Kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyzstan (/krstn/ kur-gi-STAHN;[7] Kyrgyz:

Kyrgyzstan (IPA: [qrsstn]); Russian:
or ), ocially the Kyrgyz Republic (Kyrgyz: Kyrgyz Respublikasy; Russian: Kyrgyzskaya
Respublika), formerly known as Kirghizia, is a country
located in Central Asia.[8] Landlocked and mountainous,
Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north,
Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south west and
China to the east. Its capital and largest city is Bishkek.

forty. At the time, in the early 9th century AD, the

Uyghurs dominated much of Central Asia (including Kyrgyzstan), Mongolia, and parts of Russia and China.[17]
The 40-ray sun on the ag of Kyrgyzstan is a reference
to those same forty tribes and the graphical element in
the suns center depicts the wooden crown of a yurt
a portable dwelling traditionally used by nomads in the
steppes of Central Asia.

Kyrgyzstans history spans over 2,000 years, encompass- 2 History

ing a variety of cultures and empires. Although geographically isolated by its highly mountainous terrain which
Main article: History of Kyrgyzstan
has helped preserve its ancient culture Kyrgyzstan has
historically been at the crossroads of several great civilizations, namely as part of the Silk Road and other commercial and cultural routes. Though long inhabited by a 2.1 Antiquity
succession of independent tribes and clans, Kyrgyzstan
has periodically come under foreign domination and attained sovereignty as a nation-state only after the breakup
of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Since independence, Kyrgyzstan has ocially been
a unitary parliamentary republic, although it continues to endure ethnic conicts,[9][10] revolts,[11] economic troubles,[12][13] transitional governments,[14] and
political party conicts.[15] Kyrgyzstan is a member of
the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Eurasian
Economic Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Turkic CounThe Turkic Khaganate.
cil, the TRKSOY community and the United Nations.
Ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the countrys
5.7 million people, followed by signicant minorities of
Uzbeks and Russians. The ocial language, Kyrgyz, is
closely related to the other Turkic languages, although
Russian remains widely spoken, a legacy of a centurylong policy of Russication. The majority of the population (64 percent) are nondenominational Muslims.[16] In
addition to its Turkic origins, Kyrgyz culture bears elements of Persian, Mongolian, and Russian inuence.

According to David C. King, Scythians were early settlers

in present-day Kyrgyzstan.[18]
The Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 A.D.[19] From the
10th century the Kyrgyz migrated as far as the Tian Shan
range and maintained their dominance over this territory
for about 200 years.
In the twelfth century the Kyrgyz dominion had shrunk to
the Altay Range and Sayan Mountains as a result of the
Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire
in the thirteenth century, the Kyrgyz migrated south. The
Kyrgyz peacefully became a part of Mongol Empire in
1207.

Etymology

"Kyrgyz" is believed to have been derived from the Turkic word for forty, in reference to the forty clans of
Manas, a legendary hero who united forty regional clans
against the Uyghurs. Literally, Kyrgyz means We are

Chinese and Muslim sources of the 7th12th centuries

AD describe the early Kyrgyz as red-haired with white
skin and blue eyes, which is indicative of ancient IndoEuropean tribes like the Slavic peoples.[20][21] The de1

HISTORY

scent of the Kyrgyz from the autochthonous Siberian population is conrmed on the other hand by the recent genetic studies.[22] Because of the processes of migration,
conquest, intermarriage, and assimilation, many of the
Kyrgyz peoples that now inhabit Central and Southwest
Asia are of mixed origins, often stemming from fragments of many dierent tribes, though they now speak
closely related languages.[23][24]
Issyk Kul Lake was a stopover on the Silk Road, a land
route for traders, merchants and other travelers from the
Far East to Europe.

Bishkek

Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the 17th century by the

Mongol Oirats, in the mid-18th century by the Manchu
Qing Dynasty, and in the early 19th century by the Uzbek During the 1920s, Kyrgyzstan developed considerably in
cultural, educational and social life. Literacy was greatly
Khanate of Kokand.[25]
improved, and a standard literary language was introIn the late nineteenth century, the majority part of what duced by imposing Russian on the populace. Economic
is today Kyrgyzstan was ceded to Russia through two and social development also was notable. Many aspects
treaties between China (then Qing Dynasty) and Rus- of Kyrgyz national culture were retained despite the supsia. The territory, then known in Russian as Kirgizia, pression of nationalist activity under Joseph Stalin, who
was formally incorporated into the Russian Empire in controlled the Soviet Union from the late 1920s until
1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous re- 1953.
volts against Tsarist authority, and many of the Kyrgyz
opted to move to the Pamir Mountains and Afghanistan. The early years of glasnost had little eect on the political
climate in Kyrgyzstan. However, the Republics press was
In addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion against permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish
Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to a new publication, Literaturny Kirghizstan, by the Union
migrate to China.[26] Since many ethnic groups in the re- of Writers. Unocial political groups were forbidden, but
gion were (and still are) split between neighboring states several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with the acute
at a time when borders were more porous and less reg- housing crisis were permitted to function.
ulated, it was common to move back and forth over the
mountains, depending on where life was perceived as bet- According to the last Soviet census in 1989, ethnic Kyrter; this might mean better rains for pasture or better gov- gyz made up only 22% of the residents of the northern
city of Frunze (now Bishkek), while more than 60% were
ernment during oppression.
Russians, Ukrainians, and people from other Slavic nations (only 36 percent of Bishkek residents surveyed said
Silk road caravansary utilized during the Islamic Russian was their rst language).[27]
Golden Age
In June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyr Kyrgyz nomads, 18691870, by Vasily Vereshcha- gyz surfaced in the Osh Oblast (southern Kyrgyzstan),
where Uzbeks form a majority of the population.[28] Atgin
tempts to appropriate Uzbek collective farms for housing
development triggered the Osh Riots. A state of emer Kyrgyz yurt, 18691870, by Vasily Vereshchagin
gency and curfew were introduced[29] and Askar Akayev,
Kyrgyz people
the youngest of ve sons born into a family of collective
farm workers (in northern Kyrgyzstan), was elected Pres A Nomadic Kyrgyz family on the Golodnaya Steppe ident in October of that same year.
in Uzbekistan, 1911, Prokudin-Gorskii
By then, the Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM)
had developed into a signicant political force with support in Parliament. In December 1990, the Supreme
2.2 Soviet Kyrgyzstan
Soviet voted to change the republics name to the ReSoviet power was initially established in the region in public of Kyrgyzstan. (In 1993, it became the Kyrgyz
1919, and the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was cre- Republic.) The following January, Akayev introduced
ated within the Russian SFSR (the phrase Kara-Kirghiz new government structures and appointed a new govwas used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distin- ernment composed mainly of younger, reform-oriented
guish them from the Kazakhs, who were also referred to politicians. In February 1991, the name of the capital,
as Kirghiz). On 5 December 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet So- Frunze, was changed back to its pre-revolutionary name
cialist Republic was established as a full republic of the of Bishkek.
Soviet Union.

Despite these political moves toward independence, eco-

2.3

Independence

3
on 26 December 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. In 1992, Kyrgyzstan joined the United Nations and
the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE). On 5 May 1993, the ocial name changed from
the Republic of Kyrgyzstan to the Kyrgyz Republic.
In 2005, a popular uprising known as the "Tulip Revolution", took place after the parliamentary elections in
March 2005, forced President Askar Akayev's resignation on 4 April 2005. Opposition leaders formed a coalition, and a new government was formed under President
Kurmanbek Bakiyev and Prime Minister Feliks Kulov.
The nations capital was looted during the protests.

Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on stamp

nomic realities seemed to work against secession from

the Soviet Union. In a referendum on the preservation
of the Soviet Union in March 1991, 88.7% of the voters approved the proposal to retain the Soviet Union as
a renewed federation. Nevertheless, secessionist forces
pushed Kyrgyzstans independence through in August of
that same year.

Political stability appeared to be elusive, however, as various groups and factions allegedly linked to organized
crime jockeyed for power. Three of the 75 members
of Parliament elected in March 2005 were assassinated,
and another member was assassinated on 10 May 2006
shortly after winning his murdered brothers seat in a byelection. All four are reputed to have been directly involved in major illegal business ventures. On 6 April
2010, civil unrest broke out in the town of Talas after
a demonstration against government corruption and increased living expenses. The protests became violent,
spreading to Bishkek by the following day. Protesters
attacked President Bakiyevs oces, as well as state-run
radio and television stations. There were conicting reports that Interior Minister Moldomusa Kongatiyev had
been beaten. On 7 April 2010, President Bakiyev imposed a state of emergency. Police and special services
arrested many opposition leaders. In response, protesters
took control of the internal security headquarters (former KGB headquarters) and a state television channel
in the capital, Bishkek. Reports by Kyrgyzstan government ocials indicated that at least 75 people were killed
and 458 hospitalized in bloody clashes with police in the
capital.[30] Reports say that at least 80 people died as a result of clashes with police. A transition government, led
by former foreign minister Roza Otunbayeva, by 8 April
2010 had taken control of state media and government facilities in the capital, but Bakiyev had not resigned from
oce.[31][32]

On 19 August 1991, when the State Emergency Committee assumed power in Moscow, there was an attempt
to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. After the coup collapsed the following week, Akayev and Vice President
German Kuznetsov announced their resignations from the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the
entire bureau and secretariat resigned. This was followed
by the Supreme Soviet vote declaring independence from
the Soviet Union on 31 August 1991 as the Republic of President Bakiyev returned to his home in Jalal-Abad and
stated his terms of resignation at a press conference on 13
Kyrgyzstan.
April 2010.[33] On 15 April 2010, Bakiyev left the country and ew to neighboring Kazakhstan, along with his
wife and two children. The countrys provisional leaders
2.3 Independence
announced that Bakiyev signed a formal letter of resigna[34]
In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected tion prior to his departure.
president of the new independent Republic by direct ballot, receiving 95 percent of the votes cast. Together
with the representatives of seven other Republics that
same month, he signed the Treaty of the New Economic
Community. Finally, on 21 December 1991, Kyrgyzstan joined with the other four Central Asian Republics
to formally enter the new Commonwealth of Independent States. Kyrgyzstan gained full independence a few
days later on 25 December 1991. The following day,

Prime Minister Daniar Usenov accused Russia of supporting the protests; this accusation was denied by Russian Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin. Opposition members also called for the closing of the US-controlled
Manas Air Base.[35] Russias President Dmitry Medvedev
ordered measures to ensure the safety of Russian nationals and tighten security around Russian sites in Kyrgyzstan to protect them against possible attacks.

