The Digestive System

Chapter 47

Food Processing
Inges.on
Food is consumed

Diges.on
Nutrients are broken down

Absorp.on
Small molecules and monomers diuse or are
transported in the body uids

Elimina.on
Undigested products are expelled

Diges.on Classes
Autotrophs
Able to x organic molecules from inorganic
compounds
Producers of the ecosystem

Heterotrophs
Rely on other organisms to produce carbon source
for them
Consumers of the ecosystem

Types of Digestive Systems

Heterotrophs are divided into three groups
based on their food sources
1. Herbivores are animals that eat plants
exclusively
2. Carnivores are animals that eat other
animals
3. Omnivores are animals that eat both plants
and other animals

Nutrients
Nutrient is any organic or inorganic molecule
that is taken in by an organism and is required
for growth, survival, development, .ssue
repair and reproduc.on
Process of consuming nutrients is nutri.on
All organisms need nutrients to survive
All organisms need the fundamental organic
molecules

Fundamental Organic Nur.ents

Carbohydrates
Most common source is plants
Source of carbon
Deciencies bring muscle
weakness and weight loss

Proteins
especially found in meat
Provide amino acids
Deciencies bring muscle loss,
weaked immune, weight loss

Lipids
especially high in dairy, faNy
meats and plant oils
Component of cell membranes,
energy source, building blocks of
hormones
Deciencies bring hair loss, dry
skin, hormonal and reproduc.ve
disorders

Nucleic Acids
Provides sugars, bases and
phosphates
No symptoms from deciencies,
can be synthesized by organism

Essential Nutrients
Animal cannot manufacture these for itself but
are necessary for health and so must be
obtained in the diet
Four groups:
Vitamins
Amino acids
Long-chain unsaturated fatty acids
Minerals

Essen.al Vitamins
Organic
Serve as coenzymes for metabolic and
synthesis pathways in cell
Two classes:
Water soluble
Not stored in faNy so must be consumed readily

Fat soluble ( )
Stored in fat

Essen.al FaNy Acids

Unsaturated fatty acids cannot be created
Found mainly in plants
Not all animals see the same fats as essential
vertebrates can synthesize cholesterol, a key component of
steroid hormones, but some carnivorous insects cannot
Cats require essential fats from fish or other fatty tissues

9 Essen.al Amino Acids

Isoleucine

Leucine

Lysine

Methionine

Pheynlalanine

His.dine

Threonine

Tryptophan

Valine

Essen.als Minerals
Inorganic ions
Ca, Cl, Cr, Cu, I, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, P, K, Se, S, Na, Zn

Some are required as cofactors of enzymes or

proteins
Usually required in trace amounts (<1 mg/day)
Some can be stored in the organism
Deciencies of these result in many diseases
Rickets
BeriBeri
Blood clo]ng

Types of Diges.ve Systems

Intracellular
Digested inside the cell
Very simple invertebrates
Uses phagocytosis to bring food into food
vacuoles
Cannot support high metabolic demands
No mechanism for storage

Types of Diges.ve Systems

Extracellular
Occurs within a diges.ve cavity
Most mul.cellular animals use this
Food enters diges.ve cavity and is stored,
digested and absorbed gradually over .me
Protects interior of the cells from the hydroly.c
enzymes
Allows organism to consume large amounts of
food

Types of Diges.ve Systems

Cnidarians and atworms
have a gastrovascular cavity

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Only one opening, and no

specialized regions
Food is trapped in tentacles and
delivered to gastrovascular cavity
Enzymes are secreted for break
down of food
Nutrients are absored via
phagocytosis
Wastes (undigested food) is
excerted via mouth

Food
Wastes
Mouth

Tentacle
Body stalk
Gastrovascular
cavity

Types of Diges.ve Systems

2 openings at either
end forming an
alimentary canal
Nematodes have the
most primi.ve diges.ve
tract
Tubular gut lined by an
epithelial membrane

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Nematode

Pharynx

Mouth

Intestine

Anus

Types of Diges.ve Systems

More complex animals have
a diges.ve tract specialized
in dierent regions
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Salamander
Stomach Intestine
Cloaca
Mouth
Liver
Esophagus
Pancreas

Anus

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Earthworm
Mouth
Pharynx
Crop
Gizzard

