A CHE 503 Laboratory Report

CLIMBING FILM EVAPORATOR

By

IBIKUNLE OLUDOTUN
964387
(Group 4)

submitted to

Dr. A.N. Anozie

SEPTEMBER 2003

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Department of Chemical Engineering,
Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ile Ife.
January 2, 2002.
The Coordinator,
Chemical Engineering Laboratory II (CHE 503),
Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ile Ife.

Dear Sir,

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
I hereby write this letter to transmit the report of the experiment carried out on Climbing
Film, at the Unit Operations Laboratory of the Department of Chemical Engineering,
O.A.U. Ile-Ife.

The report contains detailed experimental work and results of the experiments carried out.
Thanks Sir, in anticipation of a benevolent appraisal of my report.

Yours faithfully,
IBIKUNLE, Oludotun B.

ABSTRACT
The aim of this experiment was to investigate the various processing factors that
affect the operation of a climbing film evaporator, the effect of variation in the feed rate on
water removal by evaporation from the feed at constant pressure, with the view of
determining the optimum operating condition. Temperature & concentration of the liquid,
temperature and pressure of steam were some of the processing factors studied by
investigating the effect of variation of feed rate on concentration of the product, the effect
of the operating steam temperature on the rate of evaporation and steam pressure on the
thermal efficiency of the climbing film evaporator.
Water was used in this experiment, which was carried out in three stages. They are:
start-up, removal of products, re-circulation of products and shut down. A careful
measurement of the volume of product concentrate and vapor condensate was made with
respect to a varying feed rate. The feed inlet cork is opened so that the feed liquor can flow
into the unit, the liquid level is allowed to reach the steam inlet connection before the final
feed rate is set, the liquid begins to boil and the expanding bubbles begin to rise rapidly in
the tube giving the climbing film operation, the feed rate is regulated such that a good
stream of liquid and vapor enters the cyclone.
It was observed from the results that increasing the temperature difference between
liquid and condensing steam could increase the rate of evaporation to a certain limit. It was
also seen that this was done under reduced pressure and varying temperatures and therefore
concluded that operation of the climbing film evaporator under reduced pressure was more
effective, economical and safer that at constant pressure or atmospheric pressure.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Letter of Transmittal

ii
3

Abstract

iii

Table of Contents

iv

List of Tables

List of Figures

vi

List of Apparatus

vii

CHAPTER ONE
1.0

Introduction

1.1

Objectives of the Experiment

1.2

Description of the Equipment

1.3

Theory
1.3.1 Film Transfer Coefficient
1.3.2 Boiling of a Submerged Surface
1.3.3 Maximum Head Flux
1.3.4 Forced Convection
1.3.5 Variation of Heat Flux with Length of Tube

6
8
10
12
12
14

CHAPTER TWO
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

Experimental Work
Experimental Procedure at Atmospheric pressure
2.1.1 Start-up procedure
2.1.2 Shutdown
Operating under Reduced Pressure
2.2.1 Start-up procedure
2.2.2 Shutdown
Experiment I
Experiment II
Experiment III

15
15
15
16
16
17
17
17
18
19

CHAPTER THREE
3.0
3.1

Results
Discussion of Results

20
21

CONCLUSION

22

RECOMMENDATION

23

BIBLIOGRAPHY

24

NOMENCLATURE

25

APPENDICES

26

LIST OF FIGURES
1.

Different types of Evaporators

3
4

2.

Climbing film evaporator

3.

Variation of heat transfer coefficient with liquid height.

4.

Variation of heat flux with temperature difference.

11

5.

Nature of two phase flow in an evaporator

13

LIST OF TABLES
1.

Computed values of water removed from 10% Glycerol in solution

at constant pressure of 30 psig

2.

20

Computed values of water at different steam pressures using the same

feed rate operation at atmospheric pressure

3.

20

Evaporative efficiency at different steam pressure for operation at

atmospheric pressure

20

LIST OF APPARATUS
1.

Climbing Film Evaporator

2.

10% weight/weight of glycerol in water

3.

Steam supplied by the steam boiler

4.

Thermometer

5.