HISTORY

The 2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes occurred between the two main ethnic groupsthe Uzbeks and
Kyrgyzin Osh, the second largest city in the country,
on 11 June 2010. The clashes incited fears that the country could be heading towards a civil war.[36][37]

Kyrgyz family in the village of Sary-Mogol, Osh Region

Nomads in Kyrgyzstan

Finding it dicult to control the situation, Otunbayeva,

the interim leader, sent a letter to the Russian president,
Dimitry Medvedev, asking him to send Russian troops to
help the country control the situation. Medvedevs Press
Attach, Natalya Timakova, said in a reply to the letter, It
is an internal conict and for now Russia does not see the
conditions for taking part in its resolution. The clashes
caused a shortage of food and other essential commodities with more than 200 killed and 1,685 people hurt,
as of 12 June 2010. The Russian government, however,
said it would be sending humanitarian aid to the troubled
nation.[38]
According to local sources, there was a clash between two
local gangs and it did not take long for the violence to
spread to the rest of the city. There were also reports that
the armed forces supported ethnic Kyrgyz gangs entering
the city, but the government denied the allegations.[38]

tain the violence. Media agencies reported on 14 June

2010 that the Russian government was considering a request by the Kyrgyz government. An emergency meeting of Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO)
was held on the same day (14 June) to discuss the role
it could play in helping to end the violence. Ethnic violence waned, according to the Kyrgyz government, by 15
June 2010 and Kyrgyz president Roza Otunbayeva held
a news conference that day and declared that there was
no need for Russia to send in troops to quell the violence. There were at least 170 people left dead by 15
June 2010 but Pascale Meige Wagner of the International
Committee of the Red Cross said the [ocial] death toll
was an underestimate. The UN High Commissioner told
reporters in Geneva that evidence suggested that the violence seemed to have been staged up. Ethnic Uzbeks
threatened to blow up an oil depot in Osh if they failed
to get guarantees of protection. The United Nations said
it believed that the attacks were orchestrated, targeted
and well-planned. Kyrgyz ocials told the media that a
person suspected to be behind the violence in Jalal-Abad
had been detained.[42]

The riots spread to neighboring areas, and the government declared a state of emergency in the entire southern
Jalal-Abad region. To control the situation, the interim
government gave special shoot-to-kill powers to the security forces. The Russian government decided to send a
battalion to the country to protect Russian facilities.[39]
Otunbayeva accused the family of Bakiyev of instigating the riots.[40] AFP reported a veil of smoke covering
the whole city. Authorities in neighboring Uzbekistan
said at least 30,000 Uzbeks had crossed the border to escape the riots.[39] Osh became relatively calm on 14 June
2010, but Jalal-Abad witnessed sporadic incidents of arson. The entire region was still under a state of emergency
as Uzbeks were reluctant to leave their houses for fear of Children of Kyrgyzstan
attacks by the mobs. The United Nations decided to send
an envoy to assess the situation.[41]
On 2 August 2010, a Kyrgyz government commission
Temir Sariyev, deputy chief of the interim government, began investigating the causes of the clashes. Members
said there were local clashes and that it was not possi- of the National Commission, led by former parliament
ble [for the government] to fully control the situation. He speaker Abdygany Erkebaev, met with people from the
added that there were not sucient security forces to con- predominantly ethnic Uzbek villages of Mady, Shark, and

5
Kyzyl-Kyshtak in the Kara-Suu district of Osh Oblast.
This National Commission, including representatives of
many ethnic groups, was established by a presidential decree.
President Roza Otunbayeva also said in August 2010 that
an international commission would also be formed to investigate the clashes.[43]
The commissions report, released in January 2011, concluded that the events in southern Kyrgyzstan constituted
a planned, large-scale provocation, oriented towards the
splitting of Kyrgyzstan and disrupting the unity of its people. Responsibility for this provocation was seen as lying
with nationalistically-minded leaders of the Uzbek com- PM and President Kurmanbek Bakiyev (20052010) on a meetmunity. In the aftermath of the turmoil, on 5 August ing with U.S. Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, 26 July 2005
2010, Kyrgyz forces arrested party leader Urmat Baryktabasov on suspicion of plotting an overthrow of the government, after troops allegedly red blank rounds into a
crowd trying to join mass demonstrations near the Parliament in the capital Bishkek. Acting President Roza Otunbayeva said security forces seized rearms and grenades
from him and 26 supporters.[44]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Kyrgyzstan

The 1993 constitution denes the form of government as
President Almazbek Atambayev (2011) and Russian president
Vladimir Putin, 16 March 2015

President Askar Akayev (19902005) with U.S. president George

W. Bush, 22 September 2002

a democratic unicameral republic. The executive branch

includes a Supreme Chancellor and Vice Chair. The
parliament currently is unicameral. The judicial branch
comprises a Supreme Court, local courts and a Chief
Prosecutor.

The amendments to the constitution approved by the referendum resulted in stronger control by the president and
weakened the parliament and the Constitutional Court.
Parliamentary elections for a new, 75-seat unicameral
legislature were held on 27 February and 13 March 2005,
but were widely viewed as corrupt. The subsequent
protests led to a bloodless coup on 24 March 2005, after
which Akayev with his family ed the country and was
replaced by acting president Kurmanbek Bakiyev (see:
Tulip Revolution).
On 10 July 2005, acting president Bakiyev won the
presidential election in a landslide, with 88.9% of the
vote, and was inaugurated on 14 August. However, initial public support for the new administration substantially declined in subsequent months as a result of its
apparent inability to solve the corruption problems that
have plagued the country since its independence from the
Soviet Union, along with the murders of several members of parliament. Large-scale protests against president
Bakiyev took place in Bishkek in April and November
2006, with opposition leaders accusing the president of
failing to live up to his election promises to reform the
countrys constitution and transfer many of his presidential powers to parliament.[45]

In March 2002, in the southern district of Aksy, ve

people protesting the arbitrary arrest of an opposition
politician were shot dead by police, sparking nationwide
protests. President Askar Akayev initiated a constitutional reform process which initially included the participation of a broad range of government, civil and social
representatives in an open dialogue, leading to a February
Kyrgyzstan is also a member of the Organization for
2003 referendum marred by voting irregularities.

3 POLITICS

Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), a league

of 56 participating states committed to peace, transparency, and the protection of human rights in Eurasia.
As an OSCE participating State, Kyrgyzstans international commitments are subject to monitoring under the
mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission.

gyzstan riots, including journalist and human rights activist Azimzhan Askarov.[52] A law banning women under the age of twenty-three from traveling abroad without
a parent or guardian, with the purpose of "...increased
morality and preservation of the gene pool passed in
the Kyrgyz parliament in June 2013.[53] American diplomats expressed concern in October 2014 when Kyrgyzstan lawmakers passed a law that imposes jail terms on
gay-rights activists and others, including journalists, who
create a positive attitude toward non-traditional sexual
relations.[54]

In December 2008, the state-owned broadcaster UTRK

announced that it would require prior submission of
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty programmes, which
UTRK are required to retransmit according to a
2005 agreement.[46] UTRK had stopped retransmitting
RFE/RL programming on October 2008, a week after
it failed to broadcast an RFE/RL programme called 'In- 3.2
convenient Questions which covered the October elections, claiming to have lost the missing material. President Bakiyev had criticised this programme in September
2008, while UTRK told RFE/RL that its programming
was too negative. Reporters Without Borders, which
ranks Kyrgyzstan 111th equal out of 173 countries on its
Press Freedom Index, strongly criticised the decision.

Military

On 3 February 2009, President Kurmanbek Bakiyev announced the imminent closure of the Manas Air Base,
the only US military base remaining in Central Asia.[47]
The closure was approved by Parliament on 19 February
2009 by 781 for the government-backed bill.[48] However, after much behind-the-scenes negotiation between
Kyrgyz, Russian and American diplomats, the decision
was reversed in June 2009. The Americans were allowed Kyrgyzstan soldiers conducting mine sweeping exercises.
to remain under a new contract, whereby rent would increase from $17.4 million to $60 million annually.[49]
Main article: Military of Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan is among the twenty countries in the world
with the highest perceived level of corruption: the 2008 The armed forces of Kyrgyzstan were formed after the
Corruption Perception Index for Kyrgyzstan is 1.8 on a collapse of the Soviet Union and consist of the land
scale of 0 (most corrupt) to 10 (least corrupt).[50]
forces, air and air defense forces, internal troops, national
In 2010 erupted another revolution in the country (see: guard, and the border guard. The military works with
April uprising), which caused President Kurmanbek the US Armed Forces, which leased a facility named
International airBakiyev together with his relatives e.g. son Maksim[51] the Transit Center at Manas at Manas
[55]
port
near
Bishkek
until
June
2014.
In recent years,
and brother Janish were forced to ee to Kazakhstan
the
armed
forces
have
begun
developing
better relations
and then to sought asylum in Belarus. Roza Otunbayeva,
with
Russia
including
signing
modernization
deals worth
who was appointed interim president, announced that she
$1.1bn
and
partaking
in
more
exercises
with
Russian
did not intend to run for the Presidential elections in 2011.
[56]
troops.
The
Agency
of
National
Security
works
with
The election was held in November and won by Almazbek
the
military
and
serves
similar
purposes
to
its
Soviet
preAtambayev, leader of the Social Democratic Party and
the then-Prime Minister. Atambayev was sworn in as the decessor, the KGB. It oversees an elite counterterrorism
President on 1 December 2011 and Omurbek Babanov special forces unit known as Alfa, the same name used
was appointed the new Prime Minister on the same day by other former Soviet countries, including Russia and
Uzbekistan. The police are commanded by the Ministry
and was conrmed on 23 December 2011.
of the Interior, along with the border guard.

3.1

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Kyrgyzstan

3.3 Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Kyrgyzstan and Districts of
Kyrgyzstan

In a move that alarmed human rights groups, dozens of

prominent Uzbek religious and community leaders were Kyrgyzstan is divided into seven regions (sing. oblast
arrested by security forces following the 2010 South Kyr- (), pl. oblasttar ()) administered by ap-

7
pointed governors. The capital, Bishkek, and the second
largest city Osh are administratively independent cities
(shaar) with a status equal to a region.
The regions, and independent cities, are as follows:
1. City of Bishkek
2. Batken
3. Chuy
4. Jalal-Abad
5. Naryn
6. Osh

The Tian Shan mountain range in Kyrgyzstan.

