. In a suburb, it is in inverse proportion to the third power of the distance.
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

3.2 Earth Reflection Model

Among mobile radio channels, a single line of sight path between a base station and a
mobile station is rarely a unique route for propagation. Therefore, only a free space
model cannot reflect accurately the actual situation. Then a dual-line earth reflection
model based on geometric optics can be applied in more cases. An earth reflection
model takes into consideration the earth reflection path between a transmitter and a
receiver, so it can be used accurately within a range of several kilometers. This model
supposes that, during electromagnetic wave transmission, apart from a line of sight
path, there is only one earth reflection path.
Pr = PtGtGrht2hr2/d4
This model provides a simple indication that space path loss is in inverse proportion to
the fourth power of this path in a city, and when the distance is large:
d > 20 hthr/, and reception power is irrelevant with frequency. It is noteworthy that in
a UMTS system, wavelength is about 15cm, coverage distance does not exceed 1.5km,
and antenna height is 30m+ and 1m+ respectively, so this condition is not completely
met.

3.3 Energy Loss Through Medium

3.3.1 Introduction
The transmission path of electromagnetic wave between a transmitter and a receiver is
very complex. In addition to path propagation, there are reflection, transmittance,
diffraction, and scattering resulting from influence by various environments.
Electromagnetic wave is reflected, together with transmittance, when encountering an
object that is much longer than its wavelength, such as ground, buildings, and wall
surface.
Diffraction occurs when a radio path between a receiver and a transmitter is obstructed
by established edge, such as hilltop and building top.
Scattering occurs when the wave transmission media contain objects that are smaller
than the wavelength and there are a great number of obstructions in a unit volume, such
as leaves and street nameplates.

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UMTS RF Optimization

3.3.2

Reflection and Transmittance Loss

When electromagnetic wave passes by a medium, some part is reflected. According to
the energy conversation law, the sum of the energy of reflected wave and transmittance
wave should be equal to the energy of incident wave. Moreover, when electromagnetic
wave passes through a medium, energy loss occurs due to dissipation resulting from
polarization.
To calculate reflected and transmitted energy, it is necessary to calculate reflection and
transmittance coefficient of field strength or power. This coefficient depends on
medium characteristics, and is defined as electric permittivity r. Usually the insulation
constant of an ideal dielectric (without loss) should be = 0r.If energy loss occurs
during transmittance, the insulation constant takes the form of a complex, in which the
imaginary part represents the energy loss when electrical wave passes through the
medium.
= 0r + ir
The reflection and transmittance coefficient depends on the entrance angle and
polarization of the incident wave.
Material

Electric Permittivity

Material

Electric Permittivity

Wood

-2

Gypsum plank

Plywood

Glass

4-10

Marble

12

Cement

4-6

Earth

5-30

Water

80

The smaller the electric permittivity, the larger the transmittance power, and the smaller
the reflection power. The larger the electric permittivity, the smaller the transmittance
power, and the larger the reflection power. When the electric permittivity is 3 (in
wetland), only half of energy is transmitted, and the other half is reflected. That is to
say, the smaller the electric permittivity, the closer to line of sight propagation the
electromagnetic wave is. At that time, the multipath influence is small.
Indoors transmittance loss during indoors coverage in a city depends on, to a large
extent, average height, density, material, structure, and wall thickness of buildings, and
base station signal path. As is known, due to underdeveloped economy and poor social
security in China, the buildings in small and medium sized cities, especially their lower
floors, are all equipped with doors and windows with metal burglar-resisting webs,
which make penetration loss reach 20~30dB. And the front stores along streets are
commonly equipped with aluminum alloy doors without a window, so the penetration
30

Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

loss is also high.

Building transmittance loss

Building transmittance loss means the attenuation of electrical wave when passing
through external structures of a building. It is the difference between the field
strength without and within this building.
Building transmittance loss is largely related to building structure, door and
window types and sizes, and floor number. Generally, there is the largest loss on
lower floors of a building. The loss may decrease by about 1.9dB when acceding
to a higher floor.
The following is a group of data specific to the band of 900MHz, with foreign test
results incorporated.

In an urban of a medium-sized city, ordinary reinforced concrete buildings have a

transmittance loss median of 10dB, with a standard deviation of 7.3dB; the same
type of buildings in a suburb have a transmittance loss median of 5.8dB, with a
standard deviation of 8.7dB.

In an urban of a large city, ordinary reinforced concrete buildings have a

transmittance loss median of 18dB, with a standard deviation of 7.7dB; the same
type of buildings in a suburb have a transmittance loss median of 13.1dB, with a
standard deviation of 9.5dB.

In a suburb of a large city, a building with a metal enclosure or a special metal

framework has a transmittance loss median of 27dB.