Vacuum pump

CHAPTER ONE
1.0

Introduction
Evaporation is one of the various and the most important physical methods of

removing part or all of the solvent from a solution i.e. for the concentration of aqueous
solutions. It involves a physical separation process whereby vaporization is used for the
removal of solvent from a solution by boiling the solution in an evaporator.
Evaporators are heat transfer equipment used in processing industries for the
concentration of aqueous solutions. Examples of products that are finished with
evaporation include sugar, orange juice, milk, etc. and the choice of evaporators will be
influenced depending on the cost, space for equipment, the nature of liquid and volume of
material to be processed and also in considering this, the means to provide agitation or
circulation of the liquid must be considered, the heat transfer coefficient on the boiling
liquid side, the resistance of the separating wall and the general configuration of heat
transfer surface must all be properly considered before the choice of equipment is made.
Various types of evaporators include:
Open Kettle or Pan Evaporator which is the simplest form of evaporator is the It consists
of an open pan or kettle in which the liquid is boiled. The heat is supplied by condensation
of steam in the jacket or in oil immersed in the liquid.
Horizontal Tube Natural Circulation Evaporator, which is made up of horizontal
bundles of heating tubes. The steam enters the tubes where it condenses. The steam
condenser leaves the other end of the tubes. The vapor leaves the liquid surface and is
collected in a de-entraining device.
Vertical Type Natural Circulation Evaporator: It is made up of vertical tubes where the
liquid inside the tubes and the steam condenses outside the tube.
8

Falling Film Evaporator: this consists of long tubes where the liquid is fed on to of the
tube and flows down the walls as a thin film.
Climbing Film Evaporators: they consist of long tubes about 10 ft long and 1 inch
nominal bore light wall heat exchangers tubing with standard buttress ends. The steam
jacket is a glass pipe, 9 ft long and 2 inches bore of a suitable wall thickness to withstand
the steam and vent connections (figure 1).

1.1

Objectives Of The Experiment

The objectives of this experiment are:
1. To compare the operations of the climbing film evaporator at atmospheric pressure
and under reduced pressure.
2. To investigate the effect of the operating steam temperature on the rate of
evaporation.
3. To investigate the effect of variations in the feed rate on the concentration of the
product.

10

1.2

Description of Equipment and Operating Instructions

The climbing film evaporator, Figure 2 has a calandria tube 10 ft long and 1 inch

nominal bore light wall exchanger tubing, with standard buttress ands. The steam jacket is a
glass pipe, 9 ft long and 2 inches bore, of a suitable wall thickness to withstand the steam
and vent connections.
The vapor pipe, fitted with a thermometer pocket, leads from the calandria, via a
cyclone separator for the entrained liquid, to the 15 sg. ft. condenser. The liquid outlet from
the separator is connected directly to the concentrate receiver. This has a capacity of about
seven liters and is graduated in 50 ml increments.
To allow for recycling of the concentrate, a two-way cork connects the concentrate
receiver to the feed inlet or allows it to be emptied (not under reduced pressure). Twin fiveliter condensate receivers are used to enable condensate to be removed under reduced
Figure
types ofemptied
Evaporators
pressure. The lower
one1:can be Different
isolated, vented,
and the vacuum reapplied without
interrupting the working of the plant.

11

1.3

THEORY
Heat is transferred from the steam to the liquid in the annulus and the process of

evaporation in the climbing film evaporator involves the transfer of heat. The rate of heat
transfer across a given area is expressed mathematically as

Q UAT

Figure 2:

Climbing Film Evaporator

12

However, depending on the thickness of the surface area used for the transfer of
heat, the product of U & A can be thus defined as
UA

1
1
x
1

Rs
h1 A1 kA h0 A01

2
..