7. Talas
8. Issyk-Kul
9. City of Osh
Each region comprises a number of districts (raions),
administered by government-appointed ocials (akim).
Rural communities (ayl kmt), consisting of up to
20 small settlements, have their own elected mayors and
councils.

Geography
On the southern shore of Issyk Kul lake, Issyk Kul Region.

Main article: Geography of Kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia, bordering Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. It
lies between latitudes 39 and 44 N, and longitudes 69
and 81 E. It is farther from the sea than any other individual country, and all its rivers ow into closed drainage
systems which do not reach the sea. The mountainous
region of the Tian Shan covers over 80% of the country
(Kyrgyzstan is occasionally referred to as the Switzerland of Central Asia, as a result),[57] with the remainder
made up of valleys and basins.

A map of Kyrgyzstan.
Topography
7000 m

Bishkek

3500 m

Lake Issyk Kul

100 m

Jengish Chokusu
7,439 m

World Stereographic Projection

Central Meridian: 75 E
Latitude of Origin: 41 N
Source: USGS Earth Explorer
Created by: John Emery
27 October, 2011

Osh
0

(km)

Kyrgyzstans topography.

320

200
(mi)

Issyk-Kul Lake in the north-eastern Tian Shan is the

largest lake in Kyrgyzstan and the second largest mountain lake in the world after Titicaca. The highest peaks
are in the Kakshaal-Too range, forming the Chinese border. Peak Jengish Chokusu, at 7,439 m (24,406 ft), is
the highest point and is considered by geologists to be the
northernmost peak over 7,000 m (22,966 ft) in the world.
Heavy snowfall in winter leads to spring oods which often cause serious damage downstream. The runo from
the mountains is also used for hydro-electricity.
Kyrgyzstan has signicant deposits of metals including
gold and rare earth metals. Due to the countrys predom-

5 ECONOMY

inantly mountainous terrain, less than 8% of the land is ayyl is about 60 kilometres (37 mi) east of Batken, in a
cultivated, and this is concentrated in the northern low- northward projection of the Kyrgyz-Uzbek border near
lands and the fringes of the Fergana Valley.
Khalmion.
Bishkek in the north is the capital and largest city, with
approximately 900,000 inhabitants (as of 2005). The
second city is the ancient town of Osh, located in the Fergana Valley near the border with Uzbekistan. The principal river is the Kara Darya, which ows west through
the Fergana Valley into Uzbekistan. Across the border
in Uzbekistan it meets another major Kyrgyz river, the
Naryn.

There also are two enclaves belonging to Tajikistan:

Vorukh (exclave area between 95130 km2 (3750 sq
mi), population estimated between 23,000 and 29,000,
95% Tajiks and 5% Kyrgyz, distributed among 17 villages), located 45 kilometres (28 mi) south of Isfara on
the right bank of the Karafshin river, and a small settlement near the Kyrgyz railway station of Kairagach.

The conuence forms the Syr Darya, which originally

owed into the Aral Sea. As of 2010, it no longer 5 Economy
reaches the sea, as its water is withdrawn upstream to irrigate cotton elds in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and southMain article: Economy of Kyrgyzstan
ern Kazakhstan. The Chu River also briey ows through
The National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic serves as the
Kyrgyzstan before entering Kazakhstan.

4.1

Ecology

4.2

Climate

Main article: Climate of Kyrgyzstan

The climate varies regionally. The south-western Fergana
Valley is subtropical and extremely hot in summer, with
temperatures reaching 40 C (104 F) The northern
foothills are temperate and the Tian Shan varies from dry
continental to polar climate, depending on elevation. In
the coldest areas temperatures are sub-zero for around 40
days in winter, and even some desert areas experience
A proportional representation of Kyrgyzstan 's exports.
constant snowfall in this period.

4.3

Enclaves and exclaves

There is one exclave, the tiny village of Barak[58] (population 627), in the Fergana Valley. The village is surrounded by Uzbek territory. It is located on the road from
Osh (Kyrgyzstan) to Khodjaabad (Uzbekistan) about 4
kilometres (2 miles) north-west from the KyrgyzUzbek
border in the direction of Andijan.[59] Barak is administratively part of Kara-Suu District in Kyrgyzstans Osh
Region.
There are four Uzbek enclaves within Kyrgyzstan. Two
of them are the towns of Sokh (area 325 km2 (125 sq mi)
and a population of 42,800 in 1993, although some estimates go as high as 70,000; 99% are Tajiks, the remainder Uzbeks) and Shakhimardan (also known as Shahimardan, Shohimardon, or Shah-i-Mardan, area 90 km2
(35 sq mi) and a population of 5,100 in 1993; 91% are
Uzbeks, the remainder Kyrgyz); the other two are the tiny
territories of Chong-Kara (roughly 3 km (2 mi) long by 1
km (0.6 mi) wide) and Jangy-ayyl (a dot of land barely 2
3 km (12 mi) across). Chong-Kara is on the Sokh river,
between the Uzbek border and the Sokh enclave. Jangy-

Old and new Bishkek buildings

Central bank of Kyrgyzstan. Kyrgyzstan was the second

poorest country in the former Soviet Union, and is today
the second poorest country in Central Asia. According
to the CIA World Factbook, in 2011, a third of the countrys population lived below the poverty line.[60] According to UNDP, the level of poverty will continue to grow:

9
in 2009 31% of the population lived below the poverty
level while in 2011 this gure rose to 37%.[61]
Despite the backing of major Western lenders, including
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank
and the Asian Development Bank, Kyrgyzstan has had
economic diculties following independence. Initially,
these were a result of the breakup of the Soviet trading
bloc and resulting loss of markets, which impeded the
republics transition to a demand economy.
The government has reduced expenditures, ended most
price subsidies and introduced a value-added tax. Overall, the government appears committed to the transition
to a market economy. Through economic stabilization
and reform, the government seeks to establish a pattern The Dordoy Bazaar.
of long-term consistent growth. Reforms led to Kyrgyzstans accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO)
on 20 December 1998.
plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable
The Kyrgyz economy was severely aected by the col- it to produce and export large quantities of hydroelectric
lapse of the Soviet Union and the resulting loss of its vast energy.
market. In 1990, some 98% of Kyrgyz exports went to On a local level, the economy is primarily kiosk in naother parts of the Soviet Union. Thus, the nations eco- ture. A large amount of local commerce occurs at bazaars
nomic performance in the early 1990s was worse than any and small village kiosks in country regions. A signicant
other former Soviet republic except war-torn Armenia, amount of trade is unregulated. There is also a scarcity
Azerbaijan and Tajikistan, as factories and state farms of common everyday consumer items in remote villages.
collapsed with the disappearance of their traditional mar- Thus a large number of homes are quite self-sucient
kets in the former Soviet Union. While economic perfor- with respect to food production. There is a distinct difmance has improved considerably in the last few years, ferentiation between urban and rural economies.
and particularly since 1998, diculties remain in securing adequate scal revenues and providing an adequate The principal exports are nonferrous metals and minersocial safety net. Remittances of around 800,000 Kyrgyz als, woollen goods and other agricultural products, elecmigrants working in Russia represent 40% of Kyrgyzs- tric energy and certain engineering goods. Imports include petroleum and natural gas, ferrous metals, chemtans GDP.[62][63]
icals, most machinery, wood and paper products, some
Agriculture is an important sector of the economy in Kyr- foods and some construction materials. Its leading trade
gyzstan (see agriculture in Kyrgyzstan). By the early partners include Germany, Russia, China, Kazakhstan,
1990s, the private agricultural sector provided between and Uzbekistan.
one-third and one-half of some harvests. In 2002, agriculture accounted for 35.6% of GDP and about half of In regards to telecommunication infrastructure, Kyrgyz
employment. Kyrgyzstans terrain is mountainous, which Republic ranks last in Central Asia in the World Ecoaccommodates livestock raising, the largest agricultural nomic Forums Network Readiness Index (NRI) an inactivity, so the resulting wool, meat and dairy products dicator for determining the development level of a counare major commodities. Main crops include wheat, sugar trys information and communication technologies. Kyrbeets, potatoes, cotton, tobacco, vegetables, and fruit. As gyz Republic ranked number 118 overall in the 2014 NRI
the prices of imported agrichemicals and petroleum are so ranking, unchanged from 2013 (see Networked Readihigh, much farming is being done by hand and by horse, ness Index).
as it was generations ago. Agricultural processing is a key
component of the industrial economy as well as one of the
most attractive sectors for foreign investment.
Kyrgyzstan is rich in mineral resources but has negligible
petroleum and natural gas reserves; it imports petroleum
and gas. Among its mineral reserves are substantial deposits of coal, gold, uranium, antimony, and other valuable metals. Metallurgy is an important industry, and
the government hopes to attract foreign investment in
this eld. The government has actively encouraged foreign involvement in extracting and processing gold from
the Kumtor Gold Mine and other regions. The countrys

6 Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Kyrgyzstan

Kyrgyzstans population is estimated at 5.6 million in
2013.[2] Of those, 34.4% are under the age of 15 and
6.2% are over 65. The country is rural: only about onethird of the population live in urban areas. The average
population density is 25 people per km.

10

6 DEMOGRAPHICS
Kyrgyz is a Turkic language of the Kipchak branch,
closely related to Kazakh, Karakalpak, and Nogay Tatar.
It was written in the Arabic alphabet until the twentieth century. Latin script was introduced and adopted in
1928, and was subsequently replaced by Cyrillic script in
1941.
According to the 2009 census,[73] 4.1 million people
spoke Kyrgyz as native or second language and 2.5 million spoke Russian as native or second language. Uzbek is
the second most widely spoken native language, followed
by Russian. Russian is the most widely spoken second
language, followed by Kyrgyz, Uzbek, and English.

A population pyramid showing Kyrgyzstans age distribution

(2005).

6.1

Ethnic groups

Many business and political aairs are carried out in Russian. Until recently, Kyrgyz remained a language spoken
at home and was rarely used during meetings or other
events. However, most parliamentary meetings today are
conducted in Kyrgyz, with simultaneous interpretation
available for those not speaking Kyrgyz.

