Rose
A COURSE ON
FINITE GROUPS
Web Sections, Web Chapters and
Solution Appendix
Springer
322
The material presented in this Web Site is additional to that given in the
main text A Course on Finite Groups. It consists of extra sections to
some of the chapters with in most cases a set of supplementary problems,
two extra chapters providing an introduction to group representation theory,
and a long Appendix giving solutions, ranging from brief hints to complete
answers, to all of the problems listed in the main text. Chapter, section,
definition, theorem, problem and equation numbers all follow on from those
given in the main text. In fact these Web Sections could be printed, and
then slotted into the main text at the appropriate places allowing for the
non-consecutive page numbers. Again it is a pleasure to thank Ben Fairbairn
for commenting on and improving the text.
Representations of A5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Problems 3W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
4.7
4.8
Problems 4W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Problems 5W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Problems 6W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.5
Problems 9W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
324
Web Section 12.6 Simple Groups of Order less than 1000000, a second
proof of the Simplicity of the Groups Ln (q), and a method for generating
Steiner Systems for some Mathieu Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
12.7
Web Chapter 13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
Problems 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Problems 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Problems 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Problems 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Problems 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Problems 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Problems 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Problems 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Problems 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Problems 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Problems A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Problems B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Subgroup lattice diagrams for Groups of Order 8, 12 or 16 . . . . . . . . . 547
Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
3.6 Representations of A5
3.6
325
Representations of A5
At the beginning of this chapter we noted that most groups have several
distinct representations; to illustrate this fact we discuss here some representations of A5 . In Section 3.2 we introduced A5 as the group of all even
permutations on a five element set. It can also be (indirectly) specified as the
only non-Abelian simple group up to isomorphism of order less than 100,1
see Problem 6.15.
The group A5 has a number of presentations, three are as follows:
P1 : ha, b | a3 = b5 = (ab)2 = ei,
P2 : ha, b | a5 = b5 = (ab)2 = (a4 b)3 = ei,
P3 : ha, b, c | a3 = b3 = c3 = (ab)2 = (bc)2 = (ca)2 = ei.
To show that each of these presentations do in fact define A5 we can argue as
follows. Consider P1 . We associate permutations in A5 (treating A5 as a permutation group) with each generator and then show that the corresponding
relations hold. This shows that a copy of A5 is a factor of P1 . Secondly, we
show that P1 has 60 elements and this will be done in Problem 3.26. Similar
arguments are required for P2 and P3 . For P1 set
a 7 (1, 4, 2)
then
ab = (1, 4)(3, 5)
then
b 7 (1, 2, 4)
where
1 + c + c2 = 0,
In fact, it is the only non-Abelian simple group of order less than 168, see Chapter 12.
326
then
ab =
c+1 c+1
1 c+1
, bc =
c+1 c
c c+1
and ca =
c+1 1
c+1 c+1
.
We leave it as an exercise for the reader to show that these matrices satisfy
the relations in P3 , and that this system contains 60 matrices.
Our second matrix representation is L2 (5) which is defined as follows.
Working over the 5-element field (that is working modulo 5), we take SL2 (5)
and factor out its centre. The process of forming
a factor group is defined
0
Chapter 4. The centre of SL2 (5) is { 10 01 , 1
}, see Problem 3.19; hence
0 1
a b
a b
we work in SL2 (5) and treat c d and c d as the same matrix. Formally,
the elements of L2 (5) are the cosets of Z(SL2 (5)) in the group SL2 (5). Note
that 1 4 (mod 5) et cetera. Using the presentation P2 above, we set
1 0
4 1
a 7
and b 7
,
3 1
1 3
then
ab 7
4 1
3 1
and a4 b 7
4 1
4 0
,
and it is a simple matter to show that the relations of P2 are satisfied. The
choice of matrices and permutations above do satisfy the required conditions
but are definitely not unique; as an exercise the reader should find some other
examples.
Another representation of A5 is as the rotational symmetry group of
a dodecahedron. A dodecahedron is a regular solid structure with twelve
regular equal-sized plane pentagonal faces with edges of equal length. This
structure has three types of rotational symmetry: (i) rotation about a line
drawn through the centres of opposite faces, this has order 5 as the faces
are regular and have five edges; (ii) rotation about opposite vertices, in this
structure three pentagonal faces meet at a vertex, and so this symmetry has
order 3; and (iii) rotation about the centres of opposite edges, this has order
2. Now using the presentation P1 above, if we associate a symmetry of type
(ii) with a and a symmetry of type (i) with b, then a symmetry of type (iii)
is associated with ab. To see this the reader should obtain a model of an
dodecahedron and try it! It is now easily seen that the relations of P1 are
satisfied, and (with some patience) that there are 60 symmetries in all. An
excellent film, made by the Open University for their second year course in
pure mathematics, illustrates this isomorphism clearly.
The group A5 can also be treated as the rotational symmetry group of a
icosahedron. An icosahedron I is a regular solid with 20 identical equilateral
triangular faces and it can be inscribed in a dodecahedron D by taking the
vertices of I as the centres of the faces of D. This process is self-inverse for
we can also inscribe a dodecahedron inside an icosahedron using the same
method. This latter representation of A5 is the one that has been used by
3.7 Problems 3W
327
3.7
Problems 3W
Problem 3.25 (An Example of a Free Group) A linear fractional transformation f of the complex plane C to itself is a map of the form
fa,b,c,d (z) =
az + b
cz + d
where
a b
c d
ad bc 6= 0 for a, b, c, d C.
7 fa,b,c,d
is a homomorphism (see Section 4.1) from GL2 (C) to the group of all linear
fractional transformations.
(ii) Show that the matrices A = 12 01 and B = 10 21 generate a free
subgroup in the group of all linear fractional transformations. (Hint. Consider
the effect on points inside and outside the unit circle in the complex plane.)
Problem 3.26? Let G = ha, b | a3 = b5 = (ab)2 = ei; see page 325. Show
that G has at most 60 elements using the following method, see Passman
(1968, page 120). Clearly if H = hbi, then o(H) = 5 and H G. Consider
the following set of twelve cosets of H in G (we are not assuming that they
are distinct, but in fact they are).
H Ha2 Ha2 ba Ha2 b2 Ha2 b2 a2 Ha2 b2 a2 ba
.
Ha Ha2 b Ha2 ba2 Ha2 b2 a Ha2 b2 a2 b Ha2 b2 a2 ba2
Further, let H ? denote the union of these twelve cosets. Now if H1 H ? ,
then H1 a H ? as a3 = e. By considering each coset in turn, show that if
H1 H ? then H1 b H ? . Deduce H ? G = H ? , and so prove the result.
Problem 3.27 Working over the complex field C, let z be a primitive
fifth-root of unity, that is z 5 = 1 and z 6= 1. Note that
328
Further let
A=
1 0 0
0 z 0
0 0 z4
!
,
2
4
4
1
2 1 5 1 + 5 .
B=
2 5 2 1 + 5 1 5
where the square brackets denotes the commutator. Note the similarity of
the first of these presentations with the presentation P2 for A5 given on page
325. Show that each of these presentations is valid for A6 using the following
method. Begin by showing that if we set
a 7 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
and b 7 (1, 4, 6, 3, 2)
and d 7 (4, 5, 6)
then c and d satisfy the second set. Now show that b can be expressed in
terms of c and d, and also d can be expressed in terms of a and b, and use
these facts to establish these presentations.
(ii) Show that the group G = h(1, 2)(3, 4), (1, 2, 3)(4, 5, 6)i is a subgroup
of A6 using one of the presentations of A5 given in this section.
(iii) By trial show that the group G given in (ii) is doubly transitive
on {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, that is for every pair of two-element subsets of X: Xi =
{xi1 , xi2 } X, there exists G with the properties x11 = x21 and
x12 = x22 .
(iv) How many copies of A5 occur as subgroups in A6 ?
See also Problems 4.20 and 12.4(ii).
Problem 3.29 (i) Show that if n > 2, then every index n subgroup in An
is isomorphic to An1 . (Hint. Use Theorem 5.15 and the example on page
192.)
3.7 Problems 3W
329
(ii) Use (i) to show that if G is a non-Abelian simple group with order 60,
then G ' A5 . The method is as follows. Using Theorem 5.15 and the Sylow
theory (for the prime 5) to show that G can be embedded in S6 , then use (i)
and Problem 3.7(ii).
Problem 3.30
330
for all
n > k}.
k
k
1
2
(iii) Show that, for all k, (a) S(N)
< S(N) , (b) S(N)
' Sk , (c) S(N)
< S(N)
<
S
k
< S(N) , and (d) k=1 S(N) = S(N) .
Lastly define A1(N) = A2(N) = hei, for k > 1 let Ak(N) denote the unique
k
subgroup of index 2 in S(N)
(note we need to prove uniqueness), and let
A(N) =
[
k=1
Ak(N) .
(iv) Prove that Ak(N) ' Ak , A1(N) < A2(N) < < A(N) , and so deduce,
using Problem 2.30, A(N) is simple.
(v) As a corollary show that A(N) contains a subgroup isomorphic to the
infinite cyclic group Z.
331
[
n
i=1
ai H,
where the dot denotes disjoint union. The transversal given by this definition
is, strictly speaking, a left transversal. Right transversals can also be defined
but we shall not need them, see Problem 4.24.
(b) By Lemma 2.22 an element ai T cannot belong to two distinct cosets
of G.
(c) In Chapter 9 we define a similar entity called the section which is a type
of transversal with an extra condition concerning the neutral element.
Before defining the transfer we need to establish some basic facts about
transversals. See also Problem 4.23.
Lemma 4.25 Suppose H G, H is Abelian, [G : H] = n, g G, and
T = {a1 , . . . , an } is a transversal of H in G.
(i) There exists hr H and Sn that depend on g and satisfy
gar = ar hr
for r = 1, . . . , n.
r=1
where
1 sr n
and
1 r n.
332
4 Homomorphisms
Proof.
Suppose g, h G, gar = ar jr and har = ar kr where
{a1 , . . . , an } is a transversal and , Sn ; see above. Then
ghar = gar kr = ar jr kr ,
and so, as H is Abelian,
333
gh =
Y
r
jr kr =
Y
r
jr
Y
r
kr = g h,
334
4 Homomorphisms
Also if s < m,
1
s
a1
1,1 g a1,1 = a1,1 ars+1 hrs hr1 6 H
because the set T is a transversal. This shows that m1 is minimal, and a similar argument can be applied to the remaining cycles
(a2,1 , . . . , a2,m2 ), . . . . The main part of the result now follows using the
definition of .