Where
Q

the rate of heat transfer per unit time (KW)

the overall heat transfer coefficient (KW/m2K)

the heat transfer area (m2)

the temperature difference between the steam stream and

the bulk of material (K).

hi

the inside heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

ho

the outside heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

Ai

the inside transfer area (m2)

Ao

the outside transfer area (m2)

thickness of the tube (m)

Rs

the overall resistance to heat transfer offered by scale

deposits on the inside and outside surface (K/W)

The determination of T is very important. Difficulties usually arise I determining

the correct value of T . These difficulties arise due to boiling point rise and hydrostatic
head. If water is boiled in an evaporator under a given pressure, then the temperature of the
liquid can be determined from steam tables and T is readily calculated. At the same
pressure, a solution has a boiling point greater than water and the difference between its
boiling point and that of water.
13

The effect of hydrostatic head may be considered by supposing the liquor to be at

the top of the tube. Then the pressure of the liquid, which is just at the top of the tube, is
that in the vapor space and the boiling point can therefore be calculated. The liquor at the
bottom of the tube is at higher temperature corresponding to the increased pressure. Thus,
the temperature difference between the steam outside the tubes and the liquor will depend
on where boiling starts and there is no satisfactory way to determine this.
The variation of heat transfer coefficient U with liquor level is seen that after an
initial sharp rise, U falls as level of vapor is increased. The maximum point of the graph
sets a limit for maximum heat transfer per unit time and hence maximum rate of
evaporation. This relationship is shown in figure 3 below.

14

Heat transfer Coefficient (kW/m2K)

Falling film

Climbing film evaporator

Height of Liquor (m)

Figure 3:Variation of Heat transfer coefficient with Liquid Height

1.3.1 Film Transfer Coefficient

Performance of any form of evaporator depends on the value of the film coefficients
on the heating side and for the liquor, together with allowance for scale deposits and the
tube wall. The rate of heat transfer in a climbing film evaporator can be shown to be

TS TB
1
x
1

Rs
h1 A1 kA h0 A01

15

Where
TS

temperature of the steam (K)

TB

temperature of bulk processing material (K)

hi

the convective heat transfer coefficient of the inside wall (KW/m2K)

ho

the convective heat transfer coefficient of the outside wall

Ai

the inside heat transfer area (m2)

Ao

the outside heat transfer area (m2)

the conductive heat transfer area (m2)

Rs

resistance to heat flow due to formation of scale (K/KW)

the thickness of the tubes (m)

(KW/m2K)

1.3.2 Boiling of a Submerged Surface

When heat is transferred from a heating surface to a liquid at its boiling, four
distinct regions are observed. From figure 4, it can be seen that the heat flux increases
(slowly) to increase in temperature differences ( T ) in range AB. In this range although
the liquid vicinity of the surface will be slightly superheated, there is no water vapor
formed and heat transfer is by natural convection with evaporation from the free surfaces.
At point B, boiling begins, over the region BC (nucleate boiling region) increases in T
increases the heat flux up to point C where the surface is completely covered. Increase in

T beyond C will lead to partial collapse of the nucleate boiling mechanism due to
exposure of the surface to vapor blanketing in the region CD, the average heat flux

16

decreases with increase in T . To dissipate heat, the surface temperature must rise to a
point E, which will bring about increase in heat transfer characteristics.
a

Heat Flux
T = Temperature Difference (Tsurface Tbulk)
a=Natural Convection
b=Nucleate Boiling
c=Transition Boiling
d=Film Boiling

Figure 4:Variations of Head Flux with Temperature Difference

17

The heat transfer coefficient in nucleate boiling region, hD can be calculated using
the equation below:

C p l
hb d

0
.
225

0.69

qd

0.67

pd
6

0.33

PL 1

Pr

0.31

1.3.3 Maximum Heat Flux

The maximum heat flux in an evaporator as defined by Zubers equation can be
expressed as

q max

Pv L v

2
24
v

L v

Where

the latent heat of vaporization (KJ/kg)

density of the vapor (kg/m3)

density of the liquid (kg/m3)

interfacial tension (kg/m.s2)

acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

1.3.4 Forced Convection

Various flow patterns are associated with forced convection depending on the vapor
rates, hydrostatic head and stage. These flow patterns are shown in figure 5.

