INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO GROUND IMPROVEMENT

Ground Improvement refers to a technique that improves the
engineering properties of the soil mass treated. Usually, the properties
that are modified are shear strength, stiffness and permeability.
Ground improvement has developed into a sophisticated tool to
support foundations for a wide variety of structures. Properly applied,
i.e. after giving due consideration to the nature of the ground being
improved and the type and sensitivity of the structures being built,
ground improvement often reduces direct costs and saves time.

Need for Ground Improvement

Mechanical properties of soil are not adequate.

Swelling and shrinkage
Collapsible soils
Soft soils
Organic soils and peaty soil
Sands and gravelly deposits, karst deposits with sinkhole formations
Foundations on dumps and sanitary landfills
Handling hazardous materials in contact with soil.
Use of old mine pits

Here I discuss Ground Improvement by STONE COLUMN and PREFABRICATED

VERTICAL DRAIN techniqes.

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literature review on stone column and pvd

RA Barron (1944) presented the first comprehensive theoretical solution to the vertical
drain assisted consolidation of soft soil, based on existing solutions for one dimensional
vertical consolidation[ Terzaghi (1925)] . His analysis was based on the following
assumptions:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)

Darcys flow law is valid.

Soil is saturated and homogeneous.
Consolidation displacement is in vertical direction.
Excess pore water pressure at the drain well surface is zero.
Soil beyond cylindrical boundary is impervious.
Excess pore water pressure at top boundary of the soil-mass is zero.
No vertical flow at the center cross-section of the soil mass.

Barron considered a single drain surrounded by single soil cylinder in his analysis. It
was assumed that the installation process of vertical drain does not affect the soil properties
adjacent to the drain, and permeability of the drain well was high enough for well resistance
to be neglected.

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S Hansbo (1981) proposed an approximate solution for vertical drain based on equal
strain hypothesis taking both smear and well resistance into account considering that rate of
flow of internal pore water can be measured by applying Darcys law. Hansbo modified the
equation developed by Barron by simplifying assumptions due to the physical dimensions
characteristics of the prefabricated drain and the effect of installations.
The modified expression of average degree of consolidation is given as
Uh=1- exp [

8
()

And F= F(n)+Fs+Fr.
Where F is the factor which express the additive effect due to the spacing of the drains
f(n).F(s) factor for Smear Effect .F(r) factor for well resistance. For the typical values of the
spacing ratio, of 20 or more, the spacing factor becomes

F (n) = ln [ ]-

To account for the disturbance during the installation a zone of reduced permeability was
assumed. The smear effect factor is given as:

= [( ) 1] ln( )

Where ds is the diameter of the disturbed Zone and kh is the co efficient of permeability in
the horizontal direction in the disturbed zone .
Since the PVD s have limited discharge capacity Hansbo introduced a drain resistance factor
Fr assuming that the Darcys law can be applied for flow along the vertical axis of the drain.
Well Resistance factor is given as: F r = z(L z) Kh/ qw.
Where, z is the distance from the drainage end of the drain. L is the drainage length when
drainage occurs from at both ends. K h= is the coefficient of permeability in the horizontal
directions qw is the discharge capacity of the drain at hydraulic gradient of 1.

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Hansbo also showed that the process of consolidation for a circular drain and the band
drain is almost the same, when the circular drain is assumed do have a circumference equal
to that of the band drain is d w= 2(b+t)/.
The discharge capacity of the PVD is a function of its filter permeability, cross sectional
area, lateral confining pressure & drain stiffness controlling its deformation.

Budhina Indraratna, A.S. Balasubramanium and P. Ratnayake (1994)

The Performance of an embankment constructed on a soft foundation stabilized with
vertical band drains was analyzed. The effectiveness of the vertical drains could be
evaluated by considering the excess pore water pressure, vertical and lateral displacement
& the surface settlement profile in relation to the consolidation behaviour of the soft clay.
For efficient vertical drains, the case study reveals, that the effect of the smear and well
resistance is negligible. In the short term the rate of dissipation of pore pressure at the
drain soil boundaries controls the drain efficiency, hence the consequent settlement. In the
long term (mere than 400 days) the concept of perfect drain seems realistic.
The short term, the assumption of zero excess pore pressure at the drain boundaries, over
estimates the vertical settlements but underestimates the lateral yield. For perfect drains,
although the prediction of initial or short term vertical settlement is conservative,
significant under predication of lateral movements is of greater concern. This is because the
propagation of failure surface is mainly a function of the incremental lateral displacement
within the upper soft clay.
Therefore to evaluate the stability of rapidly built embankment on soft clay, the excesspore-pressure condition in the drain boundaries must be correctly incorporated in the finite
element analysis at any given time.

