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TheHistoryofLiteraryCriticisminUrdu
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TamashaAurTamashayeeHindiTranslation

UrduisoneofthefewIndianlanguageswhichcarvedoutitsowncriticalidiomdifferentfromSanskrit,classical
ArabicorPersianpoeticsthoughitbenefittedgreatlyfromthesesamesources.Earlycompositionshardlyshow

TamashaAurTamashayee

anytendencytowardscriticalformulation,somuchsothatKalimuddinAhmad,aliterarycriticofthe20thcentury,
inhisUrduTanqidParEkNazar,deniedtheveryexistenceofliterarycriticisminUrdu.

Prof.MohammadHasanMemorialFunctionheld
inMoradabadPart1

EventhefirstpoetinUrdu,however,hadsomeconceptionabouttheessentialcanonsofcriticism.Afterthe
modelsoftheArabandPersianpoetry,poesywasdeemedadivinegiftbestowedupongeniustoenthuseand
sublimatefellowmenbyconveyingtothemanewvisionoflifeexpressedthroughtheartisticuseofimagination
andaninterplayofemotions,thoughtandsensibilitycommunicatedthroughthemostappropriate,effectiveand
melodiouswords.Whatisimportantisthatsinceitsinception,poetryandwithitthecanonsofliterarycriticism,

BayadEDr.MohammadHasan,Moradabad
Part2
Moradabad:BayadEDr.MohammadHasan

havebeenapartofcultureawayoflifelendingsignificanceandcolourtoanotherwisedrabexistence.

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Thepoet(andthewriter)wassomethingofthetroubadourofthetribe,thecourtscribe,orthereporterofthe
rulingchieftains.TheearliestPersiantreatise,ChharMiqalaofUrudhiSamarqandi,enumeratesvarious

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exampleswhichscribescommunicatedtothecourtthehappeningsonabattlefiedinshort,precise,enjoyable
andsuggestivesentences.

Initsdefinitionofliterature(poetry)itgivesthehighestprioritytotheroleofimaginationasasystematizerof
observation,cognitionandexpression.ThismaybetracedinthecompositionsofthefirstUrdupoet,Amir
Khusrau,whoseAnmils(Couplet&Coupletsversifyingdisparatewords)andPahelis(versifiedriddles)combine
variousobjectsintoasingle,meaningfulandenjoyablesequencethroughaflashofimagination.

IntheDeccan,thepoetemergedasthechroniclerofmyths,legends,historicaleventsandbattles.Wajhi(c.

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1660)wasperhapsthefirsttoincludetheideaofexcellenceinpoetryintheintroductorylinesofhismathnavt
QutubMustari(1600).Heemphasizeslucidity,coherence,brevityanditsimpactonlistenersandreaders.

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Undoubtedly,theapproachtoliteraturewasmainlythatofacraftsmanwithaneyeonitsutility,significance,
artifice,dictionandtechnique.Atthisstage,itwouldnotbeirrelevanttopointoutthefunctionandformatofartas

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envisagedmoreorlessinallAsiancountries.Infactthemotifs,themesandgenresareallfixedandthefunction
ofthepoetorprosewriteristoshowhisexcellenceandingenuitywithinthegivenframeworkoftheme,
dictionandform.Forexample,Chinesepoetry,IndianmusicandJapanesepaintingallhavetheirthemesand

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formsclearlydelineated.Genresaredefined.

Specialvocabularies,idiomsandimageriesareallneatlyfixed.Allthattheartistwasexpectedtodowasto
expresshisgeniuswithinthisframework.Anonymitywasnocrimeandeventhebestspecimensofallartwere
anonymouslyexecutedaccordingtothesetpattern.Urdupoetrywas,inthissense,ahappyblendoftheArabic,
PersianandSanskrittraditions,attimessuggestingPersianmodelsintheirdetails.ShipleysDictionaryofWorld
Literatureobserves:

Theetymologyofthesair,poet,theknower,pointstothereligiousormagicoriginofhisart.Thestandardform
oftheclassicalpoemwastheqasida,whosecompassandcompositionwerestrictlyconventionalizedand
amatoryprelude(nasib)isfollowedbyajourneyundertakentoassuagethepoetslovepainsandproviding

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ampleopportunitiesfordescriptionofthedesert,ofthepoetsmount,ofcertainanimalsandofhunting.Inthe
end,thepoeteitheractsasthepoliticalmouthpieceofhisgroup,indulgesinselfglorification,orpraisesthe
chieftaintowhosetentstheperilousjourneyhadbeendirected.Convivialscenesoccur.(*NotesonArabic

AsriAdab
97likes

Poetry).

