International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882

Volume 4, Issue10, October 2015

THERMODYNAMICS OF THE ADSORPTION OF CAROTENOIDS ON

ACID ACTIVATED ENUGU WHITE CLAY IN THE REFINING OF
PALM OIL
Egbuna S.O
Department of Chemical Engineering, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, ESUT, Enugu.
ABSTRACT
Adsorptive capacity of an adsorbent is directly associated with its physicochemical properties such as moisture content,
volatile mater content, specific surface area etc. In this research, the physicochemical properties and the effects of acid
activation on the surface area of Enugu white clay, an abundantly available local adsorbent from Enugu, South-Eastern
province of Nigeria, were carried out. The physical properties were determined using standard gravimetric method. The
pH value was determined with a pH meter. The specific surface area and the effects of acid activation on the surface area
were determined. The result obtained showed moisture content of 7.95+0.51%, volatile matter content of 2.46+ 0.04%,
fixed carbon content of 0.84+ 0.08%, specific gravity of 2.57g/cm3, pH value of 5.7, and bulk density of 0.630g/cm3. The
specific surface area was found to be 4 x 10-7 m2/m3, surface area, 182m2/g, and porosity, 0.71. The particle diameter and
density were found to be 150m and 2197kg/m3 respectively. The enthalpy of steam and heat of adsorption were found as
318.14kj/kg and 9.5 kcal/mol respectively. All values conform to standard values. The results indicate that white clay has
good adsorptive potentials and does not require much or expensive treatment to open up its pores.
Keywords: Local adsorbent, Acid activation, Physicochemical properties, Specific surface area, Heat of adsorption.

1 INTRODUCTION
Palm oil is one of the various types of vegetable oils belonging to the group called Lipids, because of its fatty acid
content. Parwez [1] and Bernardini [2], defined it as triglycerides extracted from plants. Most fats contain some colouring
matters, either as a natural constituent, or as a discolouration produced during the processing, [2]. The natural pigments
present in vegetable oils are mainly the caroteniods, giving yellow and red colours, and the chlorophylls, which give green
colours, Brooks [3]. Egbuna and Omotioma, [4], observed that colour deterioration can also take place during the
extraction process, especially in the local method of extraction used in most parts of the Eastern region of Nigeria.
Removal, or reduction of colour and other pigmented components, otherwise called bleaching during refining, according
to Borner and Schneidler, [5], is necessarily, not only because a pale- coloured fat has an appeal of purity, [Sontag][6],
but also because the colours of the fat can influence the appearance of prepared food, and even more importantly, the
pigment present may affect the flavour and stability of the fats and foods made from them. The decourloration
(bleaching), could be achieved by chemical treatment, Mahatta[7], by heat treatment, Rich, [8], or by adsorption method,
Gupta,[9]; the most effective and widely used being the latter.
Two methods are available for the refining of palm oil, namely, the physical and chemical methods. The refining
operations, here include, degumming, neutralization of free fatty acid, (FFA), for chemical process, using caustic alkali,
bleaching, to reduce colour and remove flavour and deodorization to further reduce colour, and FFA, and improve
stability. Egbuna and Aneke [10], noted that bleaching is the most important step in palm oil refining, especially in the
physical process, since it is at this stage that most of the contaminants and oxidative products of Aldehydes and Ketones,
are removed. Nutting, [11], also observed that contact time, temperature, oil to adsorbent ratio, pressure, and other
parameters, are the conditions that affect the performance of the bleaching process.
Bleaching is done by using acid activated clay, Egbuna et al [12], or by thermal activated clay, Hymore[13]. These are the
adsorbents. Adsorbents are, therefore, solid substances, usually porous in nature, with a high surface area, that can adsorb
chemical substances onto its surface by intermolecular forces, and the process of attracting chemical substances onto the
surfaces of adsorbents is adsorption. Adsorption is present in many physical, biological and chemical systems and is used
extensively in industrial processes for the purposes of separation and purification. The high cost of commercial
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International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882
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adsorbents, especially activated carbon, restricts their uses and applications, [14], and hence the need to substitute them
with the unconventional, locally available, cheaper and environmentally friendly adsorbents. The utilization of locally
available materials as a raw material in the production of adsorbents is in line with Nigerias economic transformation
agenda. Wong [15], said that the quality of raw material, (palm oil), is very important, since it relates directly to the
processing cost, and products shelf life. Howes et al [16], opined that colour and FFA content continue to fall with
increasing bleaching earth, but the peroxide value is minimized after 30 minutes. They noted that the continuing fall in
colour is attributed to the heat bleaching effect.
Bleaching temperature is one of the factors that affect the performance of the degumming and bleaching processes of raw
palm oil. [10], have also observed that bleaching temperature has a great effect on the colour, FFA, PV and AV of oil
being processed, and the keeping quality of the oil. They noted that bleached oil colour tends to continue to fall as the
temperature is increased, but the deodorized oil colour reached a maximum when the bleaching temperature is about
100oC. Oil adsorbent ratio, is also of importance in determining the optimum performance condition of clay during
bleaching, as it affects the efficiency of degumming and bleaching processes. The higher the clay dosage the more the
colour reduction; the optimum clay dosage will however, depend on the quality of palm oil, and nature of the impurities in
it [13]. Egbuna [17], has developed the adsorption mechanism(model) for the adsorption of carotenoids on activated clay
based on adsorption theory of Langmuir isotherm.
In the present work,