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The study has shown that unless the un-dissipated excess-pore-pressure along the drain
boundaries are correctly accounted for, the vertical settlements and lateral displacement
cannot be predicted to an acceptable degree of accuracy. In this respect, additional
modification in the pore pressure shape function of the elements along the soil drain
boundaries is desirable.
The accurate prediction of lateral displacement requires careful assessment of soil
parameters corresponding to the actual stress path response in the field, during
embankment loading. The installation and vertical drains curtails lateral displacement
substantially, thereby reducing the risk of shear failure. The existence of rigid crust just
beneath the embankment can also resist lateral displacement, facilitating construction of
higher embankments.
The use of plain strain finite element analysis (CRISP) cannot be regarded superior to a
more powerful three dimensional analysis of flow into vertical drains.
Nevertheless, considering the relative simplicity of the modified cam clay theories and the
user friendly CRISP. The current analysis is justified in terms of both computational effort
and acceptable quality and prediction.

Jitendrapal Sharma & Daping Xiao (2000)

The authors using a large scale laboratory model examined the extent of smear zone. They
conducted a test experiment simulating smear and another with no smear. Excess pore
water pressure and moisture content was measured at seven different radial locations
within the test set up. Several samples for recording moisture content, and void ratio were
collected. They observed that the distribution of excess pore pressure due to drain
installation gave a clear indication of the extent of smear zone. The effect of
reconsolidation of the clay was found to be greater than of remoulding of the clay.
The extent of smear zone was also confirmed from the change in the void ratio of the clay
layer in the smear zone from the moisture content measurement.
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It was found that the radius of the smear zone is about Four times the radius of the
mandrel.
The alteration of in the properties of the clay layer due to mandrel insertion is caused by
reconsolidation due to dissipation of pore pressure and remoulding of the clay layer due to
shear applied by outer surface of the mandrel.

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They had proposed that the smear zone to be further divided in two zones
A remolded zone of limited extent close to the drain and
A reconsolidated zone of wider extent situated between remolded and
intact clay.
Cholachat Rujikiathkamjom & Buddima Indraratna (2009)
A study was presented by the authors on procedures of design of vertical drain. In this they
have significantly extended the earlier methods to includea. Linear reduction of lateral permeability in the smear Zone.
b. The effect of overlapping smear zones in a closely spaced drain net work.
c. The gain in untrained shear strength due to consolidation.

D.Basu, M.Prezzi .M.R.Madhav (2009)

The authors studied the 2D finite Element analysis of the effect of soil disturbance caused by
the installation of a vertical drain on the rate of consolidation. A rectangular pattern of PVD
installation was considered. Smear zone a zone of maximum disturbance was assumed to
exists on the immediate vicinity of the surrounding the PVD. A transition zone surrounding
the Smear zone ,where the effect of disturbance reduce gradually as the distance from the
PVD increases. The Hydraulic Conductivity in the transition zone is assumed to increase
linearly from a low value in the smear zone to the original in situ value in the un disturbed
zone.

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The extent of the soil disturbance ,size of the smear zone as well as that of the transition
zone, spacing of the PVD ,shape and size of mandrel was also investigated. Result of this
analysis was compared with that of an experimental study. It was observed that both the
results compare reasonably well.
Authors opined that, transition zone has a definite role in slowing the rate of consolidation.
Neglecting its, effect can lead to faulty estimation of consolidation and settlement.
Error in estimating the degree of consolidation caused by converting the rectangular unit cell
to equivalent circles will be less than 5%, .Accounting for the soil disturbance ,due to the
process of installation, reduces the error.
The factors relating to drain installation that affects the consolidation most are soil
disturbance, extent of the disturbed zone, shape and size of the mandrel.
For a particular degree of consolidation the time factor is related to the ratio of conductivity
of the Smear and undisturbed zone.
The transition Zone can be replaced by a equivalent smear zone with increased dimentions.
The extent of extra length of the smear zone depends on the degree of disturbance caused
by the installation.