Tlienasiboftheqasidadevelopedasaseparategenrewithmystical,ethicaland/orromanticovertonesanda

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richsymbolicidiom.Rangingfrom5to19separatecoupletsunitedbyarhymeschemeitcametobeknownas
ghazal.Qatawasathematicallycoherentsetofcoupletswithasinglerhymeschemeandrubiiiclaimedthe

Bethefirstofyourfriendstolikethis

samecoherencewithintwocoupletsofspecificmetreswhilemathnaviwasacoherentnarrativeofanepisodeor
asceneincoupletsinthesamemetrewithdifferentrhymesandmarthiya,theelegycompositionversifiedin
straightcoupletsorintheformofthreecoupletstanzas.

ThesegenericformswerethemainlinkswithArabicandPersianpoeticswhichwereamendedandenrichedby
Urduliteratureandformedthebasisofthecriticalidiom.

Poetrywasmainlyjudgedbyitsfidelitytotheprescribedrhymescheme,metricflawlessnessandsyntactical
authenticity.

BayadhandTadhkira
Theearliestspecimenofthiscriticalliteraturewasprovidedbythebayadhnotebookscontainingselected
coupletsofardentreadersorlistenersofpoetry.Theserandomselectionsbetrayacriticalpattern.Earlybayadhs
containonlystraycoupletsandnamesofpoetsbutlateronesincludealsoashortnoteonthepoet,thus
providingthestructureofthetadhkiras(selectedcoupletswithshortnotesonthepoetsarrangedeither
alphabeticallyoraccordingtotheirspecificperiods).Theseshortnotessometimescontainedcriticalcomments
andwereillustrativeofpoetictaste.Scoresofsuchtadhkiraswerecompiledoveralongperiodoftwocenturies.
Theirperiodizationindicatesanawarenessofliteraryhistory,theircategorizationofpoetsexpressescritical
standards,andtheircommentsthoughoftenstylizedshowcriticaljudgement.

AmongthemarethecompilationsofMirTaqiMir,MirHasan,Gurdezi,GhulamHamdaniMushafi,Qudratullah
Shauq,QudratullahQasimandNawabMustafaKhanShefta.Butbeforediscussingtheircriticalsignifiance,two
moreinstitutionsdeservementionthemusairaandthetutorpupiltradition.

Musaira
Datingfromthe18thcentury,thetitlewasreservedforpoeticsymposiawherePersianghazalswritteninthe
samemetricalandrhymeschemeusedtoberecited.PoeticsymposiaforUrdughazalswerecalledmurakhta
and,lateron,musairacametobeusedforUrdughazalsymposiaalso.

Themaincomponentsofthemusairaarethepoets,thelisteners(ofhighliterarytaste)andtheghazalswith
commonmetricalschemeandrhyme.Thustheaudiencehadanoccasiontojudgehowaparticularpoetused
thesamerhymewithinthesamemetrewithacumenandimagination.

Hereanewcriticalstandardwasbeingevolvedwherecreative,correctandimaginativeuseofwordswas
judgedasacriterionofthepoeticart.Themusairasbeingpublicrecital,naturallyrequiredreadywit,quick
imaginationandgripovercreativeuseofwordsandaboveallcomminicabilityofthought,emotion,symbols
andrapportbetweenthepoetandtheaudience.

Thesecondinterrealtedinstitutionwasthatofthepoettutorrelationship,duringwhichnewwrittenandunwritten
traditionsandconventionsweresetup.Practicalyalimportantpoetshadtheirstylesand,inordertoperpetuate
them,hadformulatedcertainprinciplesmainlyguidedbytheconceptsoffasahat(thelucidityarisingfromthe
useofappropriatewords,withpleasantsoundscompatiblewithothersoundsinamannerofconformingtothe
rulesofsyntaxandgrammar)andbalaghat(itcontainsallthequalitiesoffasahatwithanaddedqualityof
suggestinginveryfewwords,awholepanoramaoffeeling).Vocabularywasalwaysunderreview,and
antiquatedorunfamiliarwordswereregularlypruned.Longlistsofpoeticdosanddontsweredrawnupand
pupilswereadvisedtoabidestrictlybythem.Amongthedonts,forinstance,wastanafur(unpleasant
alliterationofsoundinadjacentwords),taqid(absurdityorlackofcommunicationarisingoutofeitherthe
breakingupofsyntacticalsequence(orofwords)oroflackofadequateexpressionofmeaning),zam
(alternativemeaningwithobscureorvulgarconnotations)andsustiebandis(lackofcrispnessandlucidityin
expressions).