The physicochemical properties of enugu white clay, as well as those of Palm oil used in the study were
determined

The Specific Surface area, as well as Surface area for adsorption were established.

The Enthalpy of steam used and the heat of adsorption were also determined.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Sample Collection and Characterization
The material for the research is Enugu White clay collected from Enugu in the South-Eastern province of Nigeria.
The adsorbent was collected during the peak of dry season (March) and stored in a polyethylene bag. The physicochemical properties of the local adsorbent were determined using standard procedures. The adsorbent was characterized
for moisture content, volatile matter content, fixed carbon, specific gravity, pH value, bulk density, specific surface area,
and the effects of acid activation on the specific surface area was also determined. The Palm oil was also collected from a
local market in Enugu and characterized before and after bleaching with the activated clay. Results are shown in table I
Table I, Physicochemical Properties of the raw and bleached Oils used in testing the performance of the Acid activated
Enugu white clay
Properties

Raw Palm Oil (RPO)

Colour (Physical Appearance)

Odour
Taste
Specific Gravity
Melting Point(C)
Moisture (%)
Refractive Index
Free Fatty Acid (%)
Lovibond Red Unit (1" Cell)
Anisidine Value (M.eq/kg)
Peroxide Value (M.eq/kg)
Phosphorous (Ppm)
Iron (Ppb)
Saponification Value
Iodine Value

Deep Orange
...of Palm Oil
...of Palm Fruit
0.9482
36.5
1.5
1.4516
2.80
21
7.2
48
6.0
3.5
210
44
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Bleached Palm
(BPO)
Light Orange
of palm fruit
Bland
0.9242
34
0.05
1.4565
3.0
3.2
4.05
3.00
5.52
4.5
215
47

Oil

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2.2 Digestion of Clay Samples.