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Giridhar Rajesh B; Radhakrishnan, R. and Dey A ; (2014)

The authors in their article provides a detail report about the plain strain Finite Element
modeling of an embankment pre-load resting on a soft soil site treated with PVD.
The preloading has been modeled as a stage construction sequence. The pressure of the
vertical drains has been modeled by considering the change of permeability of the soil
surrounding the drain. The efficiency of the PVD has been illustrated with the aid of
comparative Settlement at the centre of the embankment in the presence and absence of
PVDs. Application of PVDs aided in the reduction of the excess pore pressure generated at
the end of the loading by a significant amount, as well as resulted in the accelerated
dissipation of the accumulated pore pressure. The effect of smear has studied with the aid
of varying horizontal to vertical permeability ratio of the soil, which revealed that the in-situ
measurement most possibly corresponded to a kh/ks magnitude in the range of 3 to 4.

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STUDY ON GROUND IMPROVEMENT STONE COLUMN

TECHNIQUE
1. ABSTRACT
Ground improvement is an important requirement in todays construction industry as
land reclamation is becoming increasingly popular. The stone column technique is a
very efficient method of improving the strength parameters of soil like bearing
capacity and reducing consolidation settlement. It offers a much economical and
sustainable alternative to piling and deep foundation solutions. Ground improvement
when implemented through stone column technique aids in a much stable solution
to construction in weak cohesive soils. This is an attempt to discuss in detail about
this technique to improve soil stability, including its salient features, design
parameters, major functions and drawbacks.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
India has large coastline exceeding 6000kms. In view of the developments on coastal
areas in the recent past, large number of ports and industries are being built. In
addition, the availability of land for the development of commercial, housing,
industrial and transportation, infrastructure etc. are scarce particularly in urban
areas. This necessitated the use of land, which has weak strata, wherein the
geotechnical engineers are challenged by presence of different problematic soils with
varied engineering characteristics. Many of these areas are covered with thick soft
marine clay deposit, with very low shear strength and high compressibility. Out of
several techniques available for improving the weak strata, stone columns have been
used to a large extend for several applications. The design of stone column is still
empirical, based on past experience and needs field trials before execution .

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3. INFLUENCING FACTORS
3.1 Soil
Subsurface soils whose undrained shear strength range from 7 to 50 kPa or loose
sandy soils including silty or clayey sands represent a potential class of soils requiring
improvement by stone columns. Subsurface conditions for which stone columns are
in general not suited include sensitive clays and silts (sensitivity > 4) which lose
strength when vibrated and also where suitable bearing strata for resting the toe of
the column is not available under the weak strata

3.2 Treatment depth

The treatment depth with stone column for a given soil profile should be so
determined that the stone columns extend through the most significant compressible
strata that contribute to the settlement of the foundation. Average depth of stone
column accomplished in India may be around 15m, although with equipment
modification, higher depths beyond 20 m are now becoming widespread.

3.3 Area of treatment

Stone columns work most effectively when used for large area stabilization of the soil
mass. Their application in small groups beneath building foundations is limited and is
not being used. Thus, large loaded areas which apply uniform loading on foundation
soils, such as beneath embankments, tank farms and fills represent a major area of
application.

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4. PRINCIPLE
The stabilization of soils by displacing the soil radially, with the help of a deep
vibrator, refilling the resulting space with granular material and compacting the
same with the vibrator is called vibrostone columns or simply stone columns. In
other words, stone columns are constructed where in the soft soil is strengthened by
replacing a certain percentage of soil with aggregate. The aggregate column will act
as a drainage channel to release the excess pore water present in the subsoil. The
degree of improvement of soft soils by stone columns is because of the densification
of the surrounding soft soil during the installation of stone column itself and the
subsequent consolidation process occurring in soft soil before the final loading of
improved soil.

5. INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES
A. Non Displacement Method
The process of installation where soil is taken out during boring is called non displacement
type of installation.