2
We return to the example on page 333. The permutation equals
(1, 4)(2, 3), and so in this case m1 = m2 = 2, a1,1 = e, a1,2 = a3 , a2,1 = a
and a2,2 = a2 . Now using the corollary above we have
b =
Y2
r=1
2
2
3 2
a1
r,1 b ar,1 = (eb e)(a b a) = e
4.7
335
The main purpose of this section is to show that the group presentation construction described on page 58 is valid. We claimed that given a set (alphabet)
A and a set of relations R on A (words on A A0 ), then the system
H = hA | Ri
always forms a group. We do this by first constructing the free group G
on A, and then showing that H can be treated as a factor group of G, the
implied normal subgroup being defined in terms of the words in R. Although
we know that H forms a group, it can be quite difficult (and in some cases
impossible) to determine its properties. In the second part of this section we
describe a method mainly due to Todd and Coxeter which in many cases will
help with this determination; it gives a description of the coset product once
a suitable subgroup is known.
First we need to give a new definition of the term free.
Definition 4.31 Given a set A, the group G is called free on A if the
conditions (i) and (ii) given below are satisfied.
(i) There exists a map from A to G.
(ii) Given a group H and a map from A to H there exists a unique
homomorphism : G H which satisfies = .
The diagram below illustrates the maps given by this definition. In many
applications the set A is an alphabet (page 55), G is defined by a presentation
on A, and the map is the inclusion map of A into G.
G
3
A
Q
Q
Q
?
QQ
s
If G was not free, then there would exist at least one group H for which no
homomorphism from G to H was possible because some relation would hold
in G but not in H. So in this sense the free group G is the most general
possible on the set (alphabet) A. This definition of free is an extension of
the notion of a free Abelian group. A free Abelian group G is defined as a
direct product (Web page 371) of copies of the infinite cyclic group Z; that
is if I = {. . . , i, . . . } is an index set, and ai is a generator of the ith copy of
Z, then a free Abelian group G has the form
336
4 Homomorphisms
G=
Y
I
Z=
Y
iI
hai i,
Let G be a group.
(i) A subset C of G\{e} freely generates G if, and only if, each g G\{e}
can be uniquely expressed in the form
r
g = cr11 . . . cj j ,
(4.5)
(4.6)
337
(eg) = g = eg,
(ge) = ge and
(ee) = e = ee.
Secondly, suppose h = bs where b C and s is a non-zero integer. There
are three cases to consider.
Case 1. b 6= cj . We have
r
gh = cr11 . . . cj j bs
and
r1
We have
r +s
gh = c1j . . . cj j
and
We have
j1
gh = cr11 . . . cj1
and
r1
338
4 Homomorphisms
clearly reduced. Note that words of length 1 are also reduced. Suppose
the result holds for all words of length less than or equal to n where
n > 1. Let w is a word of length n + 1, and suppose we have two
reductions (deletions) labelled (a) and (b). In (a), suppose the deletion
removes the consecutive pair of letters ai ai+1 , and in (b), suppose the
deletion removes the consecutive pair aj aj+1 . There are a number of
cases to consider.
Case 1. j = i In this case the two reductions each give the same
word w0 , say, of length n 1. By the inductive hypothesis, w0 reduces
to a unique reduced word, and so this is also true for w.
We may now assume that j > i.
Case 2. j = i + 1 In this case we may suppose the ith, (i + 1)st and
(i + 2)nd letters take the form
aa0 a
or a0 aa0 ,
339
for
a A.
(4.7)
This is valid because we are using the inverse operation in the group H.
Further, if w = a1 a2 . . . an where each ai A A0 , we define the map
from the set of words on A into H by
w = a1 an .
Note that by (4.7) if we reduce the word w by deleting ai a0i or a0i ai the
value of is unaltered. Let be with its domain restricted to G, and
so : G H. We claim that is a homomorphism. If w1 and w2 are
reduced words on A (that is elements of G), then
w1 w2 = w1 w2
= ((w1 w2 ) )
by definition
by note above,
340
4 Homomorphisms
H = {g : g G} = G
2
A famous theorem due Nielsen and Schreier states that every subgroup
of a free group is also free; see the references quoted at the end of this subsection. Our next corollary shows how normal subgroups come into the picture.
Remember that a relation of an alphabet A is an equation of the form x = e
where x is a word on A A0 (page 58).
Corollary 4.37 Using the notation set out above where G is the free group
on A, is a homomorphism from G to H, and is the inclusion map from
A to G, then x = e is a relation in H if, and only if, x belongs to the kernel
of the homomorphism .
Proof. Let
x = c1 . . . cr
where
ci A A0
for i = 1, . . . , r.
341
x = c1 . . . cr .
Further, let : A G/K be given by
a = (a)K
a A.
for
for a A.
and
(xi ) = (xi )
xi ker ,
342
4 Homomorphisms
Coset Enumeration
As we have noted before, given a presentation of a group it can be difficult,
and in some cases impossible, to determine the groups properties including
its order or even if it is finite. Todd and Coxeter developed a method which
will give some of these properties provided we know in advance that the
group is finite. It is mechanical and so is easily computerised; the computer
program GAP makes extensive use of this procedure in several contexts. We
shall describe the basic method by giving a series of examples.
343
b * a
1
b *
1
344
4 Homomorphisms
(4.8)
This incidentally reproves the fact that o(D3 ) = 6, that is the order of H
(o(hai)) times the number of coset rows in the table (which also equals the
number of numerals used). The reader should check that the data given in
(4.8) is exactly mirrored in the table above.
Example 2.
For our second example we consider the symmetric group S4 , using the
presentation
S4 = ha, b | a4 = b3 = (ab)2 = ei,
and the subgroup H = hai. We introduce two extra symbols. Each time a
new numeral (coset) is defined (reading the tables from left to right, and then
by columns) we place a bar over it, and each time a new fact is discovered (of
the form mc = n) we place the symbol between m and n. So, following the
same procedure as above, the first two rows of our coset enumeration table
for S4 and H are as follows:
a
a
a * b
b
b * a
b
a
b *
* a
1
1
1
1
1
2
3 1
1
2 3
1
We have 3b = 1 (as b3 = e) and 2a = 3 (as 1b = 2), but we do not have a
value for 3a which we set as 4, or for 4a which we set as 5. On the other hand
we do have 5a = 2 applying the relation a4 = e. Using this information we
can write down the next two rows of the coset table as follows:
a
a
a * b
b
b * a
b
a
b *
* a
2
3 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2 3
1
2
3
4
5 2
3
1
2
3
1
1
2
3
4
5
2
3
1
2
3
4 5
2
3
At this stage the table is not complete because we have more numerals
(cosets) than numeral rows. So we need to start again placing 4 below each
asterisk in Row 5 and 5 below each asterisk in Row 6. During this process
we will need to introduce the sixth coset (numeral) 6 by defining 5b = 6.
Constructing this row (Row 5) shows that 6a = 6 and 6b = 4. Hence we can
complete the table now.
345
a
a
a * b
b
b * a
b
a
b *
* a
1
1
1
1
1
2
3 1
1
2 3
1
2
3
4
5 2
3
1
2
3
1
1
2
3
4
5
2
3
1
2
3
4 5
2
3
6
4
5
2
3
4
5
4
5
6 6 4
5
2
3
4
5
6
4
5
2
3
4
5
6
6
6
6
6
4
5
6
6
4
5
6
The table is now finished, we have six cosets 1, 2, . . . , 6 and six rows; and so
the coset product is given by
1a = 1, 2a = 3, 3a = 4, 4a = 5, 5a = 2, 6a = 6,
1b = 2, 2b = 3, 3b = 1, 4b = 5, 5b = 6, 6b = 4.
This can be used to give a permutation representation for S4 with a
(2, 3, 4, 5) and b (1, 2, 3)(4, 5, 6). Note also that each column in this table
is a permutation of the set {1, 2, . . . , 6}, similar properties hold for all coset
enumeration tables (use Lemma 2.22) and this can be used as a check on the
calculations.
Example 3.
of Order 3
Our remaining two examples will again use groups from Chapter 8, and
they will illustrate some further simple adaptions of the method. Let SL2 (3)
be presented by
SL2 (3) = ha, b | a3 = abab1 a1 b1 = ei,
with subgroup H = hai; see page 176. We fill in the first three lines of the coset
enumeration table using similar arguments to those applied in the example
above by letting 1b = 2, 3b1 = 2, 2a = 4, 4a = 5 and 5b1 = 6. Using
inverses these also show that 2b1 = 1, 2b = 3, 5a1 = 4 and 6a1 = 3 (as
5b1 = 6 and 3b1 = 2). Secondly we can deduce the identities: 4b1 = 4
(and so 4b = 4) and 5a = 2 (as a3 = e). Hence the first three rows of the
table are:
a
a * a
b
a
b1
a1
b1 *
* a
2
4 4
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
4
5 2
4 4
5
6 3
2
We can now proceed much as before. We let 6a = 7 and 5b = 8, this gives
7a = 3 and 8a = 8. Hence the next three lines of the table are:
3
4
5
6
5
2
7 3
2
4
4
5
6
5
2
5
2
8 8
3
6
1
5
8
1
4
8
3
4
5
346
4 Homomorphisms
We have used eight cosets (numerals) and so we need at least three further
rows in the table. This is sufficient because we do not need to introduce any
more cosets; hence the complete table is as follows:
a
a * a
b
a
b1
* a
2
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
5 2
4 4
5
3
6
7 3
6
5
2
4
5
2
4
5
8 8
5
2
4
5
2
3
6
6
7
3
6
7 7
3
7
3
6
7
3
1
1
8
8
8
8
8
6
7
a1
4
2
6 3
1
1
5
4
8
8
2
5
3
7
7
6
b1 *
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
For our last example we consider the group E with its presentation (page
182)
E = ha, b | a4 = d 6 = (ad)2 = (a3 d)2 = ei,
and its unique subgroup of order 3 given by H = hd2 i. Here H is not generated
by one of the group generators a or d, so we proceed as follows. We define
1a = 2, 2a = 3, 3a = 4, and 1d = 5.
As we are considering cosets of H we have 5d = 1 (d 2 , d 4 and d 6 = e all lie
in H). Also as a4 = e, we have 4a = 1. This gives the first half of Row 2 in
the table on the next page. To complete this row we define
2d = 6,
and
4d = 7.
and
7a1 = 5
or
5a = 7,
see the completed row in the table below. The information in this row also
gives 2a1 = 1 and 5a1 = 6. Applying this to the latter part of Row 3 we
obtain 6d = 2 as this row ends in 2 (that is (ad)2 = e). If we set 3d = 8 we
obtain 8a = 6 (check between the third and fourth asterisks in Row 3). This
completes the third row and we can construct the fourth row using similar
methods which gives the facts: 7a = 8 and 8d = 3. No new cosets are needed
for we can complete the remaining rows using the information to hand.