The mined clay was sun-dried for 24 hours and size reduced to fine particles using mortar and pestle. The ground samples
were sieved to remove impurities and then oven dried at 105C. The samples were then put in contact with hydrochloric
acid in a 250 cm3 flask placed in a regulated water bath. The flask was heated while continuously being stirred. At the
completion of the heating time, the slurry was removed from the bath and allowed to cool. After the cooling, the slurry
was filtered via a Buckner funnel and the clay residue was washed several times with distilled water, followed by
filtration until the filtrate was neutral to pH indicator paper.
2.3 Acid Activation of Clay Sample
The acid activation was carried out according to the method described by, (P.C.N Ejikeme, et al,[18], (James, O., et
al,)[19], and ((Vicente Rodriquez, et al,)[20]. The clay was ground into powder using pestle and mortar, and sieved
through a laboratory test sieve of aperture - 150m. The clay sample (100g) was introduced into a 600ml Pyrex Beaker
and 250ml of 1M Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid solution added. The mixture was homogenized in a thermostat bath at a
temperature of 95oC for 3hours. The resulting mixture was filtered, washed with distilled water severally to reduce the
acidity. The activated clay sample was dried in an electric oven at a temperature of 105oC. The dried activated clay sample
was then sieved through a laboratory test sieve of aperture - 150m and stored in an air tight- container.
2.4 Particle Size Distribution of Acid activated Clay.
In this experiment, Laboratory sieve numbers 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 and 150m, and prepared Enugu white clay
sample were used. The sieves were arranged into a nest of sieves with the coarsest on top and the finest at the bottom.
About 150g of the clay sample was placed on the top sieve. To prevent loss of the particles, a lid was used to cover the top
sieve and a solid tray at the bottom. The sieve nest was vibrated by gentle shaking of hand for 3 minutes. The nest was
dismantled and the materials collected from each sieve, weighed. Results are shown in table II
From the table, it is observed that the bigger the particle size the more the weight fraction, i.e. the weight fraction
increases linearly with average particle size. From the same table it can be seen that the higher the sieve number (mesh
number), the smaller the weight of material retained.

Table II, The results of particle size analysis of Acid activated Enugu white clay
Sieve
numbers
20
40
60
80
100

Aperture(mm)
0.840
0.420
0.250
0.177
0.149

Weight
retained(g)
82.33
42.61
14.45
6.40
2.36

Average
size
0.6300
0.3350
0.2135
0.1630
0.1370

Weight
fraction
0.5489
0.2841
0.09963
0.0427
0.0157

Cumulative
Weight fraction
0.5489
0.8330
0.9293
0.9720
0.9897

120
150

0.125
0.095

1.00
0.85

0.0625
0.0475

0.0057
0.0057

0.9944
1.0001

2.5 Characterization of Enugu White Clay

The clay was characterized before and after activation by the methods described in [12],[13], and [16], while the
Chemical characterization experiments were also carried out to determine the level of metal oxides in the clay sample
before and after activation with a view to knowing how to control the level in order to achieve the desired adsorptive
power of the clay after activation. A Pye-unican 500UV, Visible Spectrophotometer, EEL Flame Photometer, and Clay
sample were used. The Pye Unican Spectrophotometer was used for the analysis of SiO2, AI2O3, Fe2O3, while the EEL
Flame Photometer was used for the analysis of CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O and SO3. and the results are shown in tables III,
and IV

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Table III, The physicochemical properties of raw and activated Enugu White Clay,[21].
PARAMETER
Moisture content %
Volatile matter %
Fixed carbon %
Specific Gravity g/cm3
pH
Bulk density g/cm3
Non Clay Residue (%)
Titratable Acidity (mg NaOH/g
Surface areag/cm3
Specific Surface area (x10-7m2/m3)
Porosity
SiO2
AI2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
Ignition loss

Raw Clay
8.75 0.57
2.46 0.04
0.84 0.08
2.57
5.7
0.600
3.55
0.78
180
3.5
0.65
62.5
4.56
0.02
0.08
0.10
0.58
0.50
8.36

Activated Clay
6.5
0.5
0.62
2.5
7.3
0.630
0.86
0.8
182
4.0
0.71
62
4.75
0.01
0.05
0.7
0.58
1.25
8.4

Table IV Chemical Composition of Acid Activated Enugu white Clay compared with standard adsorbents
Properties
SiO2
AI2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
Ignition loss

