Principles of Operation
of Synchronous Machines
154
Appendix
Fig.A-I The hydroelectric generator from Lauffen, now in the Deutsches Museum,
Munich. (Extracted with permission from "The Evolution of the SynchronousMachine" by Gerhard Neidhofer, 1992, ABB.)
A.2 CONSTRUCTION
Synchronous machines come in all sizes and shapes, from the permanent magnet
synchronous motorin wall clocks, to the largest steam-turbine-driven generators
of 1500MWor more. Synchronous machines are one of two types: the stationary
field or the rotating DC magnetic field.
ISS
156
Appendix
Stator
slots
Stator
core
Pole face
Rotor
winding
(a)
(b)
to start the motor or condenser under its own power as an induction motor, and
take it unloaded to almostsynchronous speed, when the rotoris "pulledin" by the
synchronous torque. The winding also servesto damp the oscillations of the rotor
aroundthe synchronous speed, and is therefore namedthe damping winding (also
known as amortisseurs).
A.3 OPERATION
It is convenient to introduce the fundamental principles describing the operation
of a synchronous machine in terms of an ideal cylindrical-rotor machine connected to an infinite bus. The infinitebus represents a busbarof constantvoltage,
which can deliver or absorb active and reactive power without any limitations.
The ideal machine has zero resistance and leakage reactance, infinitepermeability, and no saturation, as well as zero reluctance torque.
The production of torque in the synchronous machine results from the natural tendency of two magnetic fields to align themselves. The magnetic field produced by the stationary armature is denoted as <t>s' The magnetic field produced
by the rotating field is 4>r The resultant magnetic field is
<1>,
= <1>s + <1>f
The flux <t> r is established in the airgap of the machine. (Bold symbols indicate
vectorquantities.)
157
When the torqueapplied to the shaft is zero, the magnetic fields of the rotor
and stator completely align themselves. The instant torque is introduced to the
shaft,either in a generating modeor in a motoring mode, and a smallangle is created between the stator and rotor fields. This angle (A) is called the torque angle
of the machine.
f
=120-p
158
Appendix
VI
EI
EI
VI
Lagging
<PI
Leading
<PI
I}
~s
...............
~F
~R
~R
~F
(a) Underexcited
VI
EI
~s
VI
E}
,
-,
"'" Leading
<PI
,,
"
~--+-~~',et>R
,
o \
\
\
\
\
\
Lagging
\
\
\
\
No-loador condenser
operation
Motor
operation
~F
~s
Generator
operation
(b) Overexcited
torque angle is used to indicate the load angle. The name torque angle is also
sometimes given to indicate the angle between the terminal voltage (V1) and the
excitation voltage (E j ) . This happens because the leakage reactance is generally
very much smaller than the magnetizing reactance, and therefore the load angle
159
(0) and the angle between (~) and (E J) are very similar. In this book, the more
commonname power angle is used for the angle between (VJ) and (E j). In Figure
A-3, the power angle is always shown as zero becausethe leakage impedance has
been neglected in the ideal machine.
It is importantat this stage to introducethe distinction betweenelectricaland
mechanical angles. In studying the performance of the synchronous machine, all
the electromagnetic calculations are carried out based on electric quantities; i.e.,
all angles are electrical angles. To convert the electrical angles used in the calculations to the physical mechanical angles we observe, the following relationship
applies:
mechanical angle = (
~ ) electrical angle
(per phase)
160
Appendix
It is important to note that when seen from the terminals, with the machine
operating in underexcited mode, the power factor angle (<PI) is leading (Le., II
leads VI)' This means the machine is absorbing reactive powerfrom the system.
The opposite occurs when the machine is in overexcited mode. As for the motor
operation, an overexcited condition in the generating mode alsoallows for greater
powerdeliveries.
As generators are normally calledto provide VARs together withwatts, they
are almostalways operated in the overexcited condition.
A.3.4 Equivalent Circuit
Machine
terminals
Fig. A4 Steady-state equivalentcircuit of a synchronous machine.
X
=leakagereactance
=armaturereactionreactance
Xa
Xs = Xa + X = synchronous reactance
Ra
= armatureresistance
Zs
= synchronous impedance
\j(~)
=terminalsvoltage
Em
= magnetizing voltage
161
If the active power flow of the synchronousmachine is kept constant, a family of curves can be obtained relating the magnitude of the armature current to
that of the field current. The curves, shaped as V (see Fig. A-6), are drawn for various load conditions. In the graph, the lagging and leading operating regions can
be discerned.
Physical considerations define the limits of operation of synchronous machines. These limits are expressed as a family of concentriccapability curves (see
Fig. A-7).
The top part of the rating curves is defined by the field winding heating
and insulation system.
The right side of the curves is limited by the heating of the armature and
the type of armature insulation.
The bottom part of the curves is limited by the heating of the core-end region.
Rating curves are normally drawn for a number of hydrogen pressures (in hydrogen-cooled machines), or for ambient temperatures (in air-cooled machines).
Both the rating curves and the V-curves can be combined in one graph. This
graph is used by the machine operators and protection engineers to set the limits
of safe operation on the machine.
162
Appendix
Iv
E-IZ=V
IZ
v
IZ
I
Leading power factor (overexcited)
163
1.6------w---.--.-----..--r---~-~-__r_-~-___.r__-_r__~
1.5 J---+----+---J----I-----1~-+_-_+_-_+_-_+-__i--i___i
1.4 L----L---+--~---&.--~-+__-_+_-__.._-___t_-___4~-+___i
1.0 PF . . + - - - + - - - ,
1.3 J----I----+--~----"-_I__-~_+__I__-~-_+-~:--+___4
~-....+-0.95PF
0.95 PF
1.2 J---~--+--~----"--I__I__~_+__I__4~-___+_-~--+___4
0.90PF
C 1.1
.