Thetadhkirasmirrorthecriticaltemperamentnurturedbythesetwoageoldinstitutions.Mirwasthefirstto
classifythevariouspoeticstylesinvogueinhistimesinanepiloguetohistadhkiraendingwithhisownstyle
whichcalledforacautiousandcarefulblendingofcolloquialspeechwithlucidityandsublimityofpoetic
sensibility.(HesystematizesformsofpoeticdictionsuchascoupletswithonelineinPersianandtheotherin
Urdu,orhalfalineinPersianandtheotherhalfinUrduetc.)Hatimconcludeshistadhkirawithashortnoteon
theusageofcertainwordsandchangesinthepoeticidiomofhisage,astatementofsignificancetoliterary
historyaswellastocriticism.Again,theattempttocategorizecertainpoetsintodifferentperiodsortoevaluate

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theirpoeticworth,asseeninthetadhkirasofMirHasan,QudratullahQasimandKarimuddinshedsomelighton
thecriticalstandardsoftheperiod.

Itisundoubtedlydifficulttoevolveacoherenttheoryofcriticismfromthestrayreflectionsscatteredinthese
tadhkiras.Yetartseemstobeareflectionorimitationthroughimaginationofthecommonsocioculturalethos
ratherthanofindividualrealityexpressedthroughsociallyacceptednormsanddiction.Myth,history,mysticism,
ethicsandhumanrelationshipsmainlyromanticweretheacceptedthemestobedealtwithinapproved
poeticidiom,andcriticismwasusedtoguardthesenormsjealouslythroughvariousinstitutionsandtheir
unwrittenlaws.

WesternImpact
Bytheendofthe18thcentury,moreparticularlybythebeginningofthe19thcentury,withtheestablishmentof
theDelhiCollege(1825)andtheFortWilliamCollege,(18013),anewawarenesspenetratedtheliterary
standardsasseenintheeditorialnotesofMasterRamChandersjournalMahibbiHind(185556)criticisingthe
ghazalsrecitedinthemusairasinDelhiandaccentuatedthemwiththe1857debacle.SirSyedAhmadKhans
(181798)movementforsocialreformandenlightenmentbroughtaboutanewconsciousnessofliteratureand
itscloserelationshipwithsociety.TheideaofnaturalpoetryemanatedfromSirSyedandwaselaboratedbyHali
(AltafHusain)inhiscelebratedprefacetohisDivan,MuqaddamaiSeroSairi(Divanisgenerallyacollectionof
ghazalsarrangedalphabetically,rhymewise)discardingallstylizedconventionalpoetryandlayingemphasis
on(i)narrativeanddescriptivepoetrywithcompactnessandcoherenceand(ii)poetrydepictingthenaturaland
realemotionsandexperiencesoflifeand(iii)poetrywithasocialpurpose.

HalisMuqaddamaiSeroSairi,therefore,markedaturningpointinthehistoryofUrducriticism.Mainlyinspired
byMilton,hiscriticaltheoryrestedontheconceptsofthesimple,sensuousandpassionatethought.Haligave
hisowninterpretationtothesetermstomakethemrelevanttoUrdupoetryandalsotohisideasofsocialreform
asembodiedinhislongpoemMusaddasiHaliorMaddoJazriIslam(EbbandFlowofIslam.Itisapoem
depictingtheriseandfallofMuslims).

Haliwagedalonebattleagainsttheunrealworldofconventionalismand
imagination.Hechampionsthecauseofthisworldliness.Evenwhenhelists
imaginationasoneofthenecessarycomponentsofallart,heneverforgetsto
advisesomeclippingofthewingsofimaginationtoguardagainsthyperbole
andunbridledexaggeration,whichwasdeemedtobeacornerstoneofpoetry
intheEastforlong.

TheaestheteShibli(Shibli,b.1914}inthecourseofhisvoluminousSerulAjam,aliteraryhistoryofPersia,
developedacriticaltheorybasedonthetwinconceptsoftakhayyul(imagination)andmahakat(depictionof
internalfeelingsmotivatedbyexternalstimuli).EvidentlyinfluencedbyCarlyle,Shibli,howeverdoesnotname
imaginationasasourceofallknowledge.Forhim,imaginationismerelyanorganizerofallperceptionintoa
compactwhole.Whatgivesititsartisticvalueevensurpassingthelimitationsofpaintingisthepowerofdepiction
(Mahakat)whichdepictsnotonlytherealbutalsotheinnerfeelingsandemotionsinamannernotpossiblein
anyotherartform.