Acid Activated White Fullers Earth

clay
62.5
52.26
4.56
14.33
0.02
3.04
0.08
3.02
0.10
0.58
0.40
0.50
0.48
8.36
-

Fulmont AA
61.7
12
5.7
4.1
2.3
0.2
0.32
6.2

2.6 Bleaching Process and Analyses

The aim of bleaching was to test for the bleaching efficiency of the activated clay by reducing the level of residual
pigment in the oil sample. The activated White clay was used for the bleaching experiment, and the efficiency of the
activated clay was measured in terms of colour reduction obtained after bleaching . Bleaching of the palm oil was carried
out according to the procedure reported by (Nde-Aga, et al, )[22]. 50g of degummed, palm oil was poured into a 50ml
Pyrex beaker and heated up to the reaction temperature of 100oC, on a magnetic hot plate. When the hot plate reached the
set temperature, the activated clay sample was added. The process was carried out at 60, 80, and, 1050C and the contact
times of 10, 20and 30min, with clay dosage of 4%, 6% and8%. At the end of the process, the mixture was filtered through
Whitman, No 1 filter paper into a test tube until a reasonable amount was obtained. The absorbance of the oil was
measured using a UV spectrophotometer as follows: 0.1g of palm oil was diluted in 7.5ml of petroleum ether and the
absorbance of the sample determined at 445nm wavelength using the petroleum ether as reference [22]. The percentage of
oil bleached was calculated From eqn (1)
Absobance unbleached Absorbance bleached
Percentag oil bleached
x100
Absorbance bleached

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3.0 DISCUSSION
3.1 Clay Characterization
Tables III shows the results of the analyses of raw and activated Enugu white clay samples. It was observed that
the natural white clay was ideal in terms of non-clay residue, moisture content, ignition loss, titratable acidity, and bulk
density. Alam et al,[23], noted that physical properties of clay influence their ability to adsorb carotenoids. [24], also
showed that Low moisture content is an indication of good adsorptive capacity, while high oil retention indicates a high
apparent bulk density. Low ignition loss and non clay residue of the white clay, indicate that the clay is free from
inorganic substances which would naturally hinder its adsorptive capacity. Cerato and Lutenegger,[25], in their
experiment on natural clays, observed that high level of SiO2 (about 63%), in a clay sample proves it to be
montmorillonite. The results satisfy the conditions.
It was observed that SiO2 of activated white clay is very good compared to Fullers earth and Fulmont AA. Al 2O3
and Fe2O3 contents are good also. However, alkali metal oxides are on the higher side, but do not contribute so much to
the bleaching action of clay, table IV. Activation, however, improved the quality of the clay as an adsorbent. From the
table also, it was observed that the silicate content of the acid activated white clay compares very well with the Fulmont
AA; decreased from 62.5 to 62, showing it to be a standard adsorbent. The removal of more soluble constituents vastly
increased the specific surface area of the clay. [26], showed that these factors favour bleachability as the efficiency of the
earth sample is proportional to its surface area.. Time of activation (contact time), which gave the best result was
4hours.The results of Table IV, were analyzed in, [26], [27].
3.2 Specific Surface Area
The physico-chemical properties of adsorbent usually affect its adsorptive property, since they have profound
influence on the specific surface area. The results of the physico-chemical properties of Enugu white clay as shown in
table III show that the moisture content is comparable to those of the other adsorbent but volatile matter and fixed carbon
are by far less than those obtained from organic based adsorbent, [12].This may probably be the reason why specific
surface area of organic based adsorbents are greater than those obtained for white clay after acid activation. The specific
gravity, pH value and bulk density are comparable to those in the literature for soil based materials. Physical and
chemical properties of fine grained clay may be greatly influenced by the amount of its specific surface areas, [28].
Smith, [29] , gave an expression to be used in computing the specific surface area of a particle bed as the ratio of the area
of the particle bed to the volume occupied by the particles as` shown in equation 2, as;
Sa =

d p

d P /6
6 2 3
=
m /m
dP

Where dp - the effective diameter of the particle

From particle size analysis, the mean particle diameter was 150m. When this value was used in equation 2, specific
surface area, Sa, becomes,
Sa