Anus
Intestine

Diges.ve System
Organs

Mouth and pharynx
entry

Oral cavity
Salivary
glands

Salivary gland
Pharynx
Esophagus

Esophagus delivers food

to stomach

Stomach preliminary
diges.on

Small intes.ne diges.on

and absorp.on

Large intes.ne

absorp.on of water and

minerals
Cloaca or rectum expel
waste

Liver
Gallbladder

Stomach
Pancreas
Small intes8ne

Cecum
Appendix

Large intes8ne
Rectum
Anus

Vertebrate Diges.ve Systems

Accessory organs
Salivary Glands
Liver

Oral cavity
Salivary
glands

Salivary gland
Pharynx
Esophagus

Produces bile

Gallbladder

Stores and
concentrates bile

Pancreas

Produces
pancrea.c juice
Diges.ve enzymes
and bicarbonate
buer

Liver
Gallbladder

Stomach
Pancreas
Small intes8ne

Cecum
Appendix

Large intes8ne
Rectum
Anus

Gastrointes.nal tract is layered

Mucosa innermost
Epithelium that lines the
interior, or lumen, of the
tract

Submucosa
Connec.ve .ssue

Muscularis
Circular and longitudinal
smooth muscle layers

Serosa outermost
Epithelium covering
external surface of tract

Lumen
Mucosa
Submucosa
Submucosal
plexus
Muscularis
Circular layer
Longitudinal layer
Serosa
Epithelial
8ssue layer

Myenteric
plexus

Mouth and Teeth

Many vertebrates have
teeth used for chewing
or mastication
Birds
Lack teeth
Break up food in a twochambered stomach
Gizzard muscular
chamber that uses
ingested pebbles to
pulverize food

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Mouth

Esophagus
Crop

Stomach
Gizzard

Intestine

Anus

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Incisors

Premolars

Canines

Molars

Herbivore

Carnivore

Omnivore

Horse

Lion

Human

Carnivores pointed teeth that lack flat grinding

surfaces
Herbivores large flat teeth suited for grinding
cellulose cell walls of plant tissues
Humans have carnivore-like teeth in the front
and herbivore-like teeth in the back

Mouth and Teeth

Inside the mouth, the tongue mixes food
with saliva
Moistens and lubricates the food
Contains salivary amylase, which initiates the
breakdown of starch
Salivation is controlled by the nervous system
Tasting, smelling, and even thinking or talking
about food stimulate increased salivation

Mouth and Teeth

Swallowing
Starts as voluntary action
Continued under involuntary control

When food is ready to be swallowed, the

tongue moves it to the back of the mouth
Soft palate seals off nasal cavity
Elevation of the larynx (voice box) pushes the
glottis against the epiglottis
Keeps food out of respiratory tract

Mouth and Teeth

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Pharynx

Air

Larynx
Trachea
Esophagus

Hard palate
Tongue
Soft palate
Epiglottis

1. As food moves to the

back of the mouth, the
soft palate seals off
the nasal cavity.

2. During swallowing, the larynx rises and is sealed

off by the epiglottis. This forces the bolus into the
esophagus and prevents entry into the trachea. As
the bolus moves into the esophagus the larynx
relaxes.

The Esophagus
Muscular tube connecting the esophagus
to the stomach
Actively moves a bolus through peristalsis
Swallowing center in brain stimulates
successive one-directional waves of
contraction
Sphincter opens to allow food to enter
stomach
Humans lack a true sphincter here

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Peristalic
movement

Esophagus
Relaxation

Contraction

Food Bolus

Relaxation

The Stomach
Saclike portion of
tract for food storage
Convoluted surface
allows expansion
Contains 3rd layer of
smooth muscles for
mixing food with
gastric juice

Stomach
Esophagus
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Esophageal
sphincter

Muscularis

Serosa

Longitudinal
Circular
Oblique

Duodenum
Pyloric
sphincter

Mucosa

The Stomach Lining

3 kinds of secretory cells
Mucus-secreting cells
Parietal cells
Secrete HCl and intrinsic factor (for vitamin B12 absorption)

Chief cells
Secrete pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin)

Gastric pit

Gastric pit

Mucosa

Submucosa
Oblique
Muscularis Circular
Longitudinal
Serosa

Mucous
cell
Chief
cell
Parietal
cell

Gastric glands

The Stomach
Low pH in the stomach helps denature food proteins
Activates pepsin and keeps it functioning
No significant digestion of carbohydrates or fats occurs
Absorption of some water (aspirin and alcohol)
Mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice is
called chyme
Peptic ulcer commonly caused by bacteria
Leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter to
enter the small intestine