In1874,undertheinspirationofColonelHolroydinLahore,AnjumaniPunjab(anorganisationmainlydevoted
tothepreparationofUrdutextbooks)heldadifferenttypeofmusairawherethemesandtopicsinsteadofrhyme
andmetrewerecirculatedamongpoetswhowereaskedtowritecompactandcoherentpoemsonthem.This
markedthebirthofanewgenrenazm(acompactpoeticcompositionwithasinglethemeunlikethecoupletsof
ghazalwhicharenotnecessarilyofthesametheme)inUrdu.TheorganizerofthemusairawasMuhammad
HusainAzad(18321910),whoblossomedintoanepochmakingcriticandliteraryhistorianofalltime.Though
primarilyanessayistwitharemarkableliterarystyleofhisown,hisAbiHayat(FountainofEternity)wasnotonly
thefirstauthentichistoryofUrdupoetrybutalsoagalleryofsketchesofimmortalpoetswithanunmistakable
aromaoftheirculturalandsocialmilieu.Hisassessmentofpoetsexpressedinmetaphoricalandallegorical
terms,thoughoftenruthlesslycriticized,hasseldombeenimprovedupon.

AzadinhisprefacetohispoeticcollectionMajmuaNazmiAzad(CollectionofAzadsPoems,1885)haslaid
greatemphasisonfaithfuldepictionofrealityandcriticizedtheexcessiveuseofmetaphorandhyperbolein
Urdupoetry,which,accordingtohim,robsitofnaturalrealism.

Todrivethepointhome,AzadcomparesthedepictionofthesamescenesinBrijBhashaandUrduandremarks
thatinUrduthepoetreadilytakestosimilesandmetaphorsandignoresthedepictionoftherealityandits
componentsalongwiththeirmaterialdetails.

ThusthegoldenperiodofUrducriticismwasdedicatedtothisworldliness.Themainendeavourofthecriticswas
tobringpoetrybacktothecontemporarysensibilityandtomakeitsociallypurposive.Theneed,perhaps,arose
duetothebifurcation,forthefirsttime,betweentheindividualandthesocialethoswhichwereuptillnow
somewhatunified.Themiddleclasswasbeingbornanditwantedtobesureofitsownrealitiesanditsseparate

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sensibility.TheTransIndividualofLucienGoldmannwasincreasinglysuccumbingtotheresponsesofthe
newlyemergingmiddleclass.

Theimpactwastrulyepochmaking.Hostsofwritersandpoetsemergedasharbingersofthenew
consciousness.WithoutthetrioofHali,ShibliandAzad,therewouldnothavebeenpoetslikeIqbal.Chakbast
andAkbarAllahabadiandprosewriterslikeNazirAhmad,RatanNathSarshar,AbdulHalimShararandMirza
MohammadHadiRuswa.TheFirstWorldWarmarkedthehighwatermarkofthiscriticalconsciousness,forit
wasin1914thatbothHaliandShiblibreathedtheirlast.

RomanticistsandComparatists
Bytheturnofthe19thcentury,writersandcriticshadtakentoromanticism.Criticism,too,echoedthesamevoice
andsoonafterwardscriticslikeSajjadAnsariandAbdurRahmanBijnoriandNiazFatehpuriemergedas
pioneersofthenewmood.SajjadAnsariwasprimarilyanessayistwithaestheticsashisreligionbuthiscritical
opinionsdidcarryweightwithhiscontemporaries.

AbdurRahmanBijnorishotintoprominencewithhisincompleteprefacetoanewversionofGhalibsDivanmost
ofwhichwasrejectedbythepoetandwashencelyinginacornerofaBhopalLibrary.Bijnoribeganhispreface
withtheastoundingsentence:ThereareonlytwodivinebooksofIndiatheHolyVedasandGhalibsDivan.
Herewasabrandnewvoiceofcriticism,fullofthezestofavibrantpersonality.Criticismtohimwasnomere
assessmentofapoetseffusionsintermsofhispersonalityandhisageorintermsofthecriteriaacceptedas
genuineorvalidbutarediscovery,evenreshaping,oftheseexperiencesbythecritichimselfandrepresentingit
asawonderlandofhisownsensibilities.