4.8 Problems 4W
347
1
d a1 d *
* a a a a * d d d d d d * a d a d *a
1 2 3 41 5 1 5 1 5 1 2 65 1
4 7 5 1
2 3 4 1 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 3 8 6 2
1 5
62
3 4 1 2 3 8 3 8 3 8 3 4 78 3
2 6
83
4 1 2 3 4 7 4 7 4 7 4 1 5 7 4
3 8
7 4
5 7 8 6 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 7 4 1 5
6 2
1 5
6 5 7 8 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 5 1 2 6
8 3
2 6
7 8 6 5 7 4 7 4 7 4 7 8 3 4 7
5 1
4 7
8 6 5 7 8 3 8 3 8 3 8 6 2 3 8
7 4
3 8
4.8 Problems 4W
Problem 4.23 (i) Suppose H / G and T G. Show that T is a transversal
of H in G if, and only if, G = HT and, for all t1 , t2 T with t1 6= t2 , we
have t1
1 t2 6 H.
(ii) Using (i), if H, J G, G = HJ and H K = hei, deduce J is a
transversal of H in G.
(iii) If J H G, {j1 , . . . , jm } is a transversal of J in H, and
{h1 , . . . , hn } is a transversal of H in G, show that {hr js }1rn,1sm is
a transversal of J in G.
(iv) If K / G and T is a transversal of K in G, show that the set T 1 =
{t1 : t T } is also a transversal of K in G.
Problem 4.24 For this problem we use the term left transversal for the
transversal given in Definition 4.24. First you are asked to define a right
transversal.
348
4 Homomorphisms
Now suppose H G.
(i) Show that if H / G, then every left transversal is a right transversal,
and vice versa.
(ii) Prove that if every left transversal of H in G is also a right transversal,
then H / G.
(iii) Give an example using one of the groups discussed in Chapter 8.
Problem 4.25 Suppose K / J G, [G : J] = n < , o(J/K) = m <
and J/K is Abelian. Prove that if (m, n) = 1, then
J G0 Z(G) K.
Problem 4.26
(i) Show that if G has a Abelian Sylow p-subgroup, then p - o(G0 Z(G)).
Hence deduce G0 Z(G) = hei if all of the Sylow subgroups of G are Abelian.
Theorem 10.18 is also relevant here.
(ii) Prove that if G/Z(G) is a p-group, then G0 is also a p-group.
(iii) Give an example to show that the converse of (ii) is false.
(iv) Lastly, suppose G is a non-Abelian p-group, show that
G0 Z(G) > hei.
Problem 4.27 Suppose n > 2 and G = Sn . Using the natural action
(Chapter 5) of G on the set {1, 2, . . . , n}, let H = stabG (1) and J = An H.
Show that the transfer of G into H/J is non-trivial if, and only if, n is odd.
(Hint. Note that {e, (1, 2), . . . , (1, n)} is a transversal of H in G.)
For the next two problems suppose the groups G are infinite.
Problem 4.28 Show that if G has a finite generating set and H is a
subgroup of G with the property [G : H] < , then H also has a finite
generating set. Note that this result can fail if the index [G : H] is infinite.
Problem 4.29
is finite.
(Hint. Begin by showing that G0 has a finite generating set, then use the
previous problem to deduce G0 Z(G) also has a finite generating set. Now
consider the transfer of G into Z(G), and use Corollary 4.29.) We noted
earlier that an Abelian group with a finite generating set and finite exponent
is finite; this is not true in general, see page 26.
Problem 4.30 Prove Theorem 4.30. (Hint. Assume the contrary, choose
a P G0 Z(G) and, using the transfer of G to P , show that a = a[G:P ] .
Then, noting that is a homomorphism, obtain a contradition. For the second
part see Chapter 8.)
4.8 Problems 4W
Problem 4.31
349
a1 ba = b2 , b1 cb = c2 , c1 dc = d2 , d1 ad = a2 .
Using the following method show that a = b = c = d = e. Suppose o(a) = r
and o(b) = s with r, s > 1. Show that
2r 1 (mod s).
Deduce the least prime divisor of r is smaller than the least prime divisor
of s. Further, if q is a prime divisor of s, then there exists divisors t and p
(prime) of r which satisfy
2t 6 1 (mod q)
and
and the subgroup hai. (Hint. Try to construct the coset enumeration table.)
Note that the method will succeed if the exponents 3, 3, 3 are replaced by
2
A finitely generated infinite simple group. J. London Math. Soc., 26, pp. 61-64.
350
4 Homomorphisms
where R stands for the relation: (ab)2 Z(J). First construct the coset
enumeration table for this group and the subgroup generated by a and (ab)2 .
Secondly, try to simplify this table by introducing a new variable c = ab
(for more details see Suzuki [1982], page 176). Incidently J is isomorphic to
the special linear group SL2 (5) (page 451).
351
Transitivity
We begin with
Definition 5.28 (i) Given a set X, a group of permutations G on X, that
is a subgroup of SX , is called a permutation group on X.
(ii) The degree of G is o(X).
(iii) G is called transitive on X if, for each pair x, y X, there exists an
element G with the property
y = x.
If this property fails then G is called intransitive on X.
(iv) If G acts on X and : G 7 SX is the permutation representation
given in Definition 5.9, then the action of G on X is called faithful if the
homomorphism is injective.
By Theorem 5.11, we see that if is injective, then the intersection of the
stabilisers stabG (x) for x X is the neutral subgroup.
In Example (d) on page 93 we defined a permutation action. For each permutation group G on X we see that G acts on X using this permutation action,
and G is transitive if, and only if, the corresponding action is transitive.
Examples.
Clearly both the groups An and Sn are transitive on their
underlying sets {1, . . . , n}, but note there are both intransitive on the set
{1, . . . , n + 1}. Some further examples are given in Chapter 12.
A stronger transitivity property holds for the group Sn (Problem 5.29
gives a similar property for An ): if we take two subsets of X = {1, . . . , n},
each with k elements where k n, there is an element of Sn which provides
a bijection of the first set onto the second; we say Sn is k-transitive, see
definition below. For large k not many k-transitive groups exist3 , but those
that do have a number of special properties.
3
352
Given a finite set X and positive integer k which is not greater than o(X)
we let {X; k} denote the set of all ordered k-element subsets of X with no
repetition. If o(X) = n and k n, then clearly
o({X; k}) = n(n 1) . . . (n (k 1)).
(5.10)
(5.11)
where (a1 , . . . , ak ) {X; k}, G, and k n, the reader should check that
the action axioms hold.
Definition 5.29 (i) Using the notation set out above, we say that G is
k-transitive if the action of G on {X; k} is transitive.
(ii) G is called sharply k-transitive if it is k-transitive, and for every pair
of k-tuples in {X; k} there is a unique G which provides a bijection of
the first member of the pair to the second.
Note that 1-transitivity is the same as transitivity. Once we have proved
the following two results we shall give some examples of sharply 2- and 3transitive groups, and in Chapter 12 we shall discuss some sharply 4- and
5-transitive examples the Mathieu groups M11 and M12 .
The following straightforward theorem is basic.
Theorem 5.30 If G is a transitive permutation group on a finite set X,
x X, and k > 1, then G is k-transitive on X if, and only if, stabG (x) is
(k 1)-transitive on X\{x}.
Proof. First suppose G is k-transitive on X. If
(x1 , . . . , xk1 ), (y1 , . . . , yk1 ) {X\{x}; k 1},
then xi 6= x 6= yi for i = 1, . . . , k 1, and by hypothesis (k-transitivity),
there exists G which maps
(x1 , . . . , xk1 , x)
to
But then maps x to x, and (x1 , . . . , xk1 ) to (y1 , . . . , yk1 ), and as this
applies to all pairs of distinct (k 1)-tuples of elements of G, the result
follows in this case by the definitions of stability and (k 1)-transitivity.
Conversely, suppose stabG (x) is (k 1)-transitive on {X\{x}; k 1},
and let (x1 , . . . , xk ), (y1 , . . . , yk ) {X; k}. The group G is transitive by
hypothesis, and so there exists 1 , 2 G to satisfy
xk 1 = x and x2 = yk .
By hypothesis we can find stabG (x) which maps (x1 1 , . . . , xk1 1 )
to (y1 21 , . . . , yk1 21 ). That is
xi 1 = yi 21
353
or xi 1 2 = yi ,
354
355
For example this shows that S3 acts primitively on {1, 2, 3}. The reader should
check that the argument we used for D4 in the example on page 354 does not
work in this case.
Theorem 5.36 If G is a transitive permutation group on X, then G is
primitive if, and only if, stabG (x) is a maximal subgroup of G, and this
applies for all x X.
Proof. Suppose we have stabG (x) < H < G, that is the stabiliser of x
in G is not maximal. Let
5
Note that the imprimitive subsets, the blocks, are subsets of the underlying set X and
not of the group G.
356
Y = {x : H}.
Now o(Y ) 2 because stabG (x) is a proper subgroup of H. Also Y 6= X.
For if Y = X and G, we can find H to satisfy x = x , that
is 1 stabG (x) which in turn shows that H and, as this holds
for all G, we have H = G contradicting our hypothesis. Is Y an
imprimitive subset? Yes, for if Y Y 6= we can find 1 , 2 H with
the property x1 = x2 . This gives in turn 2 11 stabG (x), H,
and Y = Y . By definition it follows that G is imprimitive.
For the converse, suppose Y is an imprimitive subset of X. By the
transitivity of G we may suppose x Y . Let
J = { G : Y = Y }
so J G,
Therefore stabG (x) < J as o(Y ) > 1, and J < G as o(Y ) < o(X), that
is stabG (x) is not maximal in G.
2
The following corollary gives a number of examples of primitive groups,
remember that a k-transitive group is 2-transitive if k 2.
Corollary 5.37
357
(Iwasawas Lemma)
Suppose
358
J = hg 1 Jg : g Gi.
Proof. Suppose the subgroup K satisfies hei < K / G, we prove the
theorem by showing that K = G. By Problem 5.27, K acts transitively
on X, and so by Problem 5.28
G = K stabG (x).
(5.12)
(5.14)
5.5
Problems 5W
Problem 5.27 Suppose G acts on the set X which has more than one
element, and H G. For x X, let x\H = {x\h : h H}.
(i) If x, y X and x\H y\H 6= , show that x\H = y\H.
(ii) If H / G show that x\H is a block in X for each x X. For the
definition of a block see Definition 5.33.