The nations largest ethnic group are the Kyrgyz, a Turkic

people, who comprise 72% of the population (2013 esti- 6.3 Population centres
mate). Other ethnic groups include Russians (9.0%) concentrated in the north and Uzbeks (14.5%) living in the Main article: List of cities in Kyrgyzstan
south. Small but noticeable minorities include Dungans
(1.9%), Uyghurs (1.1%), Tajiks (1.1%), Kazakhs (0.7%),
and Ukrainians (0.5%) and other smaller ethnic minori6.4 Religion
ties (1.7%). The country has over 80 ethnic groups.[64]
The Kyrgyz have historically been semi-nomadic herders,
Main article: Religion in Kyrgyzstan
living in round tents called yurts and tending sheep, horses
Islam is the dominant religion of Kyrgyzstan: 80% of
and yaks. This nomadic tradition continues to function seasonally (see transhumance) as herding families
return to the high mountain pasture (or jailoo) in the
summer. The sedentary Uzbeks and Tajiks traditionally
have farmed lower-lying irrigated land in the Fergana valley.[65]
Kyrgyzstan has undergone a pronounced change in its
ethnic composition since independence.[66] The percentage of ethnic Kyrgyz has increased from around 50% in
1979 to over 70% in 2013, while the percentage of European ethnic groups (Russians, Ukrainians and Germans)
as well as Tatars dropped from 35% to about 10%.[2]
The percentage of ethnic Russians dropped from 29.2%
in 1970 to 21.5% in 1989.[67] Since 1991, huge numbers of Germans, who in 1989 numbered 101,000 persons, have been immigrating to Germany.[68] More than Karakol Dungan Mosque
600,000 people emigrated in the 1990s, many of them
the population is Muslim while 17% follow Russian Ormembers of ethnic minorities.[28]
thodoxy and 3% other religions.[75] A 2009 Pew Research Center report indicates a higher percentage of
Muslims, with 86.3% of Kyrgyzstans population adhering to Islam.[76] The majority of Muslims are non6.2 Languages
denominational Muslims at 64% while roughly 23% are
[77]
Kyrgyzstan is one of two former Soviet republics in Sunni, adhering to the Hana school of thought. There
Muslims, though unrecognised by
Central Asia to retain Russian as an ocial language, are a few Ahmadiyya
[78]
the
country.
Kazakhstan being the other. It added the Kyrgyz
language to become an ocially bilingual country in During Soviet times, state atheism was encouraged. ToSeptember 1991.
day, however, Kyrgyzstan is a secular state, although Is-

11
lam has exerted a growing inuence in politics.[79] For
instance, there has been an attempt to arrange for ocials to travel on hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca) under a
tax-free arrangement.
While Islam in Kyrgyzstan is more of a cultural background than a devout daily practice for many, public gures have expressed support for restoring religious values. For example, human rights ombudsman Tursunbay
Bakir-Ulu noted, In this era of independence, it is not
surprising that there has been a return to spiritual roots
not only in Kyrgyzstan, but also in other post-communist
republics. It would be immoral to develop a market-based
society without an ethical dimension.[79]
Mosque under construction in Kyrgyzstan

A few Animistic traditions survive, as do inuences from

Buddhism such as the tying of prayer ags onto sacred
trees, though some view this practice rooted within Su
Islam.[84] There are also a small number of Bukharian
Jews living in Kyrgyzstan, but during the collapse of the
Soviet Union most ed to other countries, mainly the
United States and Israel. In addition, there is a small community of Ashkenazi Jews, who ed to the country from
eastern Europe during the Second World War.
On 6 November 2008, the Kyrgyzstan parliament unanimously passed a law increasing the minimum number of
adherents for recognizing a religion from 10 to 200. It
also outlawed aggressive action aimed at proselytism",
and banned religious activity in schools and all activity
by unregistered organizations. It was signed by President
Kurmanbek Bakiyev on 12 January 2009.[85]

7 Culture
Main articles: Culture of Kyrgyzstan and Kyrgyz cuisine
Bishkek Orthodox Church

Additionally, Bermet Akayeva, the daughter of Askar

Akayev, the former President of Kyrgyzstan, stated during a July 2007 interview that Islam is increasingly taking root across the nation.[80] She emphasized that many
mosques have recently been built and that the Kyrgyz
are increasingly devoting themselves to Islam, which she
noted was not a bad thing in itself. It keeps our society
more moral, cleaner.[80] There is a contemporary Su
order present which gives a somewhat dierent form of
Islam than the orthodox Islam.[81]
The other faiths practiced in Kyrgyzstan include
Russian Orthodox and Ukrainian Orthodox versions Musicians playing traditional Kyrgyz music.
of Christianity, practiced primarily by Russians and
Ukrainians respectively. A small minority of ethnic
Germans are also Christian, mostly Lutheran and
Manas, an epic poem
Anabaptist as well as a Roman Catholic community of
approximately 600.[82][83]
Komuz, a three-stringed lute

12

7 CULTURE

Tush kyiz, large, elaborately embroidered wall hang- Very popular, as in all of Central Asia, is Ulak Tartysh,
ings
a team game resembling a cross between polo and rugby
in which two teams of riders wrestle for possession of the
Shirdak, at cushions made in shadow-pairs[86]
headless carcass of a goat, which they attempt to deliver
across the oppositions goal line, or into the oppositions
Other textiles, especially made from felt
goal: a big tub or a circle marked on the ground.
Falconry

7.1

Traditions

In addition to celebrating the New Year each 1 January, the Kyrgyz observe the traditional New Year festival Nowruz on the vernal equinox. This spring holiday
is celebrated with feasts and festivities such as the horse
game Ulak Tartish.
Illegal, but still practiced, is the tradition of bride kidnapping.[87]
It is debatable whether bride kidnapping is actually traditional. Some of the confusion may stem from the fact that
arranged marriages were traditional, and one of the ways
to escape an arranged marriage was to arrange a consensual kidnapping.[88]

7.2

Flag

Other popular games on horseback include:

At Chabysh a long-distance horse race, sometimes
over a distance of more than 50 km
Jumby Atmai a large bar of precious metal (the
jumby) is tied to a pole by a thread and contestants
attempt to break the thread by shooting at it, while
at a gallop
Kyz Kuumai a man chases a girl in order to win a
kiss from her, while she gallops away; if he is not
successful she may in turn chase him and attempt to
beat him with her kamchi (horsewhip)
Oodarysh two contestants wrestle on horseback,
each attempting to be the rst to throw the other
from his horse
Tyin Emmei picking up a coin from the ground at
full gallop

The 40-rayed yellow sun in the center of the ag represent the 40 tribes that once made up the entirety of Kyrgyz culture before the intervention of Russia during the
rise of the soviet union. The lines inside the sun represent the crown or tndk (Kyrgyz ) of a yurt, a
symbol replicated in many facets of Kyrgyz architecture.
The red portion of the ag represents peace and openness
of Kyrgyzstan.

Southern shore of Issyk Kul Lake.

7.4 Public holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Kyrgyzstan
This is the list of public holidays in Kyrgyzstan:
1 January New Years Day
Hunting with an eagle

7 January Orthodox Christmas

23 February Fatherland Defenders Day

7.3

Horseback riding

The traditional national sports reect the importance of

horse riding in Kyrgyz culture.

8 March Womens Day

21 March Nooruz, Persian New Year spring festival

7.6

Sports

24 March Day of National Revolution

1 May Labor Day
5 May Constitution Day
8 May Remembrance Day
9 May Victory Day (end of World War II)

13
is also a ski base with three T-bars and rental equipment
available of good quality.

7.6 Sports
See also: Rugby union in Kyrgyzstan
Football is the most popular sport in Kyrgyzstan. The of-

31 August Independence Day

7 November Day of the Great October Socialist
Revolution

Kyrgyzstan in red against Japan

Issyk Kul Lake

cial governing body is the Football Federation of Kyrgyz

Republic, which was founded in 1992, after the split of
the Soviet Union. It administers the Kyrgyzstan national
football team.[90]

Wrestling is also a very popular sport in KyrgyzsTwo additional Muslim holidays Orozo Ait and Kurman tan. In the 2008 Summer Olympic Games, two athAit are dened by lunar calendar.
letes from Kyrgyzstan won medals in Greco-Roman
wrestling: Kanatbek Begaliev (silver) and Ruslan Tiumenbaev (bronze).[91]

7.5

Tourism

Ice hockey has not been as popular in Kyrgyzstan, until the rst Ice Hockey Championship was organized in
2009. In 2011, the Kyrgyzstan mens national ice hockey
team won 2011 Asian Winter Games Premier Division
dominating in all six games with six wins. It was the rst
major international event that Kyrgyzstans ice hockey
team took part in.[92] The Kyrgyzstan mens ice hockey
team joined the IIHF on July 2011.

One of the most popular tourist destination points in Kyrgyzstan is Issyk Kul Lake. Numerous hotels, vacation resorts, boarding houses and sanatoriums are located along
its Northern shore. The most popular beach zones are in
the city of Cholpon-Ata and the settlements nearby, such
as Kara-Oi (Dolinka), Bosteri and Korumdy. The number of tourists visiting the lake was more than a million
a year in 2006 and 2007. However, due to the economi- Bandy is becoming increasingly popular in the country.
cal and political instability in the region, the number has The Kyrgyz national team took Kyrgyzstans rst medal at
declined in recent years.[89]
the Asian Winter Games, when they captured the bronze.
For those interested in trekking and camping, every re- They played in the Bandy World Championship 2012,
gion oers attractions and challenges. Some of the most their rst appearance in that tournament.[93]
popular locations for camping are southern Osh, the area
between Naryn City and the Torugart pass, and the mountains and glaciers surrounding Karakol in Issyk-Kul. Lo- 8 Education
cal guides and porters can be hired from many tour companies in Bishkek and in the regional capitals.
Main article: Education in Kyrgyzstan
Skiing is still in its infancy as a tourism industry, but there
is one fairly cheap and well-equipped base about a halfhour from Bishkek. The ski base of Toguz Bulak is 45 km
(28 mi) from Bishkek, on the way to Issyk Ata valley. In
the Karakol Valley National Park, outside Karakol, there

The school system in Kyrgyzstan includes primary

(grades 1 to 4) and secondary (grades 5 to 11 (or sometimes 12)) divisions within one school. Children are usually accepted to primary schools at the age of 7. It is
required that every child nishes 9 grades of school and

14

9 TRANSPORT

American University of Central Asia

receives a certicate of completion. Grades 1011 are

optional, but it is necessary to complete them to graduate
and receive a state-accredited school diploma. To graduate, a student must complete the 11-year school course
and pass 4 mandatory state exams in writing, maths, history and a foreign language.

Bishkek West Bus Terminal

There are 77 public schools in Bishkek (capital city) and

more than 200 in the rest of the country. There are 55
higher educational institutions and universities in Kyrgyzstan, out of which 37 are state institutions.