InthecourseofthisvoyageofGhalibsdiscovery,Bijnoricutsacrosstheboundariesofregionandlanguageand
endeavourstostudyGhalibinthelightprovidedbythestudyofgreatmasterslikeGoethe,RembrandtandHafiz,
thusprovidinganewbasisforcomparativecriticisminUrdu.WhileBijnoriscriticalopinionswerenotwithout
exaggeration,yet,hispioneeringeffortsinintroducingworldstandardsinUrduliteraryevaluationsandhis
attemptsatthepopularizationofstandardsofcomparativecriticismdeserverecognition.Withhim,western
criticalstandardsassumednewcreativedimensions.

NiyazFatehpuri,ontheotherhand,wasathoroughorientalist,bornandbredinthetraditionsofPersianand
Arabicpoetics,thoughhegothimselfacquaintedwithmodernwesternnorms.Niyaz,infact,introduced
romanticisminUrdufictionandstartedhighlysentimentalpoeticprosebutinthefieldofcriticism,hewasa
thoroughclassicistwhoinsistedonthestrictobservanceofallnormsoftheoldentimes.Hispreferenceofthe
lovelyricist,Momin(Momin,180052),overGhalib(Ghalib,17961869),becausetheclassicaldefinitionof
ghazalwasrestrictedtothatofalovelyric,orhispreferenceofAliAkhtar(AliAkhtar,18991972)overthe
famouspoetJoshMalihabadi(JoshMalihabadi,b.1896),orhistrenchentcritiqueofJigarMoradabadisghazals
(JigarMoradabadi,18901961),towhichhedevotedaspecialnumberofhisliterarymonthlyNigarallpointto
hisadherencetothenormsofclassicalformalism.

TextualCriticismandLiteraryHistory
Butatthisstage,twonewtrendsappearedontheliterarysceneemergenceoftextualcriticismandthe
compilationofliteraryhistory.Eventoday,literarytextsinUrdulieburiedinoblivion,andthosewhichareknown
tosomeextentneedpropereditingtobemadeavailableintheirauthenticform.AbdulHaq(18721960)and
MohiuddinQadriZor(MuhiuddinQadriZor,19041964)discoveredanumberofhighlyvaluableliterarytexts
andpublishedthemwithlearnedintroductions,thoughnotalwayseditedproperly.Theworkwasimprovedupon
byeminentresearcherslikeHafizMahmudShirani(1942),MasudHasanRidhvi(18931975),ImtiazAliArshi(b.
1895),andQaziAbdulWaddud(18951984).

Theireffortsanddiscoveriesparticularlythoseofthefirsttwoscholarspertainingtotheliteraryworkswritten
inDeccaninthe15thand16thcenturiesextendedtheperiodofliteraryfruitionoftheUrdulanguagebyseveral
centuries.Itwasinthisperiodthatliteraryhistorywasconceivedasatotalviewofallliterarygenresand
presentedasacontinuumofthesocialandculturalethosofanation.Uptillnow,poetryalonewastakeninto
considerationbutRamBabuSaxenasHistoryofUrduLiterature(1927)forthefirsttimesurveyedthewhole
spanoflanguageandliteratureasoneunitand,eventhoughcursorily,didmakeanattempttostudyliteraturein
itstotality.Thebook,originallywritteninEnglish,waslatertranslatedintoUrdu(TarikhiAdabiUrdu)byMirza
MuhammadAskari.

Bythistime,therhetoriciansandformalistscameintovoguewhileparalleltothemanothertrendofcritical
liberalismwhichdrewuponthewesternandorientalcanonsofcriticismalsocontinuedtoflourish.Yet,themost
significantcriticalwritingoftheperiodwasthedespatchesofMirzaMuhammadHadiRuswa,whotriedto
discussthetheoreticalaspectofliterarycriticisminthelightofAvicennasanatomicaltheoriesandtriedto
connectliterarytastewiththephysiologicalvitaeofhumanbeings.

AnothermajordevelopmentwasmarkedbythepublicationofMasudHasanRidhvisHamariSairi(OurPoetry,
1926)whichtriedtoreinterpretthescopeandsignificanceoftheseeminglynarrowfieldoflovelyricpoetryof

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ghazal.Heexplainedthemultidimensionalsymbolismofghazalandintheprocess,soughttoreviewthecritical
standardssetbyHaliinhiscelebratedPrefacetohisUrduDivantheconceptsoftheSimple,theSensuous,and
thePassionate.