18

Natural convection heating

circulation line indicated

Bubble formation due to

reduction in hydrostatic head

Fully developed slug flow

showing liquid slippage around
vapor slug

Slug formation due to bubble

Breakdown of slugs at high vapor rates

Annular flow climbing film

Figure 5:

The nature of two phase flow in an Evaporator

19

1.3.5 Variation of Heat Flux with Length of Tube

20

The properties of fluid along the tube are a distributed parameter system where the
temperature and concentration are actually functions of time and position. At steady state,
the heat flux along the length of tube can be estimated using different mathematical
models.CHAPTER

TWO

2.0

Experimental Work

2.1

Experimental Procedure at Atmospheric Pressure

Water was used for preliminary test evaporation. An arrangement of test liquid was

done to feed the calandria by gravity. It was ensured that a steam supply and cooling water
were available for the immediate use.
The experiment was performed in stages. These stages included start-up, running,
removal of products, re-circulation of concentrate and shutdown.

2.1.1

Start-up Procedure
All the drain corks were first closed, re-circulation control cork were also closed

with handle in the horizontal position. After closing the corks (drain and re-circulation
control), the inter-connecting between receivers of product and condensate drain value on
exit side of the calandria tube wall were all opened.
The

steam

control valve was then opened slowly to allow the first steam condensate to pass out
through the drain valve. The condensate drain valve was then closed when the steam began
to blow off. The steam pressure was allowed to rise to 30 psig making sure that steam
condensate was exit off through the steam-trap. Non condensing gases were released by

21

opening the vent at the top of the calandria and returning it to an almost closed position so
that a mere wisp of steam was able to pass through.
The feed inlet cork was then opened so that the feed vapor could flow into the unit.
The liquid level was allowed to reach the steam inlet connection before setting the final
feed rate by use of a flow meter.
The liquid was observed to be boiling and expanding bubbles were also observed to
rise quickly giving the climbing film operation. The feed rate was regulated so that a good
stream of liquid and vapor enters the cyclone. The concentrated liquor falls from the
cyclone to the calibrated receiver. Product condensate from the heat exchanger falls to the
lower of the twin receivers.
Both product concentrate and product condensate were removed continuously at
atmospheric pressure after re-circulating the solution.

2.1.2

Shutdown
To shutdown the unit, the feed cork, steam control valve and condenser cooling

water valve were closed in sequence. After closing the cork, the feed supply from the unit
was isolated and the feed supply line was detached. The feed stock was opened and the unit
was drained off remaining feed liquor. The re-circulation cork was then opened and the
condensate drain cork was also opened to remove product condensate.

2.2

Operation Under Reduced Pressure

The procedure was almost the same as in the operation carried out under

atmospheric condition. The significant difference in operation is the availability of a

22

vacuum pump. The presence of a vacuum cork with a hole in it enables the vacuum to be
turned off and the receiver vented simultaneously.
2.2.1

Start-up Procedure
In addition to the start-up procedure earlier described, the vacuum line was

connected to the vacuum vent cork of the lower receiver. The vacuum pump was then
switched on and the vacuum adjusted to 26 mmHg. The rate of evaporation of the unit was
initially under estimated, but the position of the feed supply valve was then adjusted to
ensure adequate flow.

2.2.2

Shutdown
Unlike the operation of the atmospheric pressure, the concentrate and condensate

were separately removed. The vacuum cork was adjusted to give a setting, which allowed
the vacuum line to be turned off and the receiver vented simultaneously. The interconnecting receiver cork was closed and the lower receiver vented. The lower drain cork
was opened to empty the lower receiver. The vent was then closed and the cork opened to
the vacuum line and replacing the interconnecting cork followed this.

2.3

Experiment I
The main objective of this experiment is to investigate the effect of variations in the

feed rate on the concentration of the product.

A 10% w/w solution of glycerol in water was used. The climbing film evaporator
was started up following the procedure earlier described. It was operated at a feed rate of 4
gallons/hr, a steam pressure of 30 psig. About 5 minutes of operating was allowed for
steady conditions to be reached. In doing this, the product concentrate and condensate were
23

run to roast and then collected over a period of about 15 minutes. The steam pressure and
feed rate were maintained throughout the period of running. The volumes of product
concentrate and product condensate were then measures and the percentage of the product
concentrate calculated.
The procedure was then repeated at other feed rates of 5 gallons/hr and 6 gallons/hr,
while maintaining the steam pressure constant at 30 psig in each case. The experiment was
performed at atmospheric pressure.