9 Transport

Higher educational institutions in Kyrgyzstan include:

Main article: Transport in Kyrgyzstan

International University Of Kyrgyzstan

University of Central Asia
American University of Central Asia
Bishkek Humanities University

Transport in Kyrgyzstan is severely constrained by the

countrys alpine topography. Roads have to snake up
steep valleys, cross passes of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) altitude and more, and are subject to frequent mud slides
and snow avalanches. Winter travel is close to impossible
in many of the more remote and high-altitude regions.

Additional problems come from the fact that many roads

and railway lines built during the Soviet period are today
International Atatrk-Alatoo University
intersected by international boundaries, requiring timeconsuming border formalities to cross where they are not
University of Economy and Enterprise
completely closed. Horses are still a much-used transport
Kyrgyz State University of Construction, Transport option, especially in more rural areas; Kyrgyzstans road
and Architecture n.a. N. Isanov
infrastructure is not extensive, so horses are able to reach
locations that motor vehicles cannot, and they do not reKyrgyz National University
quire expensive, imported fuel.

Kyrgyz Technical University

Kyrgyz State Pedagogical University, formerly
Arabaev Kyrgyz State University
Kyrgyz Russian Slavonic University
Kyrgyz-Russian State University
Kyrgyz-Turkish MANAS University[94]
Social University (previously Kyrgyz-Uzbek University)
Moskov Institute Of Law And Enterprise
Osh State University
Osh Technological University
Plato University of Management and Design
International School of Medicine

9.1 Airports
At the end of the Soviet period there were about 50 airports and airstrips in Kyrgyzstan, many of them built primarily to serve military purposes in this border region so
close to China. Only a few of them remain in service today. The Kyrgyzstan Air Company provides air transport
to China, Russia, and other local countries.
Manas International Airport near Bishkek is the
main international airport, with services to Moscow,
Tashkent, Almaty, Beijing, Urumqi, Istanbul, London, Baku, Dubai (from 7 February 2012).
Osh Airport is the main air terminal in the south of
the country, with daily connections to Bishkek.
Jalal-Abad Airport is linked to Bishkek by daily
ights. The national ag carrier, Kyrgyzstan, operates ights on BAe-146 aircraft. During the sum-

9.5

Waterways

15

mer months, a weekly ight links Jalal-Abad with

the Issyk-Kul Region.
Other facilities built during the Soviet era are either
closed down, used only occasionally or restricted
to military use (e.g., Kant Air Base near Bishkek,
which is used by the Russian Air Force).

9.2

Banned airline status

Kyrgyzstan appears on the European Unions list of prohibited countries for the certication of airlines. This
means that no airline which is registered in Kyrgyzstan
may operate services of any kind within the European Street scene in Osh.
Union, due to safety standards which fail to meet European regulations.[95]
total: 34,000 km (21,127 mi) (including 140 km (87
mi) of expressways)

9.3

Railways

paved: 22,600 km (14,043 mi) (includes some allweather gravel-surfaced roads)

The Chuy Valley in the north and the Ferghana valley in

the south were endpoints of the Soviet Union's rail sys unpaved: 7,700 km (4,785 mi) (these roads are
tem in Central Asia. Following the emergence of indemade of unstabilized earth and are dicult to nependent post-Soviet states, the rail lines which were built
gotiate in wet weather) (1990)
without regard for administrative boundaries have been
cut by borders, and trac is therefore severely curtailed.
The small bits of rail lines within Kyrgyzstan, about 370 9.5 Waterways
km (230 mi) (1,520 mm (59.8 in) broad gauge) in total,
have little economic value in the absence of the former Water transport exists only on Issyk Kul Lake, and has
bulk trac over long distances to and from such centres drastically shrunk since the end of the Soviet Union.
as Tashkent, Almaty, and the cities of Russia.
There are vague plans about extending rail lines from 9.6 Ports and harbours
Balykchy in the north and/or from Osh in the south into
China, but the cost of construction would be enormous. Balykchy (Ysyk-Kol or Rybach'ye), on Issyk Kul Lake.
9.3.1

Rail links with adjacent countries

Kazakhstan yes Bishkek branch same gauge

Uzbekistan yes Osh branch same gauge
Tajikistan no same gauge

10 See also
Outline of Kyrgyzstan
Index of Kyrgyzstan-related articles
Chinghiz Aitmatov

China no Break of gauge 1524 mm/1435 mm

9.4

Highways

With support from the Asian Development Bank, a major road linking the north and southwest from Bishkek
to Osh has recently been completed. This considerably
eases communication between the two major population
centres of the countrythe Chuy Valley in the north and
the Fergana Valley in the South. An oshoot of this road
branches o across a 3,500 meter pass into the Talas Valley in the northwest. Plans are now being formulated to
build a major road from Osh into China.

11 References
[1] Constitution. Government of Kyrgyzstan.
Article 5
1. The state language of the Kyrgyz Republic shall be the
Kyrgyz language.
2. In the Kyrgyz Republic, the Russian language shall be
used in the capacity of an ocial language.
[2] Ethnic composition of the population in Kyrgyzstan
19992014 (PDF) (in Russian). National Statistical
Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic. Retrieved 14 April
2014.

16

[3] Kyrgysztan in the CIA World Factbook.

[4] Long-awaited six millionth resident born in Kyrgyzstan.
24.kg News Agency. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
[5] Kyrgyzstan. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved
18 April 2012.
[6] 2014 Human Development Report Summary (PDF).
United Nations Development Programme. 2014. pp. 21
25. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[7] Or /krstn/ kir-gi-STAHN, or with the stress on the
rst syllable. See J. C. Wells, Longman Pronunciation
Dictionary, 3rd ed. (Harlow, England: Pearson Education
Ltd., 2008).
[8] BBC News Kyrgyzstan prole Leaders. Bbc.co.uk.
14 December 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
[9] Investigating Kyrgyzstans ethnic violence: Bloody business. The Economist. 12 May 2011. Retrieved 26
March 2013.
[10] Foreigners in Kyrgyzstan: 'Will We Be Banned, Too?'".
EurasiaNet.org. 15 June 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
[11] Kyrgyz private armies incite permanent revolution
RT. Rt.com. 17 March 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
[12] Kyrgyzstan: Economy globalEDGE: Your source for
Global Business Knowledge. Globaledge.msu.edu. 20
December 1998. Retrieved 26 March 2013.

11

REFERENCES

[22] Wells, R. S.; Yuldasheva, N.; Ruzibakiev, R.; Underhill, P. A.; Evseeva, I.; Blue-Smith, J.; Jin, L.; Su, B.;
Pitchappan, R.; Shanmugalakshmi, S.; Balakrishnan, K.;
Read, M.; Pearson, N. M.; Zerjal, T.; Webster, M. T.;
Zholoshvili, I.; Jamarjashvili, E.; Gambarov, S.; Nikbin,
B.; Dostiev, A.; Aknazarov, O.; Zalloua, P.; Tsoy, I.;
Kitaev, M.; Mirrakhimov, M.; Chariev, A.; Bodmer,
W. F. (2001). The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences 98 (18): 10244
10249. doi:10.1073/pnas.171305098. PMC 56946.
PMID 11526236.
[23] Kyrgyzstan. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2010. Retrieved
14 April 2010.
[24] Zerjal, T.; Wells, R. S.; Yuldasheva, N.; Ruzibakiev, R.;
Tyler-Smith, C. (2002). A Genetic Landscape Reshaped
by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia. The American Journal of Human Genetics 71
(3): 46682. doi:10.1086/342096. PMC 419996. PMID
12145751.
[25] "KyrgyzstanMongol Domination" Library of Congress
Country Studies.
[26] "Uzbekistan The Jadidists and Basmachis". Library of
Congress Country Studies.
[27] Djumataeva, Venera (11 December 2009). 1989 Kyrgyz
Protests Verged On Ethnic Conict. Rferl.org.
[28] KYRGYZSTAN: Economic disparities driving interethnic conict. IRIN Asia. 15 February 2006.

[13] Kyrgyz Republic Economy: Population, GDP, Ination,

Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption. Heritage.org. Retrieved 26 March 2013.

[29] "Ethnic Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan Voice Complaints Over

Discrimination, Corruption". EurasiaNet.org. 24 January
2006.

[14] BBC News Kyrgyzstan prole Timeline. Bbc.co.uk.

10 October 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2013.

[30] Tkachenko, Maxim (9 April 2010). Kyrgyz president

says he won't resign. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[15] Kyrgyz Unrest. EurasiaNet.org. Retrieved 26 March

2013.

[31] Expert: Kyrgysztan could face civil war. UPI.com. 9

April 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[16] Chapter 1: Religious Aliation. The Worlds Muslims:

Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Centers Religion &
Public Life Project. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2013

[32] AFP (10 April 2010). Ousted Kyrgyz president is oered

'safe passage'". asiaone. Retrieved 9 August 2013.

[17] Forty tribes and the 40-ray sun on the ag of Kyrgyzstan,

SRASThe School of Russian and Asian Studies
[18] King, David C (2005). Kyrgyzstan. Marshall Cavendish.
p. 144. ISBN 0-7614-2013-4.
[19] Kyrgyzstan timeline. BBC News. 12 June 2010.
[20] Mirfatyh Zakiev, Origins of the Turks and Tatars, Part
Two, Third Chapter, sections 109100, 2002. Retrieved
on 15 May 2009
[21] V.V. Bartold, The Kyrgyz: A Historical Essay, Frunze,
1927. Reprinted in V.V. Bartold, Collected Works, Volume II, Part 1, Izd. Vostochnoi Literatury, Moscow,
1963, p. 480 (Russian)

[33] Kyrgyz President Bakiyev 'will resign if safe'". BBC

News. 13 April 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
[34] Ousted Kyrgyz president quits, leaves country. CNN.
16 April 2010.
[35] Leonard, Peter (7 April 2010). Kyrgyz Opposition Controls Government Building Check |url= value (help). The
Associated Press via ABC News.
[36] There are clashes in the Kyrgyzstan again. BBC. 11 June
2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
[37] Shuster, Simon. (1 August 2010) Signs of Uzbek Persecution Rising in Kyrgyzstan. Time.com. Retrieved on 6
December 2013.
[38] Kyrgyz president asks for Russian help. BBC. 12 June
2010. Retrieved 12 June 2010.

17

[39] Situation worsens in Kyrgyzstan. bbc.co.uk. 13 June

2010. Retrieved 13 June 2010.

[59] Map showing the location of the Kyrgyz exclave Barak.