ThecriticalwritingsofcreativewriterslikeFiraqGorakhpuri(18961982),RashidAhmadSiddiqi(18981976)the
formeralyricalpoetandthelatterarenownedsatiristandhumoristgavecriticismanenliveningtouchof
impressionism.Forthemeverycriticalreappraisalwas,infact,therecreation(bytheartisticsensibility)ofan
intelligentreaderoutoftheoriginalpoetsworks.Andinthisprocess,literarytaste,thereadersownexperience
andsensibilityratherthanthesetnormsandstandardsofthelawmakersprovideadependableguide.

ThenewcriticismhasbynowfounditsmooringsintheEnglisheducatedmiddleclasswhichwasseekingto
reinterpretandenjoyUrduliteratureaccordingtotheenlightenmentprovidedbywesterneducation.This
rationalizationoftheirliterarytastewasdifferentnotonlyfromtheclassicalnormsbutalsofromHaliandShibli,
whichgaverisetocriticalliberalismandanewkindofpersonalizedcriticalessays.

ProgressivesandRadicals
Towardstheendofthetwenties,thestrugglefornationalindependenceassumedanewurgencywhilethe
emergenceofFascismandvariousformsofauthoritarianismandthestrugglesagainstthembroughtabout
radicalchangesinthecontemporarysensibility.In1936,itculminatedinthesettingupoftheProgressive
WritersAssociation,thefirstsessionofwhichwasheldinLucknowunderthepresidentshipofMunshi
Premchand(18801936).Inhispresidentialaddress,heunequivocallydeclaredtheneedofbringingabouta
changeinoursenseofBeauty.

InUrdu,thischangewasmarkedinthecriticalarticlesofAkhtarHusainRaipuri(b.1910),AhmadAli(b.1912),
nowinPakistan,and,muchmoreauthentically,inMajnuGorakhpuris(b.1904)AdabAurZindagi(Literature
andLife).Thefirsttwocriticswenttotheextentofcastigatingallclassicalliteratureasfeudalandhence
decadentandelitistincharacter,thusjudgingliteraturebyitsclassrootsandtheideologyitcommunicates.
Ideasweremainlydiscussedintermsoftheirsocialimplicationsandliteraryjudgementwassubjectedtoclass
considerations.Majnuand,afterhim,thecelebratedProgressivecritic,SyedEhteshamHusain(191272)
appliedthesestandardsprovidedbytheunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweenliteratureandsocietyina
morescientificmanner.Forthem,whatwasimportantwastheworkingofthesocialprocessasreflectedand
influencedbytheworkofart.

Thiswasnotamechanicalrelationshipbuttheexpressionofnotonlytheindividualbutalsothetransindividual
andthecollectiveethosoftheage.Thisresoundsinthatparticularageandalsointhetimestocometillthe
socialstructurekeepsthesevaluesalive.

Foraboutthreedecades,Progressivismremainedthedominantcriticaltheoryandgavebirthtowriterslike
SajjadZaheer(190576),thefounderofthemovement,SardarJafri(b.1913),MumtazHusain(b.1924)nowin
Pakistanandothers,withthreetangiblegains.Firstly,itlinkedupliterarycriticismwithawiderandmuchmore
scientificunderstandingofsociallifeandhencewithallbranchesofknowledgewithdirectandindirectbearing.
Thecriticwasmuchmorewideawakeandbroughttobearnewtoolsofanalysisoncriticalassessment,which
appearedtobebreakingitsmorbidlinkswithmetaphysics.

Secondly,newrespectabilitywasgainedbyfolkliteratureandfolkartists.InUrdu,forinstance,NazirAkbarabadi
(17351830),thefolkpoetwhosangofmundaneeverydayobjects,wasrediscoveredbyliterarycriticsasthe
harbingerofthedemocraticurgesofthepeople.Thirdly,newinsightwasbroughttobearuponthevoiceof
socialprotestasmanifestedinclassicalliterature,particularlyinthemedievalmysticpoetry,andintheprocess
soughttodelvedeepintothesocialrootsofthecreativeprocessanditsimpactoncontemporarysensibility.
ProgressiveCriticismhasoftenbeendeemedamonolith.Itscriticshavebeentakentoholdthesameapproach.
Infact,itrangesfromcriticsofsociologicalbiastothosewithaclearMarxistsenseofclassanalysis.Now,when
manymorevariationsintheMarxistunderstandingofliteratureattheinternationallevelhaveemergedranging
fromCaudwelandRalphFoxtoGeorgeLukacs,BertoldBrecht,RaymondWilliamsandTerryEagleton,these
finershadesofcriticismcanalsobeidentifiedinUrdu.