..
::s
u
0.85 PF
1.0
0.9
0.80 PF
8~
0.8
.!.
'0 0.7
>
I
bO
Q)
....e
'2
0.6
...
::I
~ 0.5
~to---I-----6--
0.1 ...-...--1----...-.-...........
00
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
164
Appendix
Limited by stator-core
heating and field heating
120
00
c:
.~ 100
~
'-'
80
QJ
60
.~
0
~ 40
(/)
8- 20
s
~
-0
>
~
t)O
0 1------+----+---I----I----4----1-t----6--+--I--..-+---... Megawatts
80 100
20 40 60
160
20
Stability limit for
40~-~~~~~~-~-~~~~~~-~~~vokage~gulator
0.95 PF
0.90PF
80 I----+-I----+--I---~---+-~-.----~+----+------It---....f_-__+_-___t
0.85 PF
100~-~--+--_+-___f--~--+-~~---+--+__-_+_-__+_-__l
Fig. A-7
0.80PF
0.70PF
165
The term "volts per hertz" has been borrowed from the operation of transformers. In transformers, thefundamental voltage equation is given by:
turns
where B max is the vector magnitude of the flux density in the core of the transformer.
By rearrangingthe variables, the followingexpression is obtained:
V/ f
or alternatively,
Bmax [Tesla] = constant> (V/f)
This last equation indicates that the maximum flux density in the core of a
transformeris proportionalto the terminal voltage divided by the frequencyof the
supply voltage. This ratio is known as V/Hz.
A set of equations very similar to the ones above can be written for the armature of an alternate-current machine. In this case, the constant includes winding parameters such as winding pitch and distribution factors. However, the end
result is the same; i.e., in the armature of an electrical alternate current machine,
the maximumcore flux density is proportional to the terminal voltage divided by
the supply frequency (or VlHz).
166
Appendix
Bmax
B max - - t - - - - & . - - - + - #
rated
I mag
rated
Magnetizing
currrent
167
Areaof additional
hysteresis losses
H(Nm)
Hysteresis loop
for rated V/HZ
Hysteresis loop
for increased V/HZ
A 3-phase balanced supply voltage applied to a symmetrical 3-phase winding generates a constant-magnitude flux in the airgap of the machine, which rotates at synchronous speed aroundthe circumference of the machine. In addition,
the slots and other asymmetries within the magnetic path of the flux create lowmagnitude space harmonics; i.e., fluxes that rotate in both directions, of multiple
frequencies of the fundamental supply frequency. In a synchronous machine, the
main (fundamental) flux rotates in the same direction and speed as the rotor.
It happens that whenthe supplyvoltage or currents are unbalanced, an additional flux of fundamental frequency appears in the airgapof the machine. However,this flux rotatesin the opposite direction from the rotor. This flux induces in
the rotor windings and body voltages and currents with twice the fundamental
frequency. These are called negative-sequence currents and voltages.
There are several abnormal operating conditions that give rise to large currents flowing in the forging of the rotor, rotor wedges, teeth, end rings, and field
windings of synchronous machines. These conditions include unbalanced armature current(producing negative-sequence currents) as wellas asynchronous motoringor generation (operation with loss of field), producing alternate stray rotor
currents. The resultant stray rotorcurrents tend to flow on the surfaceof the rotor,
generating (/2)2 R losses with rapid overheating of critical rotor components. If
168
Appendix
not properly controlled, serious.damage to the rotor will ensue. Of particularconcern is damageto the end rings and wedges of round rotors (see Fig. A-I0).
For all practical purposes, all large synchronous machines have installed
protective relays that will remove the machine from operation under excessive
negative sequence current operation. To properly "set" the protective relays, the
operator should obtain maximum allowable negative sequence "/2" values from
the machine's manufacturer. The values shown in Table A-I are contained in
ANSIIIEEE C50.13-1977 [2] as values of continuous 12 current to be withstood
by a generator without injury, while exceeding neither rated kVA nor 105% of
rated voltage.
TABLE A-I. Values of Permissible /2 Current in a Generator
Type of Generator
Permissible /2 as % of RatedStatorCurrent
Salient-pole:
Withconnected amortisseur winding
Without connected amortisseur winding
10
Cylindrical-rotor.'
Indirectly cooled
Directlycooled up to 950 MVA
10
951-1,200MVA
1,200-1,500 MVA
Permissible (/2Yt
40
30
30
30
(10-5/800)(MVA-800)
169
80 __- - -
-----r-------r------,
60 J-----~---_+---__I:._~-_t
t\"
f
CC)
t----------l~~____4~~~~-__t
20 t----#---+~~-"",.-----_+_~.....__
10
Fig. A-tO
20
--.t(s)
_4
40
170
Appendix
A.4.3 Overspeed
REFERENCES
[1] ANSI C50.30-1972/IEEE Std 67-1972, "IEEE Guide for Operation and
Maintenance of Turbine Generators."
[2] ANSIIIEEE C50.13-1977, "Requirements for Cylindrical-RotorSynchronous
Generators."
ADDITIONAL READING
A wealthof literature exists for the reader interested in a more in-depth understanding of synchronous machine theory. The following is only a very short
list of textbooks readily available describing the operation and designof synchronous machines in a manneraccessible to the uninitiated.