Retrieved on 2 May 2009

[40] Ousted Kyrgyz Presidents family blamed. Associated

Press via The Indian Express. 12 June 2010. Retrieved
13 June 2010.

[60] CIA World Factbook. Percentage of population below

the poverty line by country. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 6 December 2013.

[41] Osh gets relatively calmer but Jalalabad ares up. BBC.
14 June 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2010.

[61] The Level of Poverty in Kyrgyzstan Will Continue to

Grow. The Gazette of Central Asia (Satrapia). 24 December 2012.

[42] UN and Russian aid arrives. BBC. 16 June 2010. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
[43] Kyrgyz Commission Begins Investigating Ethnic Clashes.
Rferl.org (2 August 2010). Retrieved on 6 December
2013.
[44] Siegel, Matt and Namatabayeva, Tolkun (5 August 2010)
Attempted coup rocks tense Kyrgyzstan. AFP.
[45] Clashes erupt in Kyrgyz capital. BBC Online.
November 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2007.

[46] Refworld | Demand for prior approval of RFE/RL programmes called intolerable"". United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees. 17 December 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
[47] Proposal to close the Manas Air Base. BBC News. 4
February 2009. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
[48] Kyrgyz Parliament Approves U.S. base closure. Associated Press. 19 February 2009
[49] Schwirtz, Michael and Levy, Cliord J. (23 June 2009) In
Reversal, Kyrgyzstan Won't Close a U.S. Base. New York
Times

[62] Kyrgyz unrest plays into regional rivalry. Reuters. 8

April 2010.
[63] Kyrgyzstan: Returning Labor Migrants are a Cause for
Concern. EurasiaNet.org. 2 April 2009.
[64] 10 Things You Need To Know About The Ethnic Unrest
In Kyrgyzstan. RFERL. 14 June 2010.
[65] "Kyrgyzstan population". Library of Congress Country Studies. This article incorporates text from this source,
which is in the public domain.
[66] KYRGYZSTAN: Focus on post-Akayev Russian exodus. IRIN Asia. 19 April 2005.
[67] Flynn, Moya (1994). Migrant resettlement in the Russian
federation: reconstructing 'homes and 'homelands. p. 15.
ISBN 1-84331-117-8.
[68] Kokaisl, Petr and Kokaislova, Pavla (2009). The Kyrgyz
Children of Manas. .
NOSTALGIE Praha. p. 132. ISBN 978-80-254-6365-9.
[69] http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_26.php

[50] 2008 Corruption Perception Index Check |url= value

(help). Transparency International. Retrieved 14 March
2009.

[70] http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_59.php

[51] Maksim Bakiyev tracked not only in Bishkek, but also in

the States?". Ferghana Information agency, Moscow. 16
October 2012.

[72] http://www.stat.kg/stat.files/din.files/census/5010003.
pdf

[52] Kramer, Andrew E. (1 July 2010). Uzbeks Accused of

Inciting Violence in Kyrgyzstan. The New York Times.
Retrieved 16 April 2011.

[73] "
(Population and Housing
Census of the Kyrgyz Republic), 2009. NSC of
Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

[53] Kyrgyzstan Passes Controversial Girl Travel Ban.

EurasiaNet.org (13 June 2013). Retrieved on 2 October
2014.

[71] http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php

[74] III (
).
National Committee on Statistics
2010.

[54] Kyrgyzstan moves towards adoption of Russias anti-gay

law. The Guardian. Retrieved 17 October 2014.

[75] Kyrgyzstan. State.gov. Retrieved 17 April 2010.

[55] Vandiver, John (5 February 2014). First troops move

through new US transit point in Romania. www.stripes.
com. Stars and Stripes. Retrieved 5 February 2014.

[76] MAPPING THE GLOBAL MUSLIM POPULATION.

A Report on the Size and Distribution of the Worlds Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. October 2009

[56] Ott, Stephanie (18 September 2014). Russia tightens

control over Kyrgyzstan. The Guardian.

[77] Pew Forum on Religious & Public life. 9 August 2012.

Retrieved 29 October 2013.

[57] Escobar, Pepe (26 March 2005). The Tulip Revolution

takes root. Asia Times Online.

[78] Kyrgyz Ocials Reject Muslim Sect. RFE/RL. 6 January 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2014.

[58] The exclave of Barak, Kyrgyzstan in Uzbekistan. Retrieved on 2 May 2009

[79] ISN Security Watch Islam exerts growing inuence on

Kyrgyz politics. Isn.ethz.ch. Retrieved 2 May 2010.

18

13

EXTERNAL LINKS

[80] EurasiaNet Civil Society Kyrgyzstan: Time to

Ponder a Federal System Ex-Presidents Daughter.
Eurasianet.org. 17 July 2007. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
[81] Religion and expressive culture Kyrgyz. Everyculture.com. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
[82] Kirguistn la Iglesia renace con 600 catlicos. ZENIT.
2 October 2008.
[83] Religion in Kyrgyzstan Check |archiveurl= value (help).
Asia.msu.edu. 4 March 2010. Archived from the original
on 2 July 2007. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
[84] Shaikh Muhammad Bin Jamil Zeno, Muhammad Bin
Jamil Zeno, 2006, pg. 264
[85] Human Rights Activists Condemn New Religion Law.
Eurasianet.org. 16 January 2009. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
[86] Aidar, Iliyas. Kyrgyz Style Production Souvenirs
Check |url= value (help). Kyrgyzstyle.kg. Retrieved 2
May 2010.
[87] Lom, Petr (March 2004). Synopsis of The Kidnapped
Bride". Frontline/World.
[88] Reconciled to Violence: State Failure to Stop Domestic
Abuse and Abduction of Women in Kyrgyzstan. Human
Rights Watch Report. September 2006, Vol. 18, No.9.
[89] Issyk-Kul: Chasing short-term prot. New Eurasia. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
[90] Kyrgyzstan. FIFA. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
[91] Kyrgyzstan Olympic Medals.
USATODAY. 16
September 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
[92] Lundqvist, Henrik (5 February 2011). Kyrgyzstan wins
the Asian Winter Games Premier Division 2011. EuroHockey.
[93] Team picture with Japan after their rst meeting in the
World Championships. bandy.or.jp.
[94] Kyrgyz-Turkish MANAS University. Manas.kg. Retrieved 2 May 2010.

Issyk Kul Lake

Politics of Language in the Ex-Soviet Muslim States:

Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Turkmenistan and Tajikistan by Jacob M. Landau and Barbara Kellner-Heinkele. Ann Arbor,
University of Michigan Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0472-11226-5
Kyrgyzstan: Traditions of Nomads by V. Kadyrov,
Rarity Ltd., Bishkek, 2005. ISBN 9967-424-42-7

13 External links
Government
President of Kyrgyzstan ocial site
Government of Kyrgyzstan ocial site
Parliament of Kyrgyzstan ocial site
Laws of the Kyrgyz Republic
General information

[95] List of banned E.U. air carriers. Retrieved 2 May 2010.

Country Prole from BBC News

12

Further reading

Kyrgyzstan entry at The World Factbook

Kyrgyzstan at UCB Libraries GovPubs

Historical Dictionary of Kyrgyzstan by Ras Abazov

Kyrgyzstan: Central Asias Island of Democracy? by
John Anderson
Kyrgyzstan: The Growth and Inuence of Islam in
the Nations of Asia and Central Asia by Daniel E.
Harmon
Lonely Planet Guide: Central Asia by Paul Clammer,
Michael Kohn and Bradley Mayhew
Odyssey Guide: Kyrgyz Republic by Ceri Fairclough,
Rowan Stewart and Susie Weldon

Kyrgyzstan travel guide from Wikivoyage

Kyrgyz Publishing and Bibliography
Key Development Forecasts for Kyrgyzstan from
International Futures
Maps
Wikimedia Atlas of Kyrgyzstan

19

14
14.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Kyrgyzstan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan?oldid=693787949 Contributors: Kpjas, Derek Ross, The Anome, Loe,
Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, -- April, Scipius, Rmhermen, Christian List, William Avery, SimonP, Drbug, Fonzy, Olivier, Stevertigo, Hfastedge, DopeshJustin, Gabbe, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Stan Shebs, Ronz, Docu, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, KoyaanisQatsi, Den
fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Jiang, GCarty, CarlKenner, Tobias Conradi, Hashar, TheSeez, Timwi, Rob.derosa, Lfh, WhisperToMe, Wik,
IceKarma, Tpbradbury, Grendelkhan, Morwen, Garry Saint, Esquire, Omegatron, Mang kiko, Cncs wikipedia, Jeq, Dimadick, Robbot,
Vardion, The Phoenix, Misterrick, Kristof vt, Altenmann, Romanm, Naddy, Smallweed, Samrolken, Mirv, Babbage, Merovingian, Egon,
Hemanshu, Ktotam, Ojigiri~enwiki, Bkell, Hadal, Roozbeh, Profoss, Vikingstad, Gangle, Lupo, Lzur, Mattaschen, Carnildo, Filemon,
MPF, Seabhcan, Ferkelparade, Everyking, Snowdog, Wouterhagens, Varlaam, Cantus, Rick Block, Jp~enwiki, Nkocharh, Dagestan, Avala,
Bobblewik, Ragib, Golbez, Alanl, Cosal868, Wmahan, Neilc, Gadum, Utcursch, 159753, Ruy Lopez, Knutux, Antandrus, Kkk, Lesgles,
Mikko Paananen, OwenBlacker, Secfan, Yggdrsil, AndrewKeenanRichardson, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Okapi~enwiki, Sarcelles, Trilobite, Thorwald, Bluemask, Danh, N-k, Mike Rosoft, D6, Sdrawkcab, Jayjg, Haruo, Discospinster, Iainscott, Kibinsky, Pmsyyz, Vsmith,
Kenwarren, Wikiacc, HeikoEvermann, Ahkond, BeringStrait, Berkut, Mani1, Bender235, Zaslav, Konstantin~enwiki, Doron, Livajo, Zscout370, MBisanz, Sfahey, El C, Fenevad, Cherry blossom tree, Bletch, Kwamikagami, Art LaPella, Markussep, RobNS, Erauch, Bobo192,
Acntx, PeterisP, Hintha, Sam Korn, Firespeaker, Pharos, Kaf, Ranveig, Jumbuck, OneGuy, Preuninger, Bob rulz, Alansohn, Comrade Tassadar, Buaidh, Carbon Caryatid, Craigy144, Leonard49, Jonasaurus, Apoc2400, Sligocki, Caesura, Abstrakt, Cromwellt, Garzo, Evil Monkey, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Nightstallion, Kitch, Dan100, Gantry, Kenyon, Cosal, Zntrip, Waza re, FrancisTyers, Velho, OwenX,
Katyare, Berti, Miaow Miaow, Jpurdes, Robert K S, Tabletop, Schzmo, Contele de Grozavesti, Thesquire, Steinbach, Gazzapedia, Plrk,
Hughcharlesparker, Kralizec!, Jon Harald Sby, Karam.Anthony.K, Dysepsion, Graham87, TaivoLinguist, BD2412, Chun-hian, Xxpor, Island, DePiep, Reisio, Enzo Aquarius, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Gryndor, Amire80, Wooddoo-eng, Dan McScience, Matty J 87, Bhadani,
Jbamb, Nglennie, Ev, FlaBot, Ground Zero, CalJW, Alhutch, MacRusgail, Mark83, Jigitekov, Krun, Malhonen, McDogm, Russavia,
Idaltu, Chobot, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Adoniscik, E Pluribus Anthony, Vmenkov, Elfguy, YurikBot, Michaeladenner, RobotE, JWB,
RussBot, Briaboru, DanMS, Dantheox, CambridgeBayWeather, Ptilou~enwiki, Rsrikanth05, Akhristov, Kennethtennyson, NawlinWiki,
Tupungato, Msoos, Test-tools~enwiki, Grafen, Siddiqui, NickBush24, Steelhead, RazorICE, Neutron, Bubaloo, Nutiketaiel, Anetode,
Kennyisinvisible, Daniel Mietchen, CaliforniaAliBaba, Riky Martin, BOT-Superzerocool, Bota47, Martinwilke1980, Katpatuka, WAS
4.250, FF2010, Kenguest, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, SMcCandlish, Eezbub, Fortunecookie289, Rande M Sefowt, JoanneB, Bektour,
Pavone~enwiki, Otebig, Curpsbot-unicodify, Jereymcmanus, Ameinias, Das44, GrinBot~enwiki, West Virginian, SmackBot, Direvus,
David Kernow, Hux, BionicWilliam, Aelfthrytha, TestPilot, Unyoyega, Pgk, Bomac, Stephensuleeman, EncycloPetey, Eskimbot, PJM, Ilikeeatingwaes, Kintetsubualo, Aivazovsky, Greenvert, MelancholieBot, Yopie, Askarbek, Hmains, Polaron, Carl.bunderson, Icemuon,
Jamie C, Bluebot, Timbouctou, Thumperward, MalafayaBot, Hibernian, Akanemoto, Bazonka, TheLeopard, Aridd, DHN-bot~enwiki,
MercZ, Royboycrashfan, Zdrv, The russian leader, MJCdetroit, JonHarder, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, Backspace, Jezpuh, Huon, Arab Hafez,
Rarelibra, Khoikhoi, Cybercobra, Archos, TGC55, Je Wheeler, Adunar, Viking880, Evlekis, Rkevlihan, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Modus Vivendi, Khazar, John, Iglew, DivineIntervention, Minna Sora no Shita, Green Giant, Shattered, Ckatz, Zaparojdik, Absar, CylonCAG, Bless sins, Apcbg, Jsx, Publicus, Twalls, AxG, PRRfan, Wikestod, Peter Horn,
Skinsmoke, Jose77, Peyre, KJS77, JYi, Levineps, HisSpaceResearch, Alessandro57, Dakart, Joseph Solis in Australia, ArchonMeld, Geog, Octane, Poweron, Esn, Thricecube, Tawkerbot2, Eastlaw, Phillip J, 0zymandias, Kerne, CWY2190, MarsRover, WeggeBot, Logical2u, Zurkhardo, Timtrent, Davnor, Mlc409, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Wikien2009, Ntsimp, Samuell, Gogo Dodo, Kilhan, Kozuch, Tewapack, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Allexx, SeNeKa, Moheroy, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Java13690, Khorshid, Therequiembellishere, Nick Number, Tocino, Escarbot, EmRunTonRespNin, Oreo Priest, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Niinga, Seivad, Stywiz, Seaphoto,
Quintote, Dr. Blofeld, Vanjagenije, Kristoferb, Superzohar, Danger, THEunique, Gdo01, J'onn J'onzz, AjaaniSherisu, Radzinski, JAnDbot, Deective, Idyll M, Epeeeche, Scythian1, Arch dude, B cubed, .anacondabot, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Bencherlite, Magioladitis,
VoABot II, Scanlan, JamesBWatson, Skew-t, Twsx, Avicennasis, Soleado, Imeisel, Greg Grahame, Vssun, Kiosa, DerHexer, MKS, Samtranum, StanCup, Billcito, Mr A, Chapultepec, Oanda8311, Hdt83, MartinBot, Timothy Titus, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius,
Pekaje, Lashaneria, Lilac Soul, Rescrom~enwiki, El0i, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Rational thinker, Simonlacey70, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Mike.lifeguard, Skumarlabot, Churchlane, Melisbek, Naniwako, IngSoc BigBrother, Bogomolov.PL, Altay otun, Anietor,
Ahuskay, Kansas Bear, Nnd3, Ljgua124, Flatterworld, Potatoswatter, Oligopolistic, Ivazir, Mrolland, Henitsirk, Wikimandia, Andy Marchbanks, Conte di Cavour, Glossologist, VolkovBot, Tourbillon, Furkat, Carter, Indubitably, Jehan60188, Bry9000, AlnoktaBOT, TXiKiBoT, Eve Hall, Perohanych, T.sujatha, LeeMulod333, Rei-bot, Atelerix, Yksin, JhsBot, DyceBot, Mzmadmike, Wassermann~enwiki,
Seb az86556, Jukanaka, Trancelator, Joeldl, M0RD00R, Nikosgreencookie, Uannis~enwiki, Tidying Up, Synthebot, Seresin, AlleborgoBot, Dkabak, AlexShalom, EmxBot, Khinester, Demmy, GoonerDP, SieBot, Cdrk, Gooma3, BotMultichill, Gerakibot, Dawn Bard,
Transsylvanian, Ubastyyat, Flyer22 Reborn, HkCaGu, Carnun, Webfan29, Jc3schmi, BenoniBot~enwiki, Flyrkyz, OKBot, Madmike0408,
Sean.hoyland, TaerkastUA, Mr. Stradivarius, Parisvelissaris, Iaroslavvs, Defender12, Denisarona, Angelo De La Paz, Addd wiki, Haberstr,
Gr8opinionater, Elassint, ClueBot, Razbaeva, PipepBot, Snigbrook, Kotniski, Akhil Bakshi, Kalmanovich, Nnemo, Drmies, Cihan2050,
Razimantv, Mild Bill Hiccup, Skpperd, Sw258, Niceguyedc, Chdsandeep, Zlerman, Chandlerjoeyross, DragonBot, Detroiterbot, Ktr101,
Excirial, Nymf, Alexbot, Jwkozak91, Sebleouf, Zaharous, NuclearWarfare, Jotterbot, Cescoby, VsevolodKrolikov, Redthoreau, Bzestguy,
BOTarate, Thehelpfulone, C628, Samantha555, DerBorg, IJA, MelonBot, Simplonicity, DumZiBoT, MicroJak, Polysynaptic, Jpople, Local hero, XLinkBot, Olvegg, Bilsonius, , Dthomsen8, Radiodrive, SilvonenBot, Sokolsky, Theswissarmy, Good Olfactory,
Ejosse1, Gggh, HexaChord, Jhendin, Yameogo, Tim.isakjanov, Addbot, Manuel Trujillo Berges, AlexandrDmitri, Betterusername, Miskaton, Carlosjde, Ronhjones, Laurinavicius, Aboctok, Benjamin Trovato, BabelStone, NjardarBot, Morning277, Lihaas, Krzyee, LinkFABot, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Jasepl, Lightbot, Al3xil, Jarble, VVPushkin, HerculeBot, Bricklayer, Tipi Tiki, Amateur55, Sikader, Kurtis, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, MauriManya, Amirobot, Mikeinvp, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, The One9x9, SwiftlyTilt, ThaddeusB, Rjanag, Piano non troppo, OpenFuture, Jiangyu911, LlywelynII, Knowledgekid87, Hammerdrill, Joseferycaza, Materialscientist, Citation bot, TalkChat, Sven70, ArthurBot, Ajymurat, Hfsulliv, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Night w, Llyntegid, Doctor Thomas
Light, TechBot, Jerey Mall, Farkonix, Nick.anderegg, NFD9001, CeresVesta, U664003803, Deftera, J04n, GrouchoBot, JanDeFietser,
S zikirov, Vandalism destroyer, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Mttll, Nedim Ardoa, Platiandar, Glittters, Gorgomir, Tokiohotelover, GhalyBot,
Miyagawa, ~enwiki,
, TungstenCarbide, Gibjoh, Thermokarst, FrescoBot, George6996, Spigot007, Aitmerek~enwiki,
Tobby72, AlexanderKaras, Rachellewearne, The Nerd from Earth, Naru12333, A Werewolf, BenzolBot, Citation bot 1, GaussianCopula,
TU-nor, Vicenarian, Elockid, Hariboneagle927, HRoestBot, Abductive, Jonesey95, Rameshngbot, P.4.P. No. 1, Akocsg, RedBot, MastiBot, Fixer88, DikiMonah, Full-date unlinking bot, Steve2011, Olga Saly, FoxBot, Soundcomm, TobeBot, Mercy11, Kprwiki, SchreyP,
Nihongarden, Cholpon.tuzabaeva, Leftsideend, Animalspirits, CacaScientique, Sussexonian, Lamontaine, Vrenator, , Nataev,

20

14

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Dontbesogullible, DelLeslie, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot,
Aftab27, Peaceworld111, Khalaj444, Ilgar Khankishiyev,
, EmausBot, Treelo, Cornugon, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Chelos, Teaco,
Nosriep2, Roastedpepper, , Wikipelli, Strong33up, K6ka, Werieth, Helsinkicommission, AvicBot, Tiraios-of-Characene,
Spacexplosion, Bobvila24747, Iaki Salazar, Kyrgyz tour service, Amethyst140288, FreeKGZ, Alcea setosa, Kris1912, Vargavandnick,
Newbiepedian, Iwanttoeditthissh, Stovl, Fiedorczuk, Sallese, A930913, H3llBot, SporkBot, Bobhowry, WikiMan225, OnePt618, Smile
emils, Maxim11maxim, HSR96, Pengkeu, Sahimrobot, Thatspeed, Shrigley, Donner60, Pun, Vskodegamo, Hazard-Bot, ChuispastonBot, TheObsidianFriar, Therewillbehotcake, Sven Manguard, David07905, DASHBotAV, Mjbmrbot, Diskoteka13, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Czarcalvinsk, Changgulu~enwiki, Movses-bot, Vacation9, Rjbronn, Frietjes, Qbkspit, Twillisjr, Hazhk, TonySchilling, TAGA-b10, Zz pot, Trialonetwo, Theopolisme, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ismet11, Laxman546, Miyote, Ymblanter,
Sematz, Vagobot, Geshtaldt, PhnomPencil, J991, Ollieinc, Katangais, Maedchenimmond, Cameron Rulez, Rowan Adams, Erlik.khan,
Iryna Harpy, Rustam-aka, Achowat, Pmelton87, Cayse16, Shredder2012, Tomh903, Janyzak, Birchhale, Vanished user lt94ma34le12,
SiameseFish, The Illusive Man, Dhnlin, Aeyaisoo, Khazar2, SuperHero2111, Ulugen, Irishthumblosers, Treemapper, Asurek, Dexbot,
ScottyNolan, Jdfpa96, 25 Cents FC, Charles Essie, Datu Dong, I FUC LITTLE BOYS, RupJana, Nosinagain, Maxmtl11, Parronax, Dogmanstu, Faizan, Dag13, Turkestanec, CsDix, Gaute13, ZacharyGeorge, Inglok, Rajputbhatti, Androdin, Tentinator, Mutley1989, BornilTamim, Maximus1555, EvergreenFir, Crispulop, Camelgamin1, Popeurbanus, , Malfatty, Janybek Omor, Akunovan, Hirabutor,
Redditkgz14, Monkbot, TropicAces, Filedelinkerbot, M60801, Lisunina Torgloc, MarkVolynski, Theultimateboch, Monopoly31121993,
Intergelpo, Texfor, PressPhotography, NiKo-TiNa, Browsekg, Kaiserpnemonia, Mentoroso, KronosLine, Truefantastic, Wtekenen, Derianus, EarthEo123, S.Abdukakharov,
, John1914, Risbek Hewitt, KasparBot, Spider713, , Johnamoose413, XISstudent,
Kurousagi, RussianRoutes, PcPrincipal, SoFussi, Guts7654 and Anonymous: 788

14.2

Images

File:Akayev-Bush.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Akayev-Bush.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The White House Original artist: ?
File:American_University_of_Central_Asia,_Bishkek_(2005).jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/89/
American_University_of_Central_Asia%2C_Bishkek_%282005%29.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:
Own work
Original artist:
Zimka (talk) (Uploads)
File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_
projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Map by Ssolbergj
Aquarius.geomar.de
Original artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ssolbergj' title='User talk:Ssolbergj'>talk</a>)
File:Bandy_2012._KYR_-_JPN.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Bandy_2012._KYR_-_JPN.JPG
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yakov Fedorov
File:Bischkek.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Bischkek.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:BishkekBuildings.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/BishkekBuildings.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cholpon Tuzabaeva
File:Bishkek_City.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Bishkek_City.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gislus
File:Bishkek_church_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Bishkek_church_01.jpg License: CC BY
2.0 Contributors: Flickr.com - image description page Original artist: rugbyxm
File:Bringing_the_sheep_home,_on_the_southern_shore_of_Issy-Kol._(3968109583).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/9/98/Bringing_the_sheep_home%2C_on_the_southern_shore_of_Issy-Kol._%283968109583%29.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Bringing the sheep home, on the southern shore of Issy-Kol. Original artist: Peretz Partensky from San Francisco,
USA
File:Central_Asian_Games_participating_countries.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Central_
Asian_Games_participating_countries.PNG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: FilRB
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:E7919-Dordoy-Bazaar-clothing.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/
E7919-Dordoy-Bazaar-clothing.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vmenkov
File:E8102-Bishkek-West-Bus-Terminal.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/
E8102-Bishkek-West-Bus-Terminal.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vmenkov
File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0
Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Altai_Republic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Flag_of_Altai_Republic.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist:
No machine-readable author provided. Urmas assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.elibrary.az/docs/remz/pdf/remz_bayraq.pdf and http://www.meclis.gov.az/?/az/topcontent/21 Original
artist: SKopp and others
File:Flag_of_Bashkortostan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Flag_of_Bashkortostan.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

14.2

Images

21

File:Flag_of_Gagauzia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Flag_of_Gagauzia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contributors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -x File:Flag_of_Khakassia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_Khakassia.svg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fibonacci
File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for the
Sodipodi SVG ag collection, and is public domain.
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Sakha.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Flag_of_Sakha.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Tatarstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Flag_of_Tatarstan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Tuva.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Tuva.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-drawn in CorelDRAW. Based exactly on the measures dened by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Tuva on Sept. 17,
1992 (n354), as cited by FOTW. Colors are Pantone 292 (blue) and Pantone 116 (yellow), as suggested in FOTW. Original artist: Mysid
File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ozbekiston Respublikasining Davlat bayrogi. The ocially dened colours are Pantone
313C for blue and 361C for green (source: [1], [2]). Drawn by User:Zscout370.
File:Flag_of_the_CIS.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_the_CIS.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: 30470-97 . .[1] Based on an image at Flags of
the World. Original artist: Denelson83
File:Flag_of_the_Eurasian_Economic_Union.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Flag_of_the_
Eurasian_Economic_Union.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Original artist:Eurasian Commission
File:Flag_of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Flag_
of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:GkturksAD551-572.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/G%C3%B6kturksAD551-572.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gabagool
File:HA_delivers_to_a_local_kindergarten.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/HA_delivers_to_a_
local_kindergarten.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/ishootforaliving/4650246292/ Original artist:
Senior Airman Nichelle Anderson
File:Increase2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Increase2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Sarang
File:Ishenbek_and_Berkut_scout_for_prey._(3968888530).jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/
Ishenbek_and_Berkut_scout_for_prey._%283968888530%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Ishenbek and Berkut scout for
prey. Original artist: Peretz Partensky from San Francisco, USA
File:Issyk-Kulmeer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Issyk-Kulmeer.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Transferred from nl.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Hardscarf at Dutch Wikipedia
File:Issyk_Kul_at_sundown.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Issyk_Kul_at_sundown.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Jalalabad_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Jalalabad_5.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Jalalabad 5 Original artist: celichowster
File:Karakol-Dungan-Mosque-Exterior-1.jpg
Source:
Karakol-Dungan-Mosque-Exterior-1.jpg License:
CC BY-SA
dungan-mosque-exterior-photos.html Original artist: David Merrell

2.5

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/
Contributors:
http://amiralace.blogspot.com/2006/12/

File:Karakol_Valley.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Karakol_Valley.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ondej vek
File:Karakol_cathedral.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Karakol_cathedral.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: English Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Karakol_cathedral.jpg Original artist: en:User:hux

22

14

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Kurmanbek_Bakijev_&_Donald_Rumsfeld_2005-July-26.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/

Kurmanbek_Bakijev_%26_Donald_Rumsfeld_2005-July-26.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.pentagon.gov/photos/
Jul2005/050726-F-6911G-001.html Original artist: DoD photo by Tech. Sgt. Kevin J. Gruenwald, U.S. Air Force.
File:Kyrgyz_Musicians_in_Karakol.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Kyrgyz_Musicians_in_
Karakol.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims).
Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. SiGarb assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Kyrgyz_family_Sary-Mogol.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Kyrgyz_family_Sary-Mogol.jpg
License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Betta27
File:Kyrgyzstan.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Kyrgyzstan.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Kyrgyzstan_(orthographic_projection).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Kyrgyzstan_
%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on the File:Tajikistan (orthographic projection).svg
Original artist: UN, The original uploader was RaviC at English Wikipedia
File:Kyrgyzstan_Export_Treemap.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Kyrgyzstan_Export_Treemap.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Economic Complexity Observatory, MIT Media Lab and the Center for International Development at Harvard University. (TC) http://atlas.media.mit.edu/ Original artist: R. Haussmann, Cesar Hidalgo, et.al. Creative Commons
Attribution - Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. See permission to share image on web at: http://atlas.media.mit.edu/about/permissions/
File:Kyrgyzstan_topography.pdf Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Kyrgyzstan_topography.pdf License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jemery
File:Meeting_Vladimir_Putin_and_Almazbek_Atambayev_2015-03-16_01.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/ee/Meeting_Vladimir_Putin_and_Almazbek_Atambayev_2015-03-16_01.jpeg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors:
. Original artist: The Presidential Vladimir Putin Press and Information Oce.
File:Mosque_under_construction_in_Kyrgyzstan.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Mosque_
under_construction_in_Kyrgyzstan.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Mosque in progress Original artist: Irene from Cary, North
Carolina, USA
File:Multinational_forces_participate_in_Regional_Cooperation_12_Exercise_-06.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Multinational_forces_participate_in_Regional_Cooperation_12_Exercise_-06.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.manas.afcent.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123307374 Original artist: U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman Brett
Clashman
File:National_Anthem_of_Kyrgyzstan.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/National_Anthem_of_
Kyrgyzstan.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:National_emblem_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/National_emblem_of_
Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Panorama_of_Osh.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Panorama_of_Osh.jpg License: CC BY-SA
2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as IMG_0643 Original artist: Paul
File:Pyramide_Kirghizistan.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Pyramide_Kirghizistan.PNG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work using data from World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision Original artist: fargomeD
File:Recentism.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Recentism.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work by uploader + File:Gnome globe current event.svg + File:Unbalanced scales.svg Original artist: Ssolbergj + authors of source
les
File:Sassamir_Valley_(3968060227).jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Sassamir_Valley_
%283968060227%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Sassamir Valley Original artist: Peretz Partensky from San Francisco, USA
File:Stamps_of_Kyrgyzstan,_2011-12.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Stamps_of_Kyrgyzstan%
2C_2011-12.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: wnsstamps.ch Original artist: Post of Kyrgyzstan
File:Street_scene_in_Osh_city.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Street_scene_in_Osh_city.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nihongarden
File:Terrestrial_globe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6b/Terrestrial_globe.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Original artist:Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
File:Yssykkoel-lake.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Yssykkoel-lake.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Kerstin Stolzenhain (www.dieandere.de) Original artist: Kerstin Stolzenhain (Kassa08 at de.wikipedia)

14.3

Content license

14.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
User:Zscout370
76

23