6
m2/m3
-9
150 x 10
= 4 x 10-7m2/m3

3.3 Surface Area and Porosity

Differences in the surface area of adsorbents may be predominantly as a result of texture, grain size distribution,
types and amount of different materials present in the adsorbent. The surface area of the adsorbent as observed may be
due to irregular shapes, and, or surface roughness of the grains and so the relative high surface area of the adsorbent as
observed may be due to the presence of high surface materials, irregular grain shapes and, or the surface roughness of the
grain.
The surface area of the particles was calculated from equation 2 by dividing the specific surface area by the particle
density. However to account for the bed of particles in the column, the specific surface area was also divided by a factor
of 0.1 and so, we have,
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International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882
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SB =

4x10 7 m 2
3

1Kg
1000g

= 182m2/g

0.1m
2197kg/m
3
Where 2197kg/m , is the particle density of the clay
The literature value is 150 - 225m2/g, Coulson and Richardson, [30]
[30], also gave an expression for use in calculating the porosity of the particles, as in equation 3;
B = a(1 - e)
Where B - Bulk density of particles, a - Density of the particles, e - Porosity of the particles

The bulk density was found by experiment to be 0.630g/cm3 (630Kg/m3)

From Perry and Chilton, [31], density of clay was found to be 2197Kg/m3,
Then porosity of clay particles, e, becomes;
630 = 2197(1 - e)
e = 0.71
This value is good enough for the porosity of the clay.
3.4 Enthalpy of Steam and Heat of Adsorption.
(a) Enthalpy of steam: The steam being calculated is that used for heating the bleaching vessel. In the calculation of heat
of adsorption, the degumming/bleaching vessel, including the steam heating chest was taken as the system. The overall
enthalpy balance applicable to this system is;
U t2 U t1 m atl. H steam Q t Wd
4
Now the system is lagged, (an adiabatic system), Qt = 0
Internal energy per unit mass is given by;
U = H - PV
Where U - Internal energy per unit mass, H - Enthalpy, V - Specific volume.Considering this,
equation 4 becomes ,
H t2 H t1 - Pt2 V2 Pt1V1 m atl. Hsteam Wd
5
If it is assumed that PV is small compared to other terms, which is ideal since we are working with liquid,
then;

H t2 H t1 matl Hsteam Wd

6
The zero enthalpy at 30 C wass assumed to simplify the calculation of enthalpy change, H for material. The feed
material was provided at 30oC. The final temperature required for adsorption process was 115oC. The enthalpy change for
steam was determined from, Himmelblau [32]
The enthalpy of the feed mixture with reference to zero enthalpy at 30oC is,
o

30

Ht1 = m(H)

= m CpdT = 0

30

The enthalpy of the final product relative to zero enthalpy at 30oC is,
115

Ht2 = m Cp m dT

30

= mCpm (115 - 30)oC

Now the main heat capacity of the components in the degumming/bleaching tank, was first calculated, and then used in 8,
to calculate Ht2.
CpH20
= 1.00Cal/g.oC
Mole fraction of water in the tank can be calculated.
Amount of oil used
= 100g (0.38moles)
Water required
= 1% of 100g oil (0.056moles)
Phosphoric acid used
= 1% 100g oil (0.01moles
Clay required
= 3% of weight of oil
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From the table of atomic weight of elements in the molecular formula of clay, we can calculate its molecular weight. The
molecular formula of clay sample is Al2O32SiO2.4H2O.
Hence,
Al = 2 x 27 = 54
O = 11 x 16 = 176
Si = 2 x 28 = 56
H = 8 x 1 = 8
Total = 294g/mole
Then the number of moles of clay = 3/294 = 0.01
Total number of moles = 0.38 + 0.056 + 0.01 = 0.446moles

0.38
= 0.833
0.456
0.056
Mole fraction of water =
= 0.123
0.456
0.38
Mole fraction of H3PO4 =
= 0.022
0.456
Mole fraction of oil

The heat capacity of palm oil can be calculated from equation 9, given by;
Cp (Cal/g.oC)

d
Specific gravity of palm oil
From [31],

15

B(t 15) [31]

= 0.9500
A = 0.45 ; B = 0.0007

Then

Cp =

0.45
(0.95)15

0.0007(298 15)