(iii) Now suppose hei < H / G. Show that the action of H on X is
transitive if the action of G on X is both faithful and primitive. Secondly,
show that o(X) | o(H). (Hint. Use (ii) to show that, for x X, x\H equals
either , {x} or X, and use the given conditions to show that the first two
cases are impossible.)
5.5 Problems 5W
359
360
361
(6.8)
Brodkey, J. S. (1963), A note on finite groups with an Abelian Sylow subgroup. Proc.
Amer. Math. Soc., 14, 132-3.
362
(6.9)
Now both aPi a1 and R are Sylow p-subgroups of G, and by (6.9) their
intersection is contained in T . But by definition, T is minimal for this
property, hence
aPi a1 R = T,
and so
K T aPi a1 .
(i)
(ii)
Proof.
(i) By Brodkeys Theorem there exist Abelian Sylow psubgroups Q and R of G satisfying Q R = Op (G). Hence by Theorem
5.8 we have
o(G) o(QR) =
o(Q)o(R)
o(P )2
=
,
o(Q R)
o(Op (G))
363
(6.10)
364
and so
o(NG (P )/CG (P )) | p0 1
365
We have 396 = 22 32 11, and so a group of order 396 will have a Sylow
11-subgroup P1 , say. If G is simple, then n11 = 12 and o(NG (P1 )) = 33 by
Sylow 3 and 4. But by Theorem 6.27, o(CG (P1 )) = 11, as o(CG (P1 )) is at
least 11 because P1 CG (P1 ), and so [NG (P1 ) : CG (P1 )] = 3 which clearly
does not divide 10. This contradiction shows that a group of order 396 must
have a normal subgroup of order 11, and therefore cannot be simple. Some
further examples are given in Problem 6.28.
366
367
Using these preliminary facts we can now show that a finite group with
cyclic Sylow subgroups is metacyclic. In fact we have the following stronger
result due to H
older, Burnside and Zassenhaus which involves four numbertheoretic conditions.
Theorem 6.30(18) If G is a finite group all of whose Sylow subgroups are
cyclic, then G has the presentation
G ' ha, b | am = bn = e, b1 ab = ar i,
where
(i) (m, n(r 1)) = 1,
(iii) 0 r < m,
(iv) m is odd.
(6.11)
(6.12)
(r 1, m) = 1.
(6.13)
368
with o(b) = n,
6.6 Problems 6W
369
6.6
Problems 6W
Problem 6.24 The Abelianness condition in Brodkeys Theorem (Theorem 6.20) is essential, prove this using the following example. Let J = C3 C3 .
The automorphism group Aut J of J is isomorphic to GL3 (2) with order 48,
and this group has a Sylow 2-subgroup A, say, of order 16. Form the semidirect product of J by A, show that its 2-radical is neutral, and so complete
the proof.
Problem 6.25
are not simple.
Show that there are no simple groups with orders 264, 945
Problem 6.29 Prove that a group of order p3 q is not simple using the
following method. First show that p < q, then use the Sylow theory and
Burnsides Theorem (Theorem 6.23) to obtain nq = p2 , and lastly deduce
p = 2 and q = 3. Note that np need not equal 1, give an example.
370
Find all groups of order 105, 210 and 474, see the table on
Prove that G has normal p-complements for all primes p dividing o(H). (Hint.
Use induction. Prove first that if P is a Sylow subgroup of H and NG (P ) < G,
then P Z(NG (P )). Secondly prove that if P / G and Q is a Sylow subgroup
of H which satisfies NG (Q) < G, then P Z(NG (Q)).
371
(7.13)
where ain , bin Gin for all n. The collection of all vectors of G with this
operation forms a group called the cartesian product which is denoted by
O
Gin .
in I
(ii) Let H be the subset of G of those vectors that have only a finite
number of non-neutral entries. The set H with the operation (7.13) forms a
group called the direct product which is denoted by
Y
Gin .
in I
Note that
Y
in I
Gin /
O
in I
Gin ,
as the reader can easily check. The properties listed in Lemma 7.5 for finite
direct products also apply to both the cartesian and the (infinite) direct
product.
From now on all groups discussed in this section are Abelian.
Our first result concerns the extension of the Fundamental Theorem of
Abelian Groups (Theorem 7.12) to the infinite case. A group is said to be
finitely generated if it has a presentation (Section 3.4 and Web Section 4.7)
with a finite number of generating elements. The Fundamental Theorem extends to this case for we have
372
Divisibility
Many infinite Abelian groups are not finitely generated, for instance the rational numbers Q (Problem 3.17). But this group has another important
property it is divisible; that is for each positive integer m and each rational
number a/b Q, there exists another rational number c/d Q with the property m(c/d) = a/b (put c = a and d = mb). In the standard multiplicative
notation:
For all positive integers m, every element in Q has an m-th
(additive) root in Q.
With torsion to be defined below, divisibility plays a major role in the Abelian
theory.
Definition 7.21 An Abelian group G, with as usual its operation expressed
multiplicatively using concatenation, is called divisible if for all g G and all
positive integers m, there exists another element h G satisfying
hm = g.
Examples. The following are divisible groups: hei, Q (as above), R, C (in
these two cases it is the additive group that is divisible), the multiplicative
group of the non-zero complex numbers,7 and Cp (Problem 6.7). A factor
group of a divisible group is divisible, and if Gn , n = . . . , 0, 1, . . . is a collection of divisible groups, then both the cartesian and the direct products of
the Gn are divisible. A subgroup of a divisible group need not be divisible;
for example Z Q, and Z is not divisible.
Further we set
Definition 7.22 (i) Given a group G, the subgroup generated by all elements of all divisible subgroups of G is denoted by dG, it is called the divisible
subgroup of G.
(ii) A group G is called reduced if, and only if, dG = hei.
Clearly G is divisible if, and only if, dG = G. It is not difficult to prove that
Theorem 7.23
tion
where R is reduced.
7
Corollary 7.24
group.
373
Torsion
The second major distinction in the Abelian theory is between torsion and
torsion-free or; in our previous terminology, between finite and infinite order.
Definition 7.26 (i) The torsion subgroup tG of a group G (with operation
expressed multiplicatively using concatenation) is given by
tG = {g G : g m = e for some positive integer m}.
(ii) A group G is called torsion if tG = G, and torsion-free if tG = hei.
It is easy to prove that tG G for all G. Every finite group is torsion,
Q is an example of a torsion-free group, whilst R , the non-zero reals with
multiplication, is neither torsion nor torsion-free; reader, why?
The following result is easily proved.
Theorem 7.27
free.
374
Definition 7.29
for all
n Z.
375
376
Theorem 7.35 (i) Two subgroups of Q are isomorphic if, and only if, they
have equivalent characteristics.
(ii) For each equivalence class of characteristics there exists a subgroup of Q
with a characteristic in this class.
It follows from this result that the group Q has uncountably many subgroups
as there are uncountably many inequivalent characteristics. As an exercise
write down as many subgroups of Q as you can.
For further developments, proofs of the theorems given above, examples,
and problems the reader should read one or more of the references given at
the beginning of this section.
Schur-Zassenhaus Theorem
377
378
Chapter 9 Jordan-H
older Theorem and the Extension Problem
and
(n, o(K)) = 1,
Schur-Zassenhaus Theorem
379
for
k K, c C = G/K, and g c.
(9.16)
This action has two further properties which the reader should check:
(kk 0 )\c = k\c k 0 \c and
(k 1 )\c = (k\c)1 .
(9.17)
(9.18)
380
Chapter 9 Jordan-H
older Theorem and the Extension Problem
Combining these equations and using associativity we obtain the socalled cocycle identity
(c2 , c3 )\c1 (c1 , c2 c3 ) = (c1 , c2 ) (c1 c2 , c3 ),
(9.19)
Y
cC
= c2 \c1 c1
(9.20)
using (9.17) and Theorem 2.8 in the penultimate line, and the definition
of in the last line.
As K is Abelian and (n, o(K)) = 1, the n-th power map: k k n
for k K is an automorphism of K (Use the fact that if 0 r < n,
then there exists, by the Euclidean Algorithm and GCD condition, an
integer s with the property sn r (mod o(K)).). Hence as the inverse
of an automorphism is also an automorphism, the n-th root map on
K: k k 1/n is again an automorphism of K as also is the map on K
sending k to k 1/n . Therefore, if we define : C K by
c = (c)1/n
for c C,
(9.21)
Schur-Zassenhaus Theorem
381
Therefore if we define : C G by
c = c tc
for c C
and tc T,
for all a, b G.
(9.22)
for all a G.
(i) e = e.
(ii) ker G.
(iii) For a, b G, we have a = b if, and only if, Ka = Kb.
(iv) o(G) = [G : K] where as usual G = {g : g G}.
Proof. We shall derive (ii) and leave the remaining parts as an exercise
for the reader, see Problem 9.16. By (i) ker is not empty. Secondly if
j ker , then by (i)
e = e = (jj 1 ) = j(j)j 1 (j 1 ) = j 1 ,
and so we also have j 1 ker . (Note, by definition j K and K / G.)
Similarly by (9.22) we have (ab) ker provided a, b ker , and
(ii) follows by Theorem 2.13.
2
382
Chapter 9 Jordan-H
older Theorem and the Extension Problem
and T2 = {g 2 , g 3 , g 2 h, gh}.
a = (T, T a) for a G.
(9.23)
Schur-Zassenhaus Theorem
383
384
Chapter 9 Jordan-H
older Theorem and the Extension Problem
More details concerning these results can be found in Scott [1964] Chapter 9, Rose [1978] Chapter 10, Rotman [1994] Chapter 7, and Issacs [2008]
Chapter 3.
9.5
Problems 9W
Problem 9.16 Give proofs of the remaining parts of Lemma 9.21 and of
the three parts of Lemma 9.22.
Problem 9.17 (i) Let F be a finite field whose characteristic is not equal
to 2, and let G be the group of 3 3 matrices of the form
A O
=M
v 1
where A GL2 (F ), v is a element of the 2-dimensional vector space over F ,
and O is the 2-dimensional zero column vector. Further let J be the subgroup
of G consisting of those matrices whose submatrix A in the definition above
has the form 1c 10 , and let H be the subgroup of J of those matrices with
c = 0.
(i) Show that H / G.
(ii) Prove that G is isomorphic to a semi-direct product of H by GL2 (F ).
(iii) Further prove that J possesses a complement of H which is not
contained in any complement of H in G. This result is false if o(F ) = 2.
(Hint. Show that if L J, J = HL, H L = hei and L is contained in a
complement of H in G, then CG (L) contains an element of order 2.)
Problem 9.18 Suppose p > q. Show that every group of order p2 q has a
normal Sylow p-subgroup, and classify all such groups.