EclecticsandLiberals
SidebysidewithMarxistandsociologicalcriticism,thereranaparallelthreadofnonMarxist,rathereclectic
criticismmainlyinspiredbyF.R.LeavisandT.S.Eliot,andtoalesserextent,bytheideasoftheFrench
Decadents.KalimuddinAhmad,withhisrigidapplicationofthedefinitionofpoetryasawellintegrated
compositionofthoughtandemotionsgivingaestheticdelightthroughitssenseofunity,soughttointroducea
newconceptofForminUrducriticism.AliAhmadSuroor(b.1911)withhisradianteclecticismgaveawider
awarenesswhileMuhammadHasanAskari(191478),wholatermigratedtoPakistan,triedtolendatouchof
metaphysicstothecriticalconcepts.

Later,anotherrevivaloftheNewCriticismattractedattentionaround1960whichgaveprimacytotheformal
analysisofthetext,advocatingtheabandonmentofallsociologicalconsiderationsfromthecriticalorbitit

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adverselyaffectsartisticappreciationofapieceofart.Underthebannerofmodernity,manytrendssawthelight
ofdayrangingfromclosetextanalysisandstylisticstothecrisisofcommunicationandwaysandmeansto
overcomeit.Symbolismanduseofesoterictermscameintovogue.TheNewcritics,however,areyettomake
theirmark.

PakistanScene
ItwillbepropertomentionthedevelopmentofUrducriticisminPakistan,forthishasaffectedthepaceofUrdu
criticisminIndia.SoonafterPartition,ProgressivismwastabooedinPakistanandintheirzealforfindinganew
criticalidiomtosuitthepoliticalsearchforanidentityinreligion,somePakistanicriticsstartedoveremphasizing
theroleofreligionandmetaphysicsincriticalunderstanding.AmongthemwereAskarifollowedbyyounger
criticslikeSalimAhmad(b.1944)andFatehMohammadMalik(b.1936),JilaniKamran(b.1944)andothers.
Theytriedtolinkupliteraturewiththereligiousethosofanation.Anothersetofwriterstriedtointroduce
archetypalcriticisminUrdu.VazirAgha(b.1940)inhisUrduSairiKaMizaj(TemperamentofUrduPoetry)tried
toanalyseUrdupoetryinthecontextoftheAryanarchetypeandtheChinesetheoryofitsdevelopment.Other
rigidlyformalistcriticsincludeIftekharJalib(b.1938)whilethemorebalancedcriticswhoblendliterary
standardswiththetoolsprovidedbypsychologyandsociologyincludeSalimAkhtar(b.1940),MohammadAli
Siddiqi(b.1938),nowinPakistan,andJamilJalibi(b.1928).ButthisformaltrendinPakistanhasaffectedits
counterpartinIndiatoo.

Summary
UrduisprobablytheonlyliterarytraditioninIndiawhichentirelybaseditselfontheconceptsandmethodologyof
Sanskritpoeticsbuthasinsistedondevelopingitsowncriticalstandards.Inthisrespect,itsclassicalcriticism
needsspecialattentionforittriedtocombinetheessentialsoftheindigenoussensibilitywiththecanonsof
OrientalcriticismasprevalentinWestandCentralAsiaatraditionnotwhollyalientotheIndiangenius.
Certainly,itisdifficulttonameoneortwotreatiseswhichmaybedeemedassourcebooksofallsuchcritical
concepts,yetthedevelopmentoftheseconceptsdidtakeplace.

ItshouldbenotedthatArabictranslationsoftheworksofPlatoandAristotledidplayanimportantrolein
acquaintingtheworldwiththethoughtsofthesehighlysignificantthinkersandthesethoughtsincludedthe
formulationsofcriticalimport.Thetranslations,however,werenotalwaysveryfaithfultotheoriginalsbutthe
ideaofmimesis(imitationreproduction/representation)didappealtotheArabmindandthroughittothe
Persians,TurksandothersinWestandCentralAsia.Thusthegenesiswasthatthepoetpresentsthesoulof
thematerialobjectandthebeautyoftheworkofartevokeskindredresponseintheheartofthelistenerorreader
becauseoftheaestheticaffinityfoundinthematerialobjects(ofitsrepresentation)andthelistenerorreader.
Bothareunitedinthedivinepowerofimagination,whichmagnifies,orbelittlesthingsandobjects,createsnew
relationshipsbetweenthemandrefashionsthemintonewunits.