= 0.86Cal/g.oC
= 3.6KJ/Kg oC
This amount is multiplied by the mole fractions calculated previously, hence
Cpoil
= 0.833 x 3.6
= 3.00KJ/KgoC
CpH2O
= 0.123 x 1 x 4.187
= 0.520KJ/KgoC
CpH3PO4 = 0.022 x 2.1375 x 4.187 = 0.197KJ/KgoC
[32], proposed table V for use in the estimation of heat capacity of solid and liquid materials at room temperature and 1
atmospheric pressure as,
Table V, Heat capacities of elements at standard conditions (Cal/g-atom)[32]
Element
C
H
B
Si
O
F
P or S
Others
From the table,
CpAl = 2 x 6.2
CpOxy = 11 x 4.0
Cpsi
= 2 x 3.8
CpH2
= 8 x 2.3
Total

=
=
=
=
=

Solid
1.8
2.3
2.7
3.8
4.0
5.0
5.4
6.2

Liquid
2.8
4.3
4.7
5.8
6.0
7.0
7.4
8.0

12.4 Cal/g-atom.oC
44.0 Cal/g-atom.oC
7.6 Cal/g-atom.oC
18.4 Cal/g-atom.oC
82.4 Cal/g-mole.oC
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Then Cpclay

82.4Cal 1mole clay

0
mole
294g
C

=
0.2803Cal/g.oC
Cpclay
=
0.022 x 0.2803 x 4.187
=
0.0258 KJ/Kg/oC
CpNet = 3.00 + 0.52 + 0.197 + 0.0258 = 3 .7428KJ/Kg/oC
Using the CpNet in equation 8, we have,
115

Ht2 =

3.7428dT

30

= 3.7428 (115 - 30)oC

= 318.14KJ/Kg
This is the enthalpy of steam used.
(b) Heat of adsorption: The heat of adsorption can be calculated and added to the enthalpy of steam to obtain the total
(final ) heat for the bleaching action. Now heat of adsorption is negative since adsorption is an exothermic process. [29],
gave the range of Hadsorption as 1.5- 10 Kcal/gmole. [32], also gave an expression for the calculation of heat of adsorption
as;
dP H adsorption

10
dT T(V Va )
Where V and Va are the values per mole of adsorbed components in the gas and liquid on the surface respectively, P is
the vapour pressure, and T is absolute temperature. If we let V be small compared to V a (the pigment), and that an ideal
gas law is applicable for the vapour or pigment being adsorbed, (volatiles are assumed to obey the gas laws), that is,

R aT
P
dP H adT

P
R aT2
Va =

Then

11

When we rearrange equation 11, and integrate, we have;

dlnP
2.303dlogP
H ad

d(1/T)
d(1/T)
R aT2

12

If Had is constant over the temperature range of interest, rearranging equation (15), gives

log

dP1
Had 1 1

P2
2.303Ra T2 T1

Equation 13, is used to calculate the heat of adsorption.

Now the vapour pressure at different temperatures is obtained from [31], and is given by;
Temperature oC

Vapour pressure mmHg

10
20
40
46
52

10
20
30
40
50

From the table, change in temperature tends to be constant at higher vapour pressures;
At 40oC, Vapour pressure is 30mmHg, and at 46oC it is 40mmHg, therefore;

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International Journal of Scientific Research Engineering & Technology (IJSRET), ISSN 2278 0882
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log

30
H ad
1 J
1

40 2.303(8.31 4) 319 313 mole.K

Had
And

= 39835J/mole
=

39835J 1Kcal
mole 4187J

9.5Kcal
Mole

This is within the literature value of 1.5 - 10Kcal/mole[29]

4.0 CONCLUSION
The results show that Enugu White Clay could be used as an effective adsorbent for the removal of Carotene pigments
from Palm Oil. Characterization of both the activated clay and the palm oil used in testing the performance of the clay
showed that the clay has a good adsorptive capacity, and can be used in the refining of vegetable oils The specific surface
area for adsorption, as calculated, and the heat of adsorption, were in conformity with the standard values .

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