2.4

Experiment II
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the effect of the operating system

temperature on the rate of evaporation achieved. The operating liquor is water and the
procedure earlier described was followed in starting up the evaporator, operation was at a
feed rate of 5 g/hr at a steam pressure of 10 psig.
About 5 minutes of operation was allowed for steady conditions to be reached. In
the course of this, product concentrate and condensate were run to waste and then collected
over a period of 15 minutes. Again, the steam pressure and the feed rate were maintained
throughout the period of running. The volumes of product concentrate and product
condensate were then measured.
After operating under reduced pressure, the unit was shut down and vented before
the product concentrate would be removed. Using a second receiving vessel and applying
the operation sequence already performed by condensate could only activate removal of the
product concentrate while the unit was in action. Re-circulation of the concentrate was
carried out as performed when operating at atmospheric pressure.

24

The feed cork was closed and steam control was then stopped. The unit was vented
through a condensate receiver vent cork. The experiment was repeated at steam pressure 20
and 30 psig. The relative volume of product concentrate and product condensate in each
case was recorded against the steam; the percentage of the product concentrate was then
calculated. This steam temperature was obtained from steam tables.

2.5

Experiment III
The volume of steam condensate and concentrate was collected and measured at

intervals of 15 minutes

25

CHAPTER THREE
3.0

Results

Table 1:

Computed values of water removed from 10% Glycerol in water at constant

pressure of 30 psig
Feed Rate
(cm3/min)
442
724
864

Table 2:

Water Removed
(ml)
820
340
180

Time (min)
10
10
7.5

Percentage Water
Removed
18.93%
4.79%
2.83%

Computed values of water removed at different steam pressure using the

same feed rate operating at atmospheric pressure.

Steam
pressure (psig)
10
20
30
Table 3:

Feed Rate
(cm3/min)
367
367
367

Time
(min)
15
15
15

Water
Removed (ml)
445
505
445

Percentage of
water removed
8.08%
9.17%
8.08%

Evaporative Efficiency at Different steam pressure for operation at

atmospheric pressure/
Steam Pressure (psig)
10
20
30

3.1

Evaporative Efficiency
485.27
88.96
50.16

Discussion of Results
It can be deduced from the analysis of results in the tables based on the computed

values that the efficiency of the climbing film evaporator reduces with increasing feed rate
i. E increase in feed rate at constant pressure results in decrease in the percentage of water
removed. This is due to decrease in heat transfer coefficient and decrease in boiling point.

26

Also for operations at atmospheric pressure, using different steam pressure, it can
be seen that the product concentrate initially increases with feed rate, pressure and
temperature and then suddenly drops after further increase in these parameters, which
suggests that there is an optimum feed rate for each steam pressure and temperature.
It can be seen from the tables that increase in steam pressure leads to increase in
energy losses since vapor temperature increases, this implies that energy was wasted
because the feed vapor is not needed and on a general basis, high working pressure should
be avoided.

27

CONCLUSION
Several conclusions can be drawn from the results of the experiment. They are:
.1.

Operating the evaporator under vacuum increases the temperature difference

between the steam and the boiling liquid and this increases the rate of evaporation.

2.

Operating under reduced pressure is more effective, economical and safer that at
atmospheric pressure.

3.

As the feed rate increases, the amount of water removed during evaporation
decreases.

4.

The boiling temperature increases with the operating pressure of the evaporator.

5.

The evaporative efficiency decreases as the steam pressure increases.

6.

The quality of the products decline with temperature and length of time.

28

RECOMMENDATIONS
For improved performance of the experiment on climbing film evaporator, the
following recommendations are hereby put forward:
1.

Regular cleaning of the equipment to reduce scale deposition, which affects heat
transfer.

2.

Non-condensable gases should be properly vented from the steam chest and the
system.

3.

The feed should be pre-heated (close to boiling point) to increase the rate of
evaporation.

4.

Reduce the pressure used in the vapor space of the evaporator to reduce the
boiling point of water and hence the rate of evaporation.