Thisleftarespectablemarginforthehyperboleandtheartisticuseofexaggerationwhichwasaprerogativeof
thecreativewriter.Thisdevelopedintoahighlystylisedjargon,detractingpoetryandprosefromfaithful
depictionwithexactitudeandprecision.

Butpoetrysoondevelopedtobecomesuchanintegralpartofsociallifethatnolivelyconversationor
communicationwaspossiblewithoutanaptpoeticquotation.Themusairagavethisconventionagreatersocial
cohesionandcommunicabilityandthetraditionofpoettutorpoetstudentshipestablisheditasacontinuum.This
resultedinfocussingattentiononform,rhythmandrhyme,andaboveall,onthelucidityandstandardizationof
language.AtleasttwocriticaltermsAdabandiandSahliMumtinawerebasedonthesimplecolloquialidiom
ofeverydayspeech.Adabandiconcentratedonversifyingthecommoneverydayactionormoodinsuch
coupletsasthefollowing:

Garnazninkaheseburamantehotum
Meritaraftodekhiyemainniizninsahi

Ifyouresenttobeaddressedasadelicatebeauty,
Justlookatme,youmaycallmeone.(tr.)

Apkepaonkenichedilhai
Ekzaraapkozahmathogi

Myheartisbeneathyourheel.
Takeatrifletrouble,SothatImaytakeitout.(tr.)

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TheHistoryofLiteraryCriticisminUrduAsriAdab:TheDefiniteUrduJournal

SahliMumtinawastheartofversifyinginthesimplestwordssoastoretaintheproseorderinitsoriginalform,
asinthefollowingcoupletsofGhalibandMomin:

Dilenadantujhehuakyahai
Akhirisdardkidawakyahai

Myheart,whatailsyou?
Whatis,afterall,thecureofyourailment.?(Ghalib)

Tummerepashotehogaya
Jabkoidusranahinhota.

Youremainwithme
Whennooneis.(Momin)

Thisstrongbondofcriticalsensibilitywithsocialcommunicabilityremainsoneofthedistinguishingfeaturesof
Urducriticism.Eveninprosetales,whichintheearlyphaseshadbeenassociatedwiththetraditionofdiistiina
longextemporeprosetalenarratedtoanaudiencesocialcommunicabilitywasthenacriterionalongwithpurity
andlucidityoflanguageandcatholicityofexpression.

WiththeadventoftheBritish,westerninfluencesbegantoplayamajorroleindeterminingthecriticalmood,but
despiteallpervasiveness,thesecouldnotsupplantthelongingfortheghazalandtheretentionofasignificant
segmentoftheclassicalcriticalidiomessentialfortheevaluationofthegenre.Hence,Urducriticismretainsits
classicalbase,atleasttoacertainextent,eventoday,thoughithas,byandlarge,acceptedwesterncriticismas
itsmodel.

WiththeadventofIndependence,regionallanguagesandtheirliteraturescameintoprominence.Awarenessof
thevariousgenrespopularintheseregionalliteraturesandthetoolsofcriticisminvoguefortheirassessment
alsogrew.Urducriticismalsobenefitedfromthisawarenessandmodemsensibility,hasfalleninlinewiththe
generalmoodofvariousotherliteratures,facingthesamestressesandstrainswhichhappentobethe
predicamentofthemodemworldanditsliteraryconsciousness.

===============================================

BIBLIOGRAPHY

URDU
1.Ahmad,Kalimuddin,UrduTanqidParEkNazar,Patna,1944.
2.Ahmad,Mumtaz,UrduSuaraMeinTanqidiDaur,Patna,1963.
3.Husain,Ehtesham,TanqidiNazariyat(2vols.),Lucknow,1956.
4.Masihuzzaman,UrduTanqidKiTarikh,Allahabad,1952.
5.Rahman,Abdur,MiratusSer,2nded.,Lucknow,1978.

ENGLISH
1.Nagendra(ed.),UrduCriticisminLiteraryCriticisminIndia,1976.
2.Qadir,Abdul,ModernUrduLiterature,Lahore,1940.
3.Sadiq,Mohammad,AShortHistoryofUrduLiteratureOxford,1964.
4.TheCulturalHeritageofIndia,vol.V,RamakrishnaMission,Calcutta,1979(articleonUrducriticism).

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