As the environment of cities in China is greatly different from that in foreign countries,
the same type of loss is 8-10dB higher in China than in foreign countries.
Regarding the band of 1800MHz, its wavelength is shorter than that of 900MHz and
stronger in penetration, but with higher transmittance loss. Therefore, a building
adopting 1800MHz actually has higher transmittance loss than 900MHz.The GSM
specification 3.30 mentions that buildings in a city generally have the transmittance
loss of 15dB, and 10dB in the rural. The transmittance loss on 1800MHz is typically 510dB higher than that in the same type of areas on 900MHz.

Indoors transmission loss

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UMTS RF Optimization

This diagram shows the loss characteristics in the case that both transmitter and
receiver are located indoors. The loss ranges from 50dB to 80dB when the spacing
is 10M.
For 2.4GHz, path loss (in dB) = 40 + 35 * [LOG (D in meters)]
That is, the indoors transmission loss is about 35dB/10 multiples of thread.

Body loss
For a handset, the received signal field strength will be 4-7dB or 1-2dB lower
when it is attached to the waist or shoulder of a user than when the antenna is a
few wavelengths away from the body.
Generally body loss is set to 3dB.

In-vehicle loss
The in-vehicle loss caused by a metal-structured vehicle cannot be ignored.
Especially in an economically developed city, people spend part of their time in a
vehicle.

Typically in-vehicle loss ranges from 8dB to 10dB.

For a UMTS system, where the operating frequency is close to 1800MHz and
wavelength differs little, transmittance loss is also close.For those modern
buildings with large glass windows, transmittance loss typically ranges from 7dB
to 10dB.

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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory

3.4 Diffraction loss

In a radio communications system, signals may have additional loss when encountering
obstructions during radio propagation. This loss is diffraction loss.

3.4.1 Fresnel Zone and Knife-Edge Diffraction Model

Diffraction loss can be explained by a Fresnel zone. A Fresnel zone refers to a group of
ellipses formed by all the points where the secondary wave path length is n/2 larger
than line of sight path length from a transmitter to a receiver. This group of ellipses
with the transmitter and receiver as focuses form a Fresnel zone. If radius is
represented by rn,
rn = [nd1d2/(d1+d2)]1/2
In a mobile communications system, diffraction loss results from obstruction of the
secondary wave transmitted from a Fresnel zone. Generally speaking, as long as the
first Fresnel zone is not obstructed, the diffraction loss remains the least. When
obstruction is zero, there is loss of 6dB. In fact, as long as 55% of the first Fresnel zone
is not obstructed, obstruction of other Fresnel zones has little effect on diffraction loss.
A diffraction model can be simplified into the following diagram.

Fresnel diffraction parameter v = h [2 (d1+d2)/d1d2]1/2

Diffraction loss Gd (dB) can be calculated from diffraction parameters:
Gd (dB) = 0

v <= -1

Gd (dB) = 20 log (0.5-0.6v)

-1 <= v <= 0

Gd (dB) = 20 log [0.5exp (-0.95v)] 0 <= v <= 1

Gd (dB) = 20 log Gd (dB) = 20 log (0.225/v) v > 2.4
33

UMTS RF Optimization

The number of Fresnel zones being obstructed (n) can be obtained from this formula: n
= v2/2.
The Fresnel diffraction parameter is in direct proportion to 1/2 power of frequency.
This means diffraction loss increases with frequency.
Then it is known that diffraction loss depends mainly on obstruction height and
position relative to a transmitter and a receiver when electromagnetic wave is
obstructed on the propagation route during space propagation. If the relative height (h)
is smaller than or equal to zero, it means the loss is very small, and it is allowed to
neglect obstruction position (h=0, loss=6dB).On the contrary, the further an obstruction
is away from the center of line of sight path, the smaller the Fresnel zone, namely the
larger the influence on radio links by the obstruction. In this case, it is necessary to
consider the influence of the obstruction position. As a transmitter is normally much
higher than a receiver (outdoors), the diffraction loss of high buildings near a receiver
on the transmission route is larger than that of equally high buildings near a transmitter.

3.4.2

Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction

If there are multiple obstructions on the propagation path, diffraction loss needs
recalculation. If there are only two obstructions, they can be made equivalent to a new
obstruction delineated from the incidence route of the first obstruction and the
diffraction route of the second obstruction. If there are more obstructions, it is a more
complex case, which is not handled here.

3.5 Scattering Loss

Scattering occurs when the wave transmission media contain objects that are smaller
than the wavelength and there are a great number of obstructions in a unit volume. The
main effect of scattering is to transmit and propagate electromagnetic wave in all
directions, thus providing extra multipath transmission.

34