Problem 9.19 Prove Theorem 9.23 in the Abelian case using the following
method based on the second proof of the Abelian case of the Schur-Zassenhaus
Theorem (Theorem 9.19).
Method. Let H be a complement of K in G, then H is a transversal for K,
and let c = (H, T ) K. By Theorem 9.22(iii) and as is surjective, find
d K to satisfy: d = c. Now show that d1 Hd is the required complement.
To do this we will need to show that (d1 hd) = h1 ch h c which gives
(d1 hd) = e.
Problem 9.20 Suppose K / G, (o(K), [G; K]) = 1, J G, o(J) | [G : K]
and either J or K is soluble. Prove that J is contained in a complement of
K in G.
Problem 9.21 Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G which is contained in
Z(G), and let the set of elements of G whose orders are not divisible by p be
denoted by C. Show that C is a subgroup of G, and G ' C P .
Schur-Zassenhaus Theorem
385
387
Order
A?5
A?6
A7
A?8
A9
L2 (4)?
L2 (5)?
L2 (7)?
L2 (9)?
L2 (8)
L2 (11)
L2 (13)
L2 (17)
L2 (19)
L2 (16)
L2 (23)
L2 (25)
L2 (27)
L2 (29)
L2 (31)
L2 (37)
L2 (32)
L2 (41)
L2 (43)
L2 (47)
L2 (49)
L2 (53)
L2 (59)
L2 (61)
L2 (67)
L2 (71)
60
360
2520
20160
181440
60
60
168
360
504
660
1092
2448
3420
4080
6072
7800
9828
12180
14480
25308
32736
34440
39732
51888
58800
74412
102660
113460
150348
178920
C2
C6
C6
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C6
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
hei
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
hei
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C22
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C22
C3
C2
C2
C2
C2
C4
C2
C22
C6
C2
C2
C2
C5
C2
C2
C2
C22
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
m-s
N-g
N-g
m-s
m-s
m-s
N-g
m-s
N-g
m-s
m-s
N-g
N-g
m-s
N-g
m-s
N-g
N-g
m-s
m-s
N-g
m-s
m-s
N-g
m-s
N-g
N-g
m-s
N-g
Simple
group
Order
Prime
factor
count
L2 (73)
L2 (79)
L2 (64)
L2 (81)
L2 (83)
L2 (89)
L2 (97)
L2 (101)
L2 (103)
L2 (107)
L2 (109)
L2 (113)
L2 (121)
L2 (125)
L3 (2)?
L3 (3)
L3 (4)
L3 (5)
L4 (2)?
U3 (3)
U3 (4)
U3 (5)
U4 (2)?
S4 (3)?
S4 (4)
Sz(8)
M11
M12
M22
J1
J2
194472
246480
262080
265680
285852
352440
456288
515100
546312
612468
647460
721392
885720
976500
168
5616
20160
372000
20160
6048
62400
126000
25920
25920
979200
29120
7920
95040
443520
175560
604800
7
8
11
10
6
8
9
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
5
8
10
10
10
9
10
10
11
11
13
9
8
11
12
8
13
Schur
multi.
group
Outer
auto.
group
C2
C2
C2
C2
hei
C6
C2
C2 C4
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2 C2
C2
C6
C2
C2
hei
C2
C3 C42
D6
hei
C2
C2
C2
hei
C2
hei
C4
C3
D3
C2
C2
C2
C2
hei
C4
C2 C2
C3
hei
hei
C2
C2
C12
C2
hei
hei
C2
C2
Min
simple or
N-group
m-s
N-g
N-g
N-g
m-s
N-g
m-s
N-g
m-s
m-s
N-g
m-s
N-g
N-g
m-s
m-s
N-g
m-s
N-g
-
388
Notes. (a) The outer automorphism and Schur multiplier groups (Columns
4 and 5 above) are considered at the end of this subsection. Thompson (1968)
defined an N-group, N-g, to be a group in which the normalisers of all of its
non-neutral soluble subgroups are themselves soluble, and a group is called
minimum simple, m-s, if all of its proper subgroups are soluble. As a development of his, and Feits, work on the odd order problem published in 1963,
he was able to determine those simple groups that have the properties m-s
and/or N-g. His Main Theorem is as follows:
Each non-soluble N -group is isomorphic to a group G which satisfies:
Inn H G Aut H where H is one of the following N -groups
L2 (q) (q > 3), Sz(22n+1 ) (n 1), A7 , L3 (3), U3 (3) and M11 ,
see Sections 12.3 and 12.4, and (c) below (for the Suzuki groups Sz). As a
corollary to this theorem, Thompson was also able to list the minimal simple
groups: If p denotes an odd prime they are
L2 (2p ), L2 (3p ), L2 (p), Sz(2p ), and L3 (3),
where in the third case p > 3 and p 3 or 7 (mod 10). Column 6 of the
table on the previous page lists this data for the groups under discussion. As
an exercise the reader should consider why the second list above is smaller
than the first, see Problem 12.16W. Note that both A5 and A6 occur in the
second list, see (b) below.
(b) The stars (?) in Table 1 overleaf indicate that the isomorphism class
of the group listed contains more than one group in the table; we have
A5 ' L2 (4) ' L2 (5)
A6 ' L2 (9)
A8 ' L4 (2)
L2 (7) ' L3 (2)
U4 (2) ' S4 (3),
see Problems 6.16, 12.4, 12.6, 12.7 and 12.17, and the Atlas. The group A8
is not isomorphic to L3 (4) even though these groups have the same order. For
instance the group A8 contains elements of order 15 whilst L3 (4) contains no
element of order larger than 7, a number of other distinctions have been found;
see Problem 12.13. Infinitely many pairs of non-isomorphic simple groups
with the same order exist, but there are no triples. This is a consequence of
the classification given by CFGS.
(c) The Suzuki groups Sz(22n+1 ), n = 1, 2, . . . were discovered by Muchio
Suzuki in 1959. Later it was realised that they can also be treated as the
(twisted) Chevalley groups 2 B2 (22n+1 ). One definition is as a set of 4 4
matrices over F22n+1 which preserve a collection of vectors whose coordinates
satisfy a special quadratic condition; we shall consider these groups in Web
Section 14.3. They are the only non-Abelian simple groups whose orders are
not divisible by 3, another result due to Thompson.
389
(d) Below we give brief descriptions of the groups in the table not
so far mentioned in the text, or discussed in Web Chapter 14; they are
S4 (4), M22 , J1 and J2 . The unitary groups U3 (4) to U4 (2) have similar definitions to that given for U3 (3) on pages 265 to 267. The following data gives
a partial list of their maximal subgroups, full details can be found in the
Atlas. U3 (4) : A5 C5 , S3 o C52 and F13,3 ; U3 (5) : A7 , C2 S5 and M10 which
is isomorphic to the group D defined on page 268; and U4 (2) : A5 o C24 , S6
and S4 o C33 .
One definition of the Mathieu group M12 was given on page 268 and its
connection with the Steiner system S(5, 6, 12) will be considered on page 395.
With M24 it is the only group that is 5-transitive if we exclude the symmetric
and alternating cases. Several definitions are given in the Atlas including
the following presentation
M12 ' ha, b, c | a11 = b2 = c2 = (ab)3 = (ac)3 = (bc)10 = a2 (bc)2 a(bc)8 = ei.
The maximal subgroups are isomorphic copies of M11 , an extension of T2 by
A6 , C2 S4 o C32 , C2 S5 , an extension of an Extra Special group of order 32
by S3 , D6 o C42 , and A4 S3 .
S4 (4) The symplectic group of order 4 defined over F4 The definition of the group Sn (q) is similar to that for the unitary group Un (q). As
before we work over the field Fq2 , the dimension n must now be even. The
hermitian form fixed by matrices in Un (q) is replaced by an alternating form
of the type
x1 ym+1 + x2 ym+2 + + xm y2m xm+1 y1 xm+2 y2 x2m ym
and matrices
in S2m (q) where n = 2m fix a form of this type. If we have
A B
C D S2m (q) where A, B, C and D are m m, then
A>C = C >A, B >D = D>B, A>D C >B = I2m ,
where > denotes the transpose. All matrices have determinant 1, and S2m (q)
is obtained by factoring out the scalar matrices as in the linear and unitary
cases, the centre has order (q1, 2) in this case. We have S2 (q) ' L2 (q) for all
prime powers q, S4 (2) ' S6 , and as noted on page 388 we have S4 (3) ' U4 (2).
Also
2
390
The permutations 1 , . . . , 4 generate an isomorphic copy of C24 (an elementary Abelian 2-group of maximal order in the group). If we add to
1 , . . . , 4 we obtain a group H1 of order 960 isomorphic to a semi-direct
product A5 o C24 , then if we add to H1 we obtain a group H2 , of order
20160, isomorphic to L4 (3), and finally if we add to H2 we obtain the group
M22 , with order 443520 = 48 20 21 22, and defined as a subgroup of A22 .8
Secondly, let = 2 3 , = 1 2 and = 1 3 , and let
H3 = h1 , . . . , 4 , , , i.
Then o(H3 ) = 384, H3 ' S4 o C24 ' CM22 (). Janko has shown that M22 can
be defined as the unique group containing a so-called 2-central involution a
such that CM22 (a) ' H3 . A number of presentations have been given, the
following can be found in the Atlas (1985)
M22 ' ha1 . . . , a5 | a21 = a22 = a23 = a24 = a25 = (ai aj )2 []
= (a1 a2 )3 = (a2 a3 )5 = (a3 a4 )3 = (a1 a5 )4 = (a3 a5 )3
= (a1 a2 a5 )3 = (a1 a2 a3 )5 [= (a2 a3 a5 )5 ]
= (a1 a5 a3 a4 )4 = (a1 a2 a3 a5 )8 = ei.
The first square brackets [] indicates that i and j range from 1 to 5 when this
relation does not contradict one given in the following line (for instance i = 1
and j = 2), and the second square brackets imply that this condition is not
strictly necessary. The group M22 is also closely related to the Steiner system
S(3, 6, 22), that is the automorphism group of this system is isomorphic to an
extension of M22 by C2 note not M22 itself. Maximal subgroups of M22 are
isomorphic copies of L4 (3) (the group H2 mentioned above), A6 o C24 , A7 ,
S5 o C24 (one of these subgroups and H1 , defined above, give a generating set
for the whole group), L3 (2) o C23 , and L2 (11).
J1 The first Janko Group Z. Janko (1965) defined J1 as the unique
group with the properties: (i) its Sylow 2-subgroups are (elementary) Abelian,
8
If we define = (1, 23)(5, 17)(6, 8)(7, 12)(9, 15)(11, 19)(16, 22)(18, 21) and =
(23, 24)(6, 10)(7, 15)(9, 21)(12, 18)(14, 17)(16, 22)(19, 20), then we have h1 , . . . , , i '
M23 and h1 , . . . , , , i ' M24 ; so M23 is isomorphic to a subgroup of A23 and M24
is isomorphic to a subgroup of A24 . Also o(M23 ) = o(M22 ) 23 and o(M24 ) = o(M23 ) 24.
391
392
The Schur multiplier deals with the reverse situation, that is when the
group G is isomorphic to a factor group of the extension. And again there is
a close connection between the character tables of the groups involved. The
multiplier can be defined as follows. An extension J of H by G is called central
if H Z(J) and G ' J/H.9 One example is given by taking H to be an
arbitrary Abelian group and J = G H. To avoid this rather straightforward
case we also require H to belong to the derived subgroup of J. Hence given
G we are looking for H and J satisfying
H Z(J) J 0
see Theorem 10.18; note this implies that H is Abelian. It can be shown that
there always exists a unique maximal solution H. This subgroup H is called
the Schur multiplier of G and it is usually denoted by M (G), some examples
are given in the table on page 387. It can also be shown that if G is simple
(in fact we only need G to be perfect) and H = M (G), then J is unique (up
to isomorphism). It is called the cover or the Schur representation group of
the group G.
Two further definitions have been given. First M (G) can be defined as
the cohomology group H 2 (G, C ), see the references quoted below. Secondly,
if G is given by the presentation
G = ha1 , . . . , ak | x1 = = xl = ei,
(12.12)
where each xj is a word using the letters a1 , . . . , ak , then the extension J can
be given a presentation in the following form. Using a1 , . . . , ak , c1 , . . . , cl and
x1 , . . . , xl given in (12.12), the relations of J are
xj = cj
and ai cj = cj ai
for all
1 i k and i j l,
and the Schur multiplier M (G) equals hc1 , . . . , cl i J 0 . As with the outer
automorphism group case there is a close connection between the character
tables of G and J.
These two constructions can sometimes be combined to form double
extensions H by G by J, but in this case we lose uniqueness. For an example
consider the group SL2 (5). Its centre is isomorphic to C2 which also equals
its derived subgroup, and as we have seen previously
A5 ' SL2 (5)/C2 ,
that is M (A5 ) ' C2 . (To be more precise this only shows that M (A5 ) C2 ,
further arguments are needed to establish the isomorphism.) Also two distinct
groups arise which are extensions of the type C2 by A5 by C2 . A similar result
holds for An if n > 7, but the situation is more complicated for A6 and A7 :
see Sections 4 and 6 of the Atlas (1985), and Chapter 2, Section 7, in Suzuki
(1982).
9 Refer to Definition 9.11. In a central extension the maps in the factor set satisfy
a
a = e for all a A. Hence the cocycle identity has a simplified form.
393
Proof. See Lemmas 12.8 and 12.11. The proof is straightforward using
the elementary operations, and the fact that an elementary operation
can be performed by pre- or post-multiplying the given matrix by a
transvection. As the determinant of a transvection is 1, this can all be
carried out in SLn (q).
2
Lemma 12.16
Note that neither SL2 (2) (' D3 ) nor SL2 (3) is perfect, see Section 8.2.
Proof. By Lemmas 12.8 and 12.11 it is sufficient to show that each
transvection can be written as a commutator. Suppose first n > 2 and
1 i, j, k n where i, j and k are distinct (and so we need n to be at
least 3). Using (12.13) it is easy to check that
[Eik (1), Ekj (r)] = Eij (r),
and this proves the result in this case.
For the case n = 2 we argue as in the last part of the proof of Theorem
12.10. Let a, b Fq \{0}, and let
1 b
a1 0
A=
and B =
.
0 1
0 a
Then we have
394
(ii) The degree of the group, that is the order of the set upon which Ln (q)
acts, equals (q n 1)/(q 1).
Proof. (i) This follows from the discussion above. (ii) We leave this as
an exercise for the reader, note that (q n 1)/(q 1) is the number of
1-dimensional subspaces in the underlying vector space.
2
We are now ready to prove our main result.
Theorem 12.19
395
..
..
.
1
with zeros at all other entries. The collection of all matrices of type A
forms an Abelian subgroup of SLn (q) (reader, check), and this subgroup
is normal as it is the kernel of a homomorphism.
Further, as SLn (q) acts on the set of 1-dimensional subspaces of V
and Ki is determined by the vector vi , we see that the collection of
groups Ki are conjugate in SLn (q). But each transvection Ejk (r) belongs to one of the Ki (1 i n), and so, by Lemma 12.15, the normal
closure of K1 is SLn (q). (Note that we could have taken any one of the
groups Ki in place of K1 .)
Lastly we use the Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16). The
factor group H1 /Z(H1 ) is a point stabiliser of the permutation group
Ln (q), and K1 /Z(K1 ) is an Abelian normal subgroup of H1 /Z(H1 ).
Also the normal closure of K1 /Z(K1 ) is Ln (q). Hence we have satisfied
all of the conditions in Iwasawaa Lemma, and so the result follows. 2
This method can also be applied to establish the simplicity of a number
of other classes of groups including the Unitary, Sympletic and Orthogonal
Groups, and some other individual groups.
396
s s s
s s s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
{a1 , a2 , a3 , b3 , c3 }
{a1 , a2 , a3 , b2 , c2 }
{a1 , b1 , b2 , b3 , c1 }
{a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c3 }
{a2 , a3 , b2 , b3 , c1 }
{a1 , a3 , b1 , b3 , c2 }
{a3 , b3 , c1 , c2 , c3 }
{a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 , c3 }
{a2 , b1 , b2 , b3 , c2 }
{a2 , a3 , b2 , b3 , c1 }
{a2 , b1 , b3 , c1 , c3 }
{a2 , a3 , b1 , c2 , c3 }.
Four of these crosses, marked with an asterisk above, are illustrated in the
second diagram below.
e e e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e e
e
e
e
e
397
The third collection contains the squares which are the complements of the
crosses in the array on page 396, so again there are 18 and each have four
elements. For example the first is {b2 , b3 , c2 , c3 }.
The algorithm is constructed using the following three arrays. These arrays were produced using the fact that if we select from the system S(5, 6, 12)
those hexads that contain a fixed triple then we obtain a version of the Steiner
system S(2, 3, 9). We take {0, 1, } as the fixed triple, see Rows 19 and 20 in
Table 3 on page 398; but note that we could have taken an arbitrary triple
from P as the fixed triple reader, try one. Each line in these arrays belongs
to this smaller system defined on the set {2, 3, . . . , 10}. The arrays are
6 10 3
2 7 4
5 9 8
2 6 5
10 9 7
8 4 3
-array
10 2 8
6 4 9
3 7 5
0-array
1-array
These three arrays can be combined into one triangular array called the
kitten. A similar device called MOG (Miracle Octad Generator) has been
constructed for M24 , hence the name! In fact the kitten can be embedded in
MOG, see the paper quoted above and the Atlas (1985) for further details.
Each of the three arrays above form part of this triangular array. For example
the -array can be obtained from the diagram below by simply ignoring the
two lower outer triangles and rotating.
2
5
6
10
7
10
3
4
10
1
Calculator for M12 the Kitten
The elements of the Steiner system S(5, 6, 12) (hexads of six elements
in P) consist of the following sets:
(a) and a cross from the -array; 0 and a cross from the 0-array;
and 1 and a cross from the 1-array; there are 54 in total, see Columns
1 to 3 in Table 3.
398
(b) , 0 and a square from the 1-array; , 1 and a square from the
0-array; and 0, 1 and a square from the -array; there are again 54 in
total, see Columns 4 to 6 in Table 3.
(c) The union of {, 0, 1} and a line, and the union of two parallel lines;
24 in total, the last four rows in Table 3. Parallel is defined in a similar
manner to perpendicular, for instance: {a3 , b1 , c2 } and {a2 , b3 , c1 } are
parallel, see the third column of the first diagram on page 396.
These hexads are listed in the table below, the bold entries will be explained
on page 399.
,2,3,4,6,9
,2,3,4,7,8
,2,3,5,6,10
,2,3,5,7,9
,2,3,8,9,10
,2,4,5,6,7
,2,4,5,8,10
,2,4,7,9,10
,2,5,6,8,9
,2,6,7,8,10
,3,4,5,7,10
,3,4,5,8,9
,3,4,6,8,10
,3,5,6,7,8
,3,6,7,9,10
,4,5,6,9,10
,4,6,7,8,9
,5,7,8,9,10
,1,2,3,4,10
,1,2,3,5,8
,1,2,3,6,7
,1,2,4,5,9
,1,2,4,6,8
,1,2,5,7,10
,1,2,6,9,10
,1,2,7,8,9
,1,3,4,5,6
,1,3,4,7,9
,1,3,5,9,10
,1,3,6,8,9
,1,3,7,8,10
,1,4,5,7,8
,1,4,6,7,10
,1,4,8,9,10
,1,5,6,7,9
,1,5,6,8,10
0,1,2,3,4,6
0,1,2,3,5,10
0,1,2,3,7,8
0,1,2,4,5,8
0,1,2,4,9,10
0,1,2,5,7,9
0,1,2,6,7,10
0,1,2,6,8,9
0,1,3,4,5,9?
0,1,3,4,7,10
0,1,3,5,6,8
0,1,3,6,7,9
0,1,3,8,9,10
0,1,4,5,6,7
0,1,4,6,8,10
0,1,4,7,8,9
0,1,5,6,9,10
0,1,5,7,8,10
,0,1,2,3,9
,0,1,2,4,7 , 0, 1, 2, 5, 6 ,0,1,2,8,10
,0,1,3,6,10 ,0,1,4,5,10 ,0,1,4,6,9
,0,1,5,8,9
,0,1,3,4,8
,0,1,6,7,8
,0,1,3,5,7
,0,1,7,9,10
2,3,4,5,6,8
2,4,6,8,9,10
2,3,6,7,8,9
3,5,6,8,9,10
2,4,5,7,8,9
4,5,6,7,8,10
0,2,3,4,7,9
0,2,3,4,8,10
0,2,3,5,6,7
0,2,3,5,8,9
0,2,3,6,9,10
0,2,4,5,6,9
0,2,4,5,7,10
0,2,4,6,7,8
0,2,5,6,8,10
0,2,7,8,9,10
0,3,4,5,6,10
0,3,4,5,7,8
0,3,4,6,8,9
0,3,5,7,9,10
0,3,6,7,8,10
0,4,5,8,9,10
0,4,6,7,9,10
0,5,6,7,8,9
2,3,4,5,9,10
2,5,6,7,9,10
1,2,3,4,5,7
1,2,3,4,8,9
1,2,3,5,6,9
1,2,3,6,8,10
1,2,3,7,9,10
1,2,4,5,6,10
1,2,4,6,7,9
1,2,4,7,8,10
1,2,5,6,7,8
1,2,5,8,9,10
1,3,4,5,8,10
1,3,4,6,7,8
1,3,4,6,9,10
1,3,5,6,7,10
1,3,5,7,8,9
1,4,5,6,8,9
1,4,5,7,9,10
1,6,7,8,9,10
2,3,4,6,7,10
3,4,5,6,7,9
,0,2,3,4,5
,0,2,3,6,8
,0,2,3,7,10
,0,2,4,6,10
,0,2,4,8,9
,0,2,5,7,8
,0,2,5,9,10
,0,2,6,7,9
,0,3,4,6,7
,0,3,4,9,10
,0,3,5,6,9
,0,3,5,8,10
,0,3,7,8,9
,0,4,5,6,8
,0,4,5,7,9
,0,4,7,8,10
,0,5,6,7,10
,0,6,8,9,10
2,3,5,7,8,10
3,4,7,8,9,10
The reader should choose an arbitrary pentad (5-tuple) in P and check that
it occurs in exactly one hexad in the table above. As noted in Section 12.4,
several versions of the Steiner system S(4, 5, 11) can now be read off this
table. For example, take the 66 entries above which include 0 (columns 2,
4 and 6, and rows 19 and 20), delete the entry 0 from each hexad, and the
resulting set is a version of S(4, 5, 11) defined on {, 1, 2, . . . , 10}; again the
reader should choose a 4-tuple and check that it occurs in only one pentad.
There is nothing special about 0, for example we could take the 66 entries
which include 3, say, delete 3 in each case and then we have a version of
S(4, 5, 11) on {, 0, 1, 2, 4, . . . , 10}.
Table 3 can also be constructed by starting with 0 and the five quadratic
residues modulo 11, that is the hexad {0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 9} marked with a star in
Table 3 above, and applying the following two procedures:
399
12.7
Problems 12W
Problem 12.16 Explain why the list of minimal simple groups given on
page 388 is smaller than the list of N-groups.
400
Problem 12.17 Show that A8 ' L4 (2). This can be done directly by
finding six matrices in L4 (2) which satisfy the relations in the presentation
for A8 given on page 249. Or one can argue as follows. Note that L4 (2) ('
GL4 (2)) is isomorphic to the automorphism group of the elementary Abelian
group C24 , then work in a group which has a subgroup of this type, for example
L3 (4). See also Conway and Sloane (1993), page 270.
Problem 12.18 (i) Show that the normaliser of a Sylow 13-subgroup of the
group L3 (3) has order 39, and it is a maximal subgroup of the group. Use the
work in Section 12.2, the Sylow theory, and Burnsides Normal Complement
Theorem (Theorem 6.17(20)). You can take for granted that the centraliser
of the Sylow 13-subgroup has odd order.
(ii) Using Burnsides pr q s -theorem, deduce L3 (3) is minimal simple.
Problem 12.19 Derive the simplicity of M11 using the following method.
Let K be a proper non-neutral normal subgroup of M11 of minimal order.
Use Theorem 5.38 in Web Section 5.4. to show that K is transitive, and so
prove that its order is divisible by 11. Now note that K contains a Sylow
11-subgroup P which is cyclic and transitive. Next show that P = CM11 (P ).
Further note that [NM11 (P ) : P ] = 1 or 5. To do this you will first need to
show that o(NM11 (P )) is odd, then use the N/C-theorem (Theorem 5.26).
Next show that P is self-normalising in K. Finally apply the Burnside Normal
Complement Theorem (Theorem 6.17) to obtain a contradiction.
Problem 12.20 This problem refers to the work discussed at the end of
this section (Subsection (c)). On P let
: interchange 0 and , 2 and 6, 3 and 8, 7 and 9,
and leave 1, 4, 5 and 10 fixed.
What group do you obtain using (as defined on page 399) and ?
Problem 12.21 For each of the Mathieu groups we have: if G is a simple group with order o(Mj ) where j = 11, 12, 22, 23 or 24, then G ' Mj .
Investigate what is needed to prove this in the case when j = 11.
Chapter 13
402
13.1
In this chapter and the next G always denotes a finite group, and we write
GLn for GLn (C) the group of all non-singular n n matrices defined over
the complex field C; this is our representing group. We begin by giving the
basic
Definition 13.1 (i) A representation of G is a homomorphism : G
GLn . The degree of is n.
(ii) The kernel of the representation is ker , the kernel of the homomorphism .
(iii) A representation is called trivial if, and only if, the homomorphism
is trivial (see Definition 4.2), and it is called faithful if, and only if, ker = hei.
(iv) Two representations 1 and 2 of the same group G are called equivalent if there exists a non-singular matrix A GLn with the property
g2 = A1 (g1 )A
for all g G.
(13.1)
In vector space theory the term direct sum is normally used instead of direct product,
see Chapter 7.
403
7
0 1
0
2
0
2
2 5
2 (4 + )
2 (4 + 1)
2
b 7
ab 7
a b 7
,
1 2
2
2
2 2
provides another faithful degree 2 representation of D3 which is equivalent
to
the representation 1 defined in (c) above. In fact, if we let A = 10 21 , then
g2 = A1 g1 A for all g D3 as the reader can check.
Introduction to G-modules
We usually discuss representations of a group G via G-modules. A G-module
V is a hybrid system in which G acts on the vector space V , and these
actions are also linear maps on V . In the theorems in this section we show
that a representation of G can be interpreted as a G-module and vice versa,
and equivalent representations are associated with the same G-module.
Definition 13.2 A vector space V defined over C is called a G-module2 if a
product of the form vg is defined which satisfies the following five conditions
for all u, v V, c C and g, h G:
(i) vg V,
(ii) (u + v)g = ug + vg, (iii) (cv)g = c(vg),
(iv) ve = v, and (v) v(gh) = (vg)h.
By (i), (ii) and (iii) the map v 7 vg is a linear map on the vector space V ,
and (iv) and (v) give an action of G on the set V .
Examples. (a) The vector space hvi generated by v with vg = v for g G
and v V is clearly a G-module, it is called a trivial G-module.
2
404
(b) The 0-dimensional vector space h0i, with 0g = 0 for all g G also
clearly forms a G-module which we call the zero G-module.
(c) The standard example Let V = Cn with a representation : G
GLn . Define the product vg by
vg = v(g).
The properties (i) to (v) above follow immediately as V is a vector space and
is a homomorphism.
(d) Permutation module Let G = S3 and let V be a 3-dimensional
vector space with basis {v1 , v2 , v3 }. For g S3 (g is a permutation of {1, 2, 3})
define
vi g = vig , for i = 1, 2, 3.
Clearly vi e = vi , and for g, h S3
vi gh = vi(gh) = v(ig)h = (vi g)h.
By linearity this can be extended to give a S3 -module. Similar examples can
be constructed for Sn , n = 4, 5, . . . , and their subgroups.
(e) The regular G-module CG Construct the vector space W with basis
{g1 = e, . . . , gn } where gi G and o(G) = n, the elements of W have the form
v = ci1 gi1 + + cik gik where cij C, gij G, and {i1 , . . . , ik } {1, . . . , n}.
(Think of v as the vector (ci1 , . . . , cij ) where the elements of G determine the
position of its entries.) Using Theorem 2.8, the module product is given by
vh = ci1 gi1 h + + cik gik h where
h G.
Check that the module axioms (Definition 13.2) hold, see Problem 13.1.
Different matrices can represent the same linear map on V, this is related
to the choice of bases for V . Hence we need to bring these bases into our
theory. Using G-modules avoids this, but in some cases we need to consider
the underlying spaces, see Definition 13.1(iv) and Theorem 13.4. Given a Gmodule V , the map v 7 vg is a linear map by definition, and so if V has a
basis B, this map is represented by a matrix depending on B. We denote this
n n matrix (where n = dim V ) by
(g; B).
Theorem 13.3 (i) Suppose : G GLn is a representation of G. Let
V = Cn be a copy of the n-dimensional vector space over C. The space V
becomes a G-module if we define the module product vg by
vg = v(g) for v V and g G.
(13.2)
(13.3)
405
and so
for all
g G.
406
See Example
(d) on page 403, here if we take B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} and C =
1 2
,
then
B
2 = {(1, 2), (0, 1)}.
0 1
Subsystems of G-modules are given by the following
Definition 13.5 A subset U of a G-module V is called a G-submodule of
V if (a) U is a (vector) subspace of V , and (b) ug U for u U and g G.
We shall see below that G-submodules of a G-module behave much like normal subgroups in a group. Some examples are given after the next definition.
We look now at the natural maps between modules.
Definition 13.6 (i) A map : V1 V2 , where V1 and V2 are G-modules, is
called a G-homomorphism if it is a linear map between V1 and V2 (considered
as vector spaces), and for all v V1 and g G we have
(vg) = (v)g.
The kernel and image are defined as for group homomorphisms, that is ker =
{v V1 : v = 0} and im = {v : v V1 }.
(ii) A G-homomorphism is called a G-isomorphism if is an invertible
linear map; in this case we write V1
= V2 .
Examples. (a) Let V be a G-module and c C. The map 1 given by
v1 = cv, for v V , is a G-homomorphism. The reader should check this and
find the kernel and image; see Problem 13.1.
(b) Let V be the permutation module given in Example (d) on page 404
and let U = hui be a trivial G-module; see Example (a) given at the bottom
of page 403. Define 2 by
(c1 v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3 )2 = (c1 + c2 + c3 )u,
where
ci C.
P3
i=1 ci vi
and
and
In the first line above (1g, 2g, 3g) is a permutation of (1, 2, 3) as the group is
S3 in this example. Hence 2 is a S3 -homomorphism, the kernel is {c1 v1 +
c2 v2 + c3 v3 : c1 + c2 + c3 = 0}, and the image is U . We shall return to this
useful example later.
The following result is important, note that unlike normal subgroups in
the group case, both the kernel and the image of are G-submodules.
Theorem 13.7 Suppose V1 and V2 are G-modules and : V1 V2 is a
G-homomorphism.
(i) ker is a G-submodule of V1 , and im is a G-submodule of V2 .
(ii) If is a G-isomorphism, then the map 1 : V2 V1 is also a Gisomorphism.
407
and 2 : g 7 (g; B 0 )
408
13.2
We begin with
Definition 13.9 A non-zero G-module V is called irreducible, or sometimes
simple, if it contains no G-submodules apart from h0i and V , otherwise it is
called reducible.
A vector space V (with dim V = n) defined over a field F is isomorphic
to F n , the direct sum of n copies of the field F it is isomorphic to a direct
sum of n subspaces each with dimension 1. A similar result holds for Gmodules except that the summands often have dimension larger than one
because the summands in question are irreducible (Definition 13.9), and so
they have no proper non-zero submodules. There is an analogy here with
integer unique factorisation. The module result follows from the theorems of
I. Schur and H. Maschke to be proved in this section. We begin with Schurs
Lemma which characterises irreducible modules. We use the symbol V to
denote the identity (linear) map on V (vV = v for all v V ).
Theorem 13.10
G-modules.
(Schurs Lemma)
409
An almost immediate consequence of Schurs result shows that all irreducible representations of a finite Abelian group have degree 1 as we prove
now.
Theorem 13.11
mension 1.
Proof.
for all
gG
as G is Abelian. Hence the non-singular linear map v 7 va is a Ghomomorphism (Definition 13.6), and so by Schurs Lemma
va = c v for some suitably chosen c C depending on a.
But V is irreducible, and so dim V = 1; for if not V would contain a
1-dimensional submodule.
2
Using this result we can list the irreducible representations of a cyclic
group as follows: Let G = Cn = hai, let = e2i/n , and let r satisfy 1 r < n,
then the r-th irreducible representation r of G is given by
as r = rs
for
0 s < n.
Maschkes Theorem
If V is a G-module and U1 is a submodule, we can always find another
submodule U2 so that V = U1 U2 , the direct sum of U1 and U2 . We give
this remarkable result now, it was first proved by Maschke in 1898. The proof
is constructive providing a method for building U2 given U1 and V .
Theorem 13.12 (Maschkes Theorem) If U1 is a G-submodule of the
G-module V , then we can find another G-submodule U2 of V to satisfy
V = U1 U2 .
Note that Maschkes result is invalid if the group G is infinite, or if o(G) is
finite AND we work over a field of positive characteristic p where p | o(G).
Proof. Note first that U1 is a subspace (of V ), let {u1 , . . . , ur } be
a basis. By a standard property of vector spaces we can find vectors
ur+1 , . . . , un V \U1 so that {u1 , . . . , ur , ur+1 , . . . , un } is a basis for V .
Let W be the subspace of V generated by the set {ur+1 , . . . , un }. Then
410
V = U1 W,
(13.5)
that is the vector space V is isomorphic to the direct sum of the subspaces U1 and W . To prove the theorem we adjust W so that it forms
a submodule whilst insuring that (13.5) still holds.
If v V , then v can be expressed in the form v = u + w where
u U1 , w W , and both u and w are unique; this follows because the
sum in (13.5) is direct. Hence the map : V V given by v = u
where v V is well-defined and linear, it has kernel W and image U1 .
The adjustment mentioned above is constructed using the map on
V which is defined as follows. If g G and v V , let
v =
1 X
vgg 1 .
gG
o(G)
(13.6)
Note that (a) by our convention, vgg 1 = ((vg))g 1 using the product in V , and (b) if is a G-homomorphism then = . In general
is not a G-homomorphism, but it is a linear map on V whose image
is contained in U1 . On the other hand is a G-homomorphism as we
show now.
If j G, we have (vj)gg 1 = v(jg)g 1 j 1 j = (vhh1 )j provided h = jg by (v) in Definition 13.2. Hence
(vj) =
1 X
1 X
(vj)gg 1 =
(vhh1 )j = (v)j
gG
hG
o(G)
o(G)
(13.7)
1 X
1 X
ugg 1 =
u = u.
gG
gG
o(G)
o(G)
(13.8)
411
1
(v1 + v2 + v3 )
3
for i = 1, 2, 3.
This is a G-homomorphism, and its kernel is a G-submodule of V (by Theorem 13.3) which we can take to be U2 . In fact we can set
U2 = ker = hv2 v1 , v3 v1 i.
Our first application gives the following important theorem, to state it
we need
Definition 13.13 A G-module is called completely reducible, or sometimes
semi-simple, if it can be expressed as a direct sum V = U1 Un where
each Ui is irreducible and n 1.
Theorem 13.14
As with Maschkes Theorem this result fails if we change our underlying field
C to one with positive characteristic p where p | o(G), even if it is algebraically
closed.
Proof. If V is irreducible, there is nothing to prove. Hence we may
suppose V contains a proper non-zero G-submodule U1 . By Maschkes
Theorem (Theorem 13.12) we can find another G-submodule U2 to satisfy V = U1 U2 . If both U1 and U2 are irreducible then we are done,
if not we can use induction on the dimension of V as both U1 and U2
have smaller dimension than dim V .
2
Our second application of Maschkes Theorem shows we can sometimes
assume that the matrices (g; B) used in Theorem 13.3 are diagonal provided
we choose the right basis B. But note this result only applies to individual
elements g in G.
Theorem 13.15
412
(13.9)
for each i where = e2i/m . Note ri Z, this follows from the comment
below the proof of Theorem 13.11. Therefore if we take {u1 , . . . , ut } as
the basis B for W , then (13.9) gives
r1
0 ... 0
r2
0 ... 0
.
(g; B) =
...
rt
0
0 ...
Both parts of the theorem now follow.
413
for
gG
is called the character of the G-module V , and of the representation (Theorem 13.17(ii)). The degree of the character is the degree of the corresponding
representation, if g is an n n matrix then the degree of is n.
(iii) The character of the trivial representation of G, 1G , is called the
principal character,3 and 1G = 1 for all g G. In character tables 1G is
usually written as 1 .
Example. Consider the representation given in Example (c) on page 403.
The character of this representation of D3 (' S3 ) is calculated as follows.
We have (e) = tr(I2 ) = 2, and
0
0 1
2
(a) = tr
=
=
1,
(b)
=
tr
= 0.
1 0
0 2
Similar calculations which the reader should check show that (a2 ) = 1
and (ab) = (a2 b) = 0. Note that (a) is constant on the conjugacy classes
of D3 , and (b) we obtain the same values for if we use the equivalent
representation for D3 given in Example (d) on page 404; reader check. This
character for D3 is called the minor permutation character (Problem 13.16).
We shall see later that CF (G) can be treated as a vector space over C,
and the irreducible characters to be defined below act as a basis for this space.
The simplest character properties are as follows, note particularly (ii) below,
it shows that equivalent representations have the same character.
Theorem 13.17
(ii) If V1 and V2 are isomorphic G-modules, then their characters are equal.
(iii) If Vi are G-modules with characters i , where 1 i m, and V =
V1 Vm , then the character of V is given by
Xm
=
i .
i=1
414
(ii) By Theorem 13.8 we can find bases B1 for V1 and B2 for V2 with
the property (g; B1 ) = (g; B2 ) for all g G. Now if we take the trace of
each of these matrices we obtain the result.
(iii) We can choose a basis for V so that the matrix of the representation associated with the G-module V is in diagonal block form where
the i-th block is the matrix corresponding to the G-module Vi . It is now
clear that the trace of the matrix for V is the sum of the traces of the
individual blocks.
2
Orthogonality Relations
The orthogonality relations are amongst the most important tools in character theory, we shall develop them now. We use the following standard conventions: (a) the notation (aij ) stands for the matrix whose (i, j)th entry is
aij , a complex number, and (b) the delta function ij stands for the function
which takes the value 1 if i = j, and 0 if i 6= j.
The first orthogonality relation is given by the following
Theorem 13.18 Suppose 1 and 2 are irreducible representations of G
with corresponding G-modules V1 and V2 , and degrees n1 and n2 , respectively.
Further suppose their representing matrices are given by
g1 = (aij (g))
for g G.
If 1 and 2 are not equivalent, and so V1 6' V2 , then for all i, j, k and l
X
(i)
aij (g)bkl (g 1 ) = 0,
gG
X
(ii)
aij (g)akl (g 1 ) = jk il o(G)/n1 .
gG
= D(C)(bkl (h))
415
(i) By Schurs Lemma (Theorem 13.10), as both V1 and V2 are irreducible and inequivalent, and as D(C) : V1 V2 is a G-homomorphism,
we have D(C) = O (the zero matrix) for all choices of the coefficients
cij of C. Hence if we set crs = rj sk (and so crs depends on j and k),
then the (i, l)th entry of D(C) gives
X
X
X
0=
air (g)rj sk bsl (g 1 ) =
aij (g)bkl (g 1 ),
gG
r,s
gG
and (i) follows. Note that the inner sum of the middle expression above
is the (i, l)th term of the triple matrix product (air (g))(crs )(bsl (g 1 )).
(ii) Using Schurs Lemma again, if V1 = V2 (and so n1 = n2 ), then
D(C) = tC In1
(13.11)
applying the trace properties (a) and (d) on page 412 to establish the
last equation. Now using the same values of crs as in (i), and writing
C = Cjk , we see that tr(Cjk ) = jk , and so tCjk n1 = o(G)jk . (Note
1j 1k + + nj nk = jk .) Combining this with equation (13.11) we
obtain
X
(aij (g))Cjk (akl (g 1 )) = (jk o(G)/n1 )In1 .
gG
Proof.
1 (g)2 (g 1 ) =
X
gG
i,j
X
i,j
gG
aii (g)bjj (g 1 )
aii (g)bjj (g 1 ) = 0.
416
CG = r1 V1 rt Vt ,
417
(13.12)
where t, r1 , . . . , rt are positive integers, and V1 , . . . , Vt are irreducible Gmodules non-isomorphic in pairs.
418
i=1
gG
(Note that as there is only one non-zero term on the right-hand side of
(13.13) the equation above starts with a single term.) If we set = j
in this equation (i) follows by Theorem 13.19 and Lemma 13.20(i).
(ii) This follows using the same theorem, and (iii) follows from (i)
and (ii).
(iv) If we assume that the irreducible character does not equal i
for all i in the range 1 i t, then (e) = 0 which is impossible by
Lemma 13.20(i); hence (iv) follows.
2
We now bring conjugacy classes into our theory and, as we shall see, they
play an important role. Let C`1 = {e}, . . . , C`h(G) be a list of the conjugacy
classes of G; where as usual h(G) denotes the class number. We set C`1
=
i
{g 1 : g C`i }; it is another conjugacy class of G (Problem 5.7). For each
i in the range 1, . . . , h(G), let i be given by: C`i = C`1
i . Further, for the
regular module CG we define bi , i = 1, . . . , h(G), and Z(CG) by
X
bi =
g,
gC`i
and
Z(CG) = {a : a CG and ac = ca for all c CG};
see Problem 13.6. Note the similarity with the centre of a group.
Lemma 13.22
(i) The set B = {b1 , . . . , bh(G) } forms a basis for Z(CG) over C.
419
Xh(G)
k=1