5.

Consider the sensitivity of the concentrate when choosing the temperature and
length of heating tube to prevent product degradation.

6.

The pipes should be checked for steam and condensate leakages and also at the
fittings, joints and steam trap.

7.

Provide adequate circulation and/or turbulence to keep coefficient from becoming

too low especially when dealing with viscous liquids.

8.

Anti-foam should be added to substances that produce foam or froth during boiling.

9.

Some form of de-entrainer should be added to reduce entrainment.

29

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.

Coulson, J.M. and Richardson, J. F. (1998). Chemical Engineering vol. 2, 4 th

ed. Butterworth-Heinemann, Jordan Hill, Oxford.

2.

Holand, F.A. (1973). Fluid Flow for Chemical Engineers. Edward Arnold Inc.,
London.

3.

McCabe, W.L. and Smith, J.C. (1976). Unit Operations of Chemical

Engineering,

4.

3rd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

Perry, R.H. and Chilton, C.H. (1973). Chemical Engineers Handbook. 5 th ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

5.

Robinson, C.S. and Gilliland, E.R. (1950). Elements of Fractional Distillation,

4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

30

NOMENCLATURE

Symbol

Definition

SI Units

m2

Heat transfer surface area

Cp

Specific heat capacity of liquid at constant pressure

J/kg K

Liquid evaporated or steam condensed per unit time

kg/s

Dc

Tube Diameter

Temperature difference

Overall heat transfer coefficient

W/m2K

Enthalpy per unit mass of vapor

J/kg

Acceleration due to gravity

m/s2

31

APPENDICES
A.

Raw Data

A 1. Experiment 2; at constant pressure of 30 psig

Feed Rate (cm3/min)
442
724
864

Time (min)
10
10
7.5

Volume of pdt concentrate (ml)

3600
6900
6300

Vapor Condensate
658
660
220

A 2: Data for constant feed rate using pure water, operating at atmospheric pressure.
Steam
pressur
e (psig)
10
20
30

Fees rate
(cm3/min)

Time
(min)

367
367
367

15
15
15

Product
concentrate
(ml)
5050
5000
5050

Vapor
condensat
e (ml)
150
255
520

32

Feed
temp. (oC)
31
31
31

Steam
condensat
e (ml)
760
1320
1700

Vapor
temp. (oC)
96
98
99.7

A 3: Physical Properties and Other data for glycerol

Tube length
Tube diameter
Critical pressure
Critical temperature
Density
Density
Latent heat
Vapor thermal conductivity
Vapor viscosity
Liquid viscosity
Heat capacity

20 ft
2 inches
Pc = 66.9 bar
Tc = 726.0 oC
L = 1021 kg/m3
v = 1.31 kg/m3
= 2704 KJ/kg
Kv = 0.4 w/moC
k = 2.0 X 10-3 NS/m2
L = 0.4 X 10-3 NS/m2
Cp = 2405.376 J/kgoC

B.

Sample Calculation

i.)

Calculation of water removed

Input =

Output

Feed

concentrated product + water removed

30.48 m
0.0508 m

For experiment 2,
At feed rate of 442 cm3/min
Volume of feed

ii.)

442 X 10

4420cm3

Volume of product concentrate

3600 ml

Water removed

4420 3600

820 ml.

Percentage water removed

Water in feed
Percentage of

90% w/w

18 90

98 100

0.16

% of water removed =

100 0.16
33

=
iii.)

99.84%

Calculation of Evaporation Efficiency

weight of water evaporated 100

weight of steam condensed - weight of steam used in raising water F

volume of product concentrat e

DrynessFra ction
volume of feed

at 10 psig

0.72 bar

weight of steam evaporated 445cm 3

1g
cm 3

0.445 kg

0.760 kg

weight of steam used in raising temp

W w Cp w Tw
s

weight of steam condensed 760

at 0.72 bar,

445g
1g
cm 3

760g

2283KJ/kg

Ww

5505g =

5.505kg

5.505 4.2 (98 - 31)

0.66kg
2283

0.445 100
485.27
(0.76 - 0.66)(0.91 7)

34