The Small Intestine

About 4.5 m long small diameter
Consists of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Receives
Chyme from stomach
Digestive enzymes and bicarbonate from
pancreas
Bile from liver and gallbladder

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Small intestine

Villus

Microvilli

Cell
membrane

Epithelial
cell
Lacteal
Capillary
Villi
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis
Serosa

Lymphatic
duct
Vein
Artery
Ron Boardman/ Stone/Getty Images

Epithelial wall is covered with villi

Villi are covered by microvilli
Greatly increase surface area
Microvilli participate in digestion and absorption
Brush border enzymes
Many adults lack the enzyme lactase
Have lactose intolerance

2 m

Accessory Organs
Pancreas
Exocrine and endocrine gland
Pancreatic fluid is secreted into the duodenum through the
pancreatic duct
Enzymes
Trypsin and chymotrypsin proteins into smaller
polypeptides
Pancreatic amylase polysaccharides into shorter
sugars
Lipase fats into free fatty acids and monoglycerides
Bicarbonate neutralizes acidic chyme

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Pancreatic islet
(of Langerhans)

cell
From liver

cell

Common
bile duct

Gallbladder
Pancreatic
duct
Duodenum

Pancreas

Accessory Organ Function

Regulation of blood glucose
After a carbohydrate-rich meal
Insulin stimulates removal of excess blood glucose
by liver and skeletal muscles (glycogen)

When blood glucose levels decrease

Glycogenolysis glucagon stimulates liver to
break down glycogen to release glucose into blood
Gluconeogenesis liver converts other molecules
into glucose if fasting continues

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Metabolism

Eating carbohydraterich meal

Fasting or
exercise

Increasing blood glucose

Decreasing blood glucose

Pancreatic Islets

Pancreatic Islets

Insulin secretion

Insulin secretion

Glucagon secretion

Glucagon secretion

Formation of
glycogen (in liver)
and fat (in adipose
tissue)

Breakdown of
glycogen (in liver)
and fat (in adipose
tissue)

Accessory Organ Function

Liver

Bodys largest internal organ

Secretes bile
Bile pigments (waste products)
and bile salts (for emulsica.on
of fats)
Chemically modies the substances
absorbed from the diges.ve tract
before they reach the rest of the
body
Ingested alcohol and other drugs are taken into liver cells and
metabolized
Removes toxins, pes.cides, and carcinogens, conver.ng them to less
toxic forms
Regulates levels of steroid hormones
Produces most proteins found in plasma

Accessory Organs
Gallbladder
Stores and concentrates
bile
Arrival of fatty food in the
duodenum triggers a
neural and endocrine
reflex that stimulates the
gallbladder to contract,
causing bile to be
transported through the
common bile duct and
injected into the
duodenum

Absorption
Amino acids and monosaccharides are
transported through epithelial cells to blood
Blood carries these products to the liver via the
hepatic portal vein

Fatty acids and monoglycerides diffuse into

epithelial cells
Reassembled into triglycerides and then chylomicrons
Enter the lymphatic system and later join the
circulatory system

Almost all fluid reabsorbed in small intestine

Absorption
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Carbohydrate

Protein

Fat globules
(triglycerides)
Bile salts

Lumen
of
small
intestine

Epithelial
cell of
intestinal
villus

Monosaccharides
Amino acids

Transport
protein

Free fatty acids,

monoglycerides

Transport
protein

Resynthesis
of triglycerides

Chylomicron
Triglycerides
get protein
cover

Blood capillary

a.

Emulsified
droplets

Lymphatic
capillary

b.

The Large Intestine (colon)

Much shorter than small intestine, but has larger
diameter
Small intestine empties directly into the large
intestine at a junction where two vestigial
structures, cecum and appendix, remain
No digestion occurs
Function to reabsorb water, remaining
electrolytes, and vitamin K
Prepare waste for expulsion

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Ascending portion
of large intestine

Ileocecal valve
Last portion of
small intestine
Cecum
Appendix

The Large Intestine

Many bacteria live and reproduce within
the large intestine
Feces compacted and passed to rectum
Feces exit anus
Smooth muscle sphincter (involuntary)
Striated muscle sphincter (voluntary)