Bored Rammed System:

The bored rammed stone columns are used in cohesive soils. In this technique, a
casing pipe is used to remove the cohesive soil protecting the sides of the bore, thus
minimizing disturbance to the surrounding soil. The stones are laid into the bore and
rammed to a larger diameter as the casing pipe is withdrawn. These columns achieve
their strength by the lateral restraint offered by the surrounding soil. It is therefore
very essential that the shear strength of the surrounding soil not be reduced by the
construction of the stone column. Hence, the stone column technique could be
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adopted in clays of low sensitivity. These columns also act as drainage paths to
accelerate settlements under loading.

B. Displacement Method
If the soil is laterally displaced while making the hole due to driving of a tube or
casing, it is the displacement type of boring.
.
Vibro Replacement Method:

In this method, creation of hole in the ground and compaction of granular fill
backfilled in the hole is done mechanically using a mechanical unit called vibrofloat.
Stone columns may be constructed using vibrofloat either by Wet process, which is
suitable for soft to firm soil with high water table condition where borehole stability
is questionable, or by dry process which is suitable for soils of relatively high initial
strength with low water table, where the hole can stand of its own upon extraction
of the probe, such as unsaturated fills.

Cased rammed stone column

Vibro replacement method.

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6. INSTALLATION PROCEDURE
To form a vibro-replacement point the vibrator with its follower tubes is placed over the
selected point by means of a suitable supporting rig (crane). After starting the motor the
vibrator is lowered into the ground. It simultaneously releases water from the lower jets
which remove the soft soil directly under the vibrofloat nose forming a hole. This operation
allows practically an unimpeded penetration of the vibrofloat into the soil under its own
weight. No increase in density of the soil is achieved during this operation of the probe
penetration. When the vibrofloat has reached the desired depth, the water supply to the
lower jet is reduced suitably and the top jets are put on. Wash water from these upper jets
returns to the ground surface through the annulus between the outside of the follow on
tubes and the crater sides. This upward flow maintains an open channel along the sides of
the vibrofloat permitting backfill material shoved from the surface to reach the bottom and
it also prevents the probe from sticking. The annular wash water flow is established by
raising (surging) the vibrofloat twice or thrice to clean the loose soft soils from the hole.
When the water flow continuously returns to the surface, the probe is raised by suitable lift,
say 1.5 m and the backfill is poured into the annular space between the poker and the side
walls of the hole. The vibrator is then lowered back into the hole between 0.70 to 0.80 m,
thereby creating a 0.7m length of stone column. The horizontal vibrations generated by the
poker drive the stones laterally into the soil to form a column of an enlarged diameter.
Combination of bottom and top water jets may also be used depending upon the soil.
Irrespective of the method used to construct the stone columns, the blanket laid over the
top of the stone columns should consist of clean medium to coarse sand compacted in
layers to a relative density of 75 to 80 percent. Minimum thickness of the compacted sand
blanket should be 0.5 m.

This blanket should be exposed to atmosphere at its periphery for pore water
pressure dissipation. Over the granular blanket, a geotextile mat is laid and then its again
covered with a granular blanket over which the foundation would rest. This is to uniformly
distribute the load coming on the the stone column and there by create a region of uniform
loading.

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A. Top Feed System

In the Top Feed System, the poker is completely withdrawn after initial penetration
to the design depth. Stone (12-75mm in size) is then tipped into the hole in
controlled volumes from the ground surface allowing fall under gravity to the bottom
side of hole.
The column is compacted in layers (the stone is forced downwards and outwards)
through continued penetration and withdrawal of the poker. The Top Feed System is
suitable if the hole formed by the poker will remain open during construction of the
column

B. Bottom Feed System

The gravel may be fed from a rig-mounted hopper through a permanent delivery
tube along the side of the poker, which bends inwards and allows the stone to exit at
the poker tip. This Bottom Feed process requires a smaller grade of stone (2-45mm).

By remaining in the ground during column construction, the poker cases its own hole
and hence is suited to ground with a high water table or running sand conditions.
Wet top feed process is called vibro-replacement and dry top/bottom feed process is
called vibro displacement.

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7. DESIGN
While stone columns will transmit some load to the soil by shear stresses (along the
column-soil interface) and end bearing (at the column base), the predominant load-transfer
mechanism (unless the column is very short) is lateral bulging into the surrounding soil. The
relevant column stresses are depicted in Fig. 3. The passive resistance of the surrounding
soil dictates the column performance under load. Generally the column bulging will be
greatest close to the top of the column where the overburden pressures are lowest.

A. Design Parameters

1) Stone Column Diameter: Installation of stone columns in soft cohesive soils is basically
a self compensating process that is softer the soil, bigger is the diameter of the stone
column formed. Due to lateral displacement of stones during vibrations/ramming, the
completed diameter of the hole is always greater than the initial diameter of the probe or
the casing depending upon the soil type, its undrained shear strength, stone size,
characteristics of the vibrating probe/rammer used and the construction method. Diameter
usually varies from 800 to 1500 mm

2) Pattern of arrangement: Stone columns should be installed preferably in an equilateral

triangular pattern which gives the densest packing although a square pattern may also be
used. A typical layout of the patterns are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8

3) Spacing: The design of stone columns should be site specific and no precise guidelines

can be given on the maximum and the minimum column spacing. However, the column
spacing may broadly ranges from 2 to 3 depending upon the site conditions, loading
pattern, column factors, the installation technique, settlement tolerances, etc. For large
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projects, it is desirable to carry out field trials to determine the most optimum spacing of
stone columns taking into consideration the required bearing capacity of the soil and
permissible settlement of the foundation.

4) Replacement ratio: To quantify the amount of soil replaced by the stone, the term

replacement ratio, as is used.

as = 0.907 (D/S)2

where the constant 0.907 is a function of the pattern used which, in this case, is the
commonly employed equilateral triangular pattern.

5) Stress Concentration factor: The stress concentration factor, n, due to externally

applied load , is defined as the ratio of average stress in the stone column s ,to the stress
g, in the soil within the unit cell,
n=s/ g

The value of n generally lies between 2.5 and 5 at the ground surface

6) Stress: By assuming a triaxial state of stress in the stone column and both the column

and the surrounding soil at failure, the ultimate vertical stress 1, which the stone column
can take, may be determined from the following equation:
1/ 3 = (1+sin s) /(1-sin s)

where
3 = lateral confining stress mobilized by the surrounding soil to resist the bulging of the
stone column
s = angle of internal friction of the stone column
1/ 3 =coefficient of passive earth pressure of the stone column.

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7) Settlement: Consolidation settlement of the composite (treated) soil S, is given by:

S= mvgH

where
mv =

Coefficient of volume change

g =

Vertical stress in surrounding ground

=Thickness of treated soil

8) Aggregate: Crushed stone or gravel which is chemically inert, devoid of organic matter,

hard etc are used for constructing the aggregate column. Well graded stones of 75mm to
2mm may be used.

Fig. 7 Triangular pattern of arrangement Fig. 8 Square pattern of arrangement

8. FUNCTIONS AND USES

Stone column improves the shear strength of the subsoil to increase the bearing
capacity. It improves the stiffness of subsoil to decrease settlements. It has the ability
to carry very high loads since columns are ductile. It is more economical than piling.
Rapid consolidation of subsoil is facilitated in stone column.
Immediate increase of shear strength and friction angle of treated soil occurs. There
is no waiting period after installation unlike PVD. Embankment construction can
begin soon after installation. When installed in a uniform grid pattern it
homogenizes variable soil properties, thereby reducing the potential for differential
settlement.

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9. DISADVANTAGES
Sensitive clays do not adequately regain shear strength. Due to this, ground
improvement by stone column cannot be achieved in clays with sensitivity greater
than 4. Stone columns when installed at a distance of less than 3.66m can cause high
lateral pressures and displacement of adjacent structures. Severe cracks could be
the stone column site due to the vibrations of 30-50Hz.
Stone column installation in extremely cohesive clays and silts is suitable only if
preloading facility is available, especially for storage tank construction.

10.CONCLUSION
The crude form of stone column seen during the construction of Taj Mahal has been
improvised greatly and is being made a technically viable option for ground
improvement considering its cost effectiveness in the recent past.
The major conclusions arrived at are as follows:
Stone columns improves the bearing capacity and reduces the settlement of weak
soil strata.
Owing to rapid consolidation due to the accelerated dissipation of excess pore water
pressure into the drainage path formed by stone columns, construction can be
started quickly.
Thorough subsoil investigation from borelogs supplemented by penetration tests and
other insitu test results should be strictly carried out before designing the stone
column.
Stone columns when installed at a distance of 4.87m or more eliminates the damage
caused by vibrations.

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