CONTINUUM MECHANICS

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INTRODUCTION

Continuum mechanics:

Continuum assumption: matter is distributed continuously in space

No voids between molecules
Density function of the continuum is continuous:

m
lim 3

V V
V

EXAMPLES OF CONTINUA
Solids

Crankshaft
heart
Bridge
Water

Continua

Fluids

Oil
Blood
Air

Gas

CO2
Steam

WHY CONTINUUM MECHANICS?

Continuum mechanics is used to determine:

Stresses & Strains

Kinematics and deformation
F il
Failure
Fluid flow
Gas flow
Etc

TENTATIVE OUTLINE OF THE COURSE

scalar product
vector algebra

Stress vector
Stress tensor
Transformation of stress

triple product

Vectors

3. Stress

Gradient
vector calculus

Principal stresses

vector product

1. Mathematical Preliminairies

divergence
Curl

Matrix algebra
Elastic
Plasticity

4. Constitutive Equations

Tensors

Course
Outline

Tensor calculus
Index notation

Plane stress
Plane strain

dyads
Trensor transformation

5. Elasticity in 2D

Mohr's Circle

Configuration
g
Engineering strain

Example Problems

2. Kinematics

kinematis of a solid continuum

analysis of deformation
Compatibility equations

MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES: VECTORS

A vector quantity is represented by

an arrow.

Length represents
magnitude.

Arrow head represents

direction.

Force Vector

Line off fforce

Li
(or pull).

Tail represents
point of force
application
application.

VECTOR REPRESENTATION

A vector quantity is represented by

an arrow.

Length represents
magnitude.

Arrow head represents

direction.

Force Vector

Line off fforce

Li
(or pull).

Tail represents
point of force
application
application.

SCALARS

Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a

magnitude
i d alone.
l
Examples are time, energy, speed, distance

VECTORS

Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a

magnitude and a direction.
Examples include force, momentum, velocity and
displacement.

WHICH ARE VECTOR AND WHICH ARE

SCALARS?
Quantity

Example

Type

Length

5m

Scalar

Velocity

30 m/sec, East

Vector

Speed

30 m/sec

Scalar

Temperature

20C

Scalar

Energy

5 Joules

Scalar

Displacement

2 m to the right

Vector

VECTOR ALGEBRA: ZERO AND UNIT VECTORS

Unit Vector: is a vector with a unit length

e such that e 1

We can always extract a unit vector from any non zero vector
as:

u
e u
u

where u u e u

Zero Vector: is a vector with a unit length

0 such that 0 0

VECTOR ALGEBRA: VECTOR ADDITION

u v = v+u

commutativity
t ti it

u v + w = u v + w

associativity

u0 0u u

null element

u u 0

opposite
it element
l
t

VECTOR ALGEBRA: MULTIPLICATION BY A

SCALAR

VECTOR ALGEBRA: SCALAR PRODUCT

Let u, v, and w be vectors in the plane or in space

andd let
l t c be
b a scalar.
l

1. The commutative property holds : u v v u.


2. The distributive property holds : u (v w) u v u w


3. c(u v) cu v u cv

4. 0 v 0
2
5. v v v

If is the angle between two nonzero vectors

uv
u and v then cos .
u v

VECTOR ALGEBRA: VECTOR PRODUCT

VECTOR ALGEBRA: TRIPLE PRODUCT

Scalar triple
p product
p

A. B C 0 A,, B,C
, are coplanar
p

VECTOR ALGEBRA: VECTOR PRODUCT

Vector triple
p p
product

VECTOR ALGEBRA: COMPONENTS OF A

VECTOR

In a 3-dimensional vector space

p
we can assign
g an
ortho-normal vector basis:
such that:
ORTHO
NORMAL

VECTOR ALGEBRA: COMPONENTS OF A

VECTOR

Anyy vector can be expressed

p
as a linear combination
of the basis vectors
:

All the expressions we saw previously and be

expressed in component form.

Vector sum:

Multiplication by scalar:
Scalar Product:

Vector Product:

VECTOR ALGEBRA: COMPONENTS OF A

VECTOR

Vector Product:

Scalar Triple product:

SUMMATION CONVENTION: FREE AND DUMMY INDICES

Component
p
fform:

Can be written as:

By convention we write this as:

Examples of expressions using summation convention:

In this expression i is a free index and j is

index

a dummy

In this expression k is a free index and i and j are dummy indices.

SUMMATION CONVENTION: KRONECKER DELTA SYMBOL

The Kronecker delta symbol

y
is defined
f
as

It is
i often
ft in
i index
i d notation
t ti expressions
i
andd equations
ti
It is also known as the substitution operator because it has
the effect of substituting one index by another.

Orthonormal basis vector are related by:

The scalar product is expressed as:

SUMMATION CONVENTION: PERMUTATION SYMBOL

The ppermutation symbol

y
is defined
f
as:

Orthonormal basis vector are related by:

The cross product is expressed as:

EPSILON-DELTA RELATIONSHIP

VECTOR TRANSFORMATION LAW

Given two vector bases: B e1 , e 2 , e 3 and B ' e1' , e '2 , e 3'
'
The directions of cosines are defined as: ij e i e j cos ij
A vector expressed in the two bases as:

u u1e1 u2e 2 u3e 3 u1' e1' u2' e '2 u3' e 3' or u ui e i u 'j e 'j
u 'j e 'j ui e i u 'j e 'j e 'k ui e i e 'k u 'j jk ui ik uk' ui ik

Therefore the components of the vector transform

from base B to base B as:
u1' 11 12
'
'
uk ui ik or u2 21 22
u '
3 31 32

13 u1

23 u2
33 u3

MATRICES

A matrix is an ordered arrayy of scalars:

a11 a12
A a21 a22
a31 a32

a13
a23
a33

a14
a24 a ij i 1, 2,3 and j 1, 2,3, 4
a34

a matrix with m rows and n columns is said to be an mn

matrix.
an nn matrix is a square matrix.

MATRIX ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION BY

A SCALAR

TRANSPOSE & INVERSE OF A MATRIX

The transpose
p
of a matrix A is denoted as AT

B AT bij a ji
T

AT A and
AB

A B A T BT
T

BT A T

The inverse of matrix A is denoted as A-11

AA 1 A 1A I

1 1

I and

AB

The determinant of a matrix

det A ijk A1i A2 j A3k

B 1A 1

A
Aij as:
is given

EXERCISES

EXERCISES

VECTOR CALCULUS
The del operator
p
is the vector x1 e1 x2 e 2 x3 e 3 xi e i
The gradient of a scalar field f(x1,x2,x3) is a vector:

f
x1

e1 xf2 e 2 xf3 e 3

e i

The divergence of a vector Ae

i i field is given as:
div A A

f
xi

A1
x1

Ax22 x33

Ai
xi

e1

Ae
The curl of a vector A
is
given
as:
i i

e 2

e 3

x1

x2

x3

A1

A2

A3

curl A A

Ai
ijk x j

e k

The Laplacian of a scalar field f(x1,x2,x3) is:

f f
2

x j

e j

f
xi

2 f
xi xi

SUMMARY OF VECTOR FORMULAS

TENSOR (EXAMPLE)

A vector is defined as an quantity requiring a direction

and
d a magnitude.
it d
A tensor (2nd order) is a quantity that requires TWO
directions and a magnitude.
E
Example
l

If a plane cuts through a continuum subject to external

forces (F1, F2,) an internal stress vector T will appear.
Th magnitude
The
i d & direction
di i
off T will
ill depend
d
d on the
th
orientation of the plane defined by its normal n
Therefore, in order to completely define the stress state
at a point P on the plane two vectors are needed T and n

2ND ORDER TENSORS: DYADS

Aq
quantityy that requires
q
TWO directions to be
specified is called a dyad or 2nd Order tensors.
a dyad D is defined as the product of two vectors u
& v and
d is
i written
itt as:
D uv
The product uv is known as the dyadic product it is just

the vectors written next to each other ((it is also known as the
indeterminate vector product)

For vectors a and b the following dyadic product

properties
ti h
hold:
ld

2ND ORDER TENSORS: VARIOUS PRODUCTS

D a1b1 a 2b 2 a N b N

A dyadic is defined as:

The dot product of a dyad D with a vector v is a vector and is defined as

(this product is NOT commutative):

v D v a1 b1 v a 2 b 2 v a N b N = u prefactor

D v v b1 a1 v b 2 a 2 v b N a N = w postfactor

The vector product of a dyad D with a vector v is a dyad:

v D v a1 b1 v a 2 b 2 v a N b N = E

D v a1 v b1 a 2 v b 2 a N v b N = F

The dot product of two dyads D and E is a dyad (this product is NOT
commutative):
)
DE ab cd bc ad F

The tensor scalar product of two dyads D and E is dyad (this product IS
commutative):
D E ab cd ac bd ai ci b j d j

The tensor scalar p

product of two dyads
y
D and E is dyad
y ((this p
product IS
commutative):
DE ab cd bc ad bi ci a j d j

2ND ORDER TENSORS: TRANSFORM,

PRINCIPAL VALUES, INVARIANTS

A dyadic D can be written in component form with respect to an

orthonomal basis as: D ab a b e e D e e
i

j i

ij i

The identity dyad I is such that: DI I D

I e i e i e1e1 e 2e 2 e 3e 3

2ne order tensors (dyads) transform between basis according to:

The principal values of 2nd order tensor T are defined as the

roots off : T u u 0 Tik uk ui 0 Tik ik uk 0 det Tik ik 0

The determinant results in the Cubic equation known as the

characteristic equation: T u u 3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0
I1 , I2 and I3 are the first, second and third invariants of tensor T

D ab ai b j e i e j ai b j ik e 'k jme 'm ik jm ai b j e 'k e 'm

T u u 3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0

I1 Tii (trace);
(t
) I 2 TiiT jj - TijTij ; I 3 ijk T1iT2 jT3 j =det
d t Tij

VECTOR CALCULUS: EXERCISES

1. calculate the ggradient vector of the followingg scalar fields:

2.

3.

TENSOR CALCULUS: EXERCISES

1.

2.
3.

DEFORMATION: DEFINITIONS

Point: designates a fixed location in space.

Particle: is a small infinitesimal volumetric element of a continuum it is also

called a material point

At any time t a continuum with a volume V and bounding surface S will occupy a
region R of Space.
Space

Configuration: The region occupied by the continuum at a given time t is known

as the configuration of the continuum at time t

Deformation: the change in shape of a continuum between an initial

(undeformed) configuration and a final deformed configuration.

X: material coordinates vector

x: spatial coordinates vector
u: displacement vector.

DEFORMATION: LAGRANGIAN, EULERIAN

When a continuum deforms its particles move through space this motion is
d fi d as:
defined
This relation provides the current position of a particle that used to occupy the
position
at the initial time t=0
This relation is a mapping
pp g with one-to-one correspondence,
p
, continuous and with
continuous first partial derivatives.
The description of the motion of the particles in this way is known as the
Lagrangian formulation

The formulation
Th
f
l ti iis said
id to
t be
b Eulerian
E l i if the
th movementt off the
th particles
ti l off the
th
continuum is given as:

the mappings
and
are unique inverses of one another
1
such that: X x (x, t ) . This can be true only if the Jacobian of the mappings is not
zero:
x
J ij det i
X
j

xi
0

X
j

DEFORMATION GRADIENT

The gradient of the position coordinate vector xi with respect to material

coordinates
di
Xi results
l in
i 2nd
2 d order
d tensor know
k
as the
h material
i l deformation
df
i
gradient given by:

xi xi

F x X xi ei
e
e
e e
X j X i X i j
j
j
j

The gradient of the displacement vector ui = xi Xi produces the material

displacement gradient given as:

J u X

xi X i
ui
x
e i e j
e i e j i e i e j ij e i e j F I
X j
X j
X j

Example: calculate the Jacobian, material deformation gradient and the

displacement deformation gradient of the following:
1
xi t
F
e 1
X j
0

e 1
t

1
0

J det F 1 et 1 e t 1

0 ;

1
xi
t
J FI
ij e 1
X j

0

e 1
t

1
0

0 1 0 0 0


0 0 1 0 e t 1

1 0 0 1 0

e 1
t

0
0

0 ;

DEFORMATION TENSORS I

Ca ch deformation tensor
Cauchy
Green deformation tensor

DEFORMATION TENSORS II

The difference
is used to measure deformation of a continuum
between two configurations:

Where

Lagrangian finite strain tensor can be written in terms of displacements as:

Lagrangian finite strain tensor

If small deformation theory is assumed ui 1 the linear lagrangian finite

X

strain tensor
Interpretation of the linear lagrange strain tensor:

Example: find the linear lagrangian strain tensor for a line segment lying originally on the
X2 axis.

DEFORMATION TENSORS: OVERVIEW

deformation gradient F

displacement gradient J

xi
X j

ui xi

ij F I
X j X j

Cauchy deformation tensor

deformation
Tensors

Green deformation tensor

in terms of material
coordinates

Lagrangian finite
strain tensor

Non-linear

Linear

in terms of
p
displacements

DEFORMATION: EXERCISES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6
6.

DEFORMATION: EXERCISES II

1.

2.