Variations in Digestive Systems

Digestive tracts of some animals contain
bacteria and protists that convert cellulose
into substances the host can absorb
Minor in humans
Essential to some animals

Herbivores have longer digestive tracts

Greater time for digestion of cellulose
Modifications to enhance digestion of plant
material

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Nonruminant Herbivore

Ruminant Herbivore

Simple stomach, large cecum

Four-chambered stomach with large rumen;

long small and large intestine
Esophagus

Esophagus
Stomach

Reticulum
Omasum

Rumen
Abomasum

Small
intestine
Small
intestine
Cecum
Cecum
Large
intestine

Spiral
loop

Large
intestine

Anus

Anus

Insectivore

Carnivore

Short intestine, no cecum

Short intestine and colon, small cecum

Small
intestine

Esophagus
Stomach

Esophagus

Stomach
Small
intestine

Large
intestine
Anus

Cecum
Anus

Large intestine

Digestive systems of different mammals

 Ruminants have a fourchambered stomach

Rumen, reticulum, omasum
True stomach abomasum
Rumen has celluloseSmall intestine
degrading microbes
Contents can be
regurgitated and rechewed

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reproduction or display.

Rumen
Esophagus
Reticulum

Rumination

Evolved only once

Abomasum Omasum

Variations in Digestive Systems

Foregut
fermentation
Convergent
evolution
Modified lysozyme to
take on new role of
digesting bacteria in
stomach
Same 5 amino acids
changed

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Cow

Horse

Rat

Human

Baboon

Langur

Variations in Digestive Systems

Rodents, horses, deer, and rabbits digest
cellulose in the cecum
Regurgitation of contents is not possible

However, some such animals practice

coprophagy
Eat their feces to absorb nutrients on the
second passage of food
Cannot remain healthy if prevented from
eating feces

Variations in Digestive Systems

All mammals rely on intestinal bacteria to
synthesize vitamin K, which is required for
blood clotting
Birds, which lack these bacteria, must
consume the required quantities of vitamin
K in their diet

Regulation of the Digestive Tract

Gastrointestinal activities are coordinated
by the nervous and endocrine systems
Nervous system stimulates salivary and
gastric secretions in response to sight,
smell, and consumption of food
In the stomach, proteins stimulate the
release of gastrin
Triggers the secretion of HCl and pepsinogen
from the gastric glands

Regulation of the Digestive Tract

Enterogastrones or duodenal hormones
Inhibit stomach contractions and prevent
additional chyme from entering duodenum
Cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, and gastric
inhibitory peptide (GIP)
All inhibit gastric motility and secretions

CCK also stimulates gallbladder contraction

and pancreatic enzyme secretion
Secretin also stimulates the secretion of
pancreatic bicarbonate

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Stomach
Liver

pH
Proteins

Gastrin

(+)
()

(+)

Chief cells

Parietal cells

Pepsin

HCl

GIP

(+)

Bile
Pancreas

Enzymes
Bicarbonate

Gallbladder

(+)

CCK
Secretin
Duodenum

Acinar
cells
(+)

Food Energy
Ingestion of food serves two primary
functions
1. Source of energy
2. Source of raw material

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Minimal amount of energy consumed under
defined resting conditions

Continued ingestion of excess food energy

results primarily in accumulation of fat

Regulation of Food Intake

Control mechanism links food intake to
energy balance
Leptin peptide hormone
Key to appetite control
Produced by adipose tissue
Leptin receptor located in hypothalamus
Reduced leptin signals brain to intake food
Research on leptin in humans ongoing

Regulation of Food Intake

Other hormones involved in the control of
feeding and energy include
Insulin, GIP, and CCK, which signal satiety
Ghrelin which stimulates food intake
Efferent control of feeding
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) induces feeding activity
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (-MSH) which
suppresses it

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Reproduction and Growth

Low levels of leptin can
inhibit reproduction and
growth.

Appetite and Feeding

Energy and Expenditure

High levels of leptin and

insulin reduce appetite. Low
levels increase appetite.

High levels of leptin and

insulin increase energy
expenditure.

Hypothalamus

Efferent
Afferent
Leptin

()

(+)
Ghrelin

Long Term
()
Circulating levels of leptin
and insulin are proportional
to body fat. High body fat
leads to high levels of
these hormones.

()

Insulin
GIP
CCK

Short Term
CCK and GIP are
produced in response to
feeding and act to limit
food intake. Ghrelin
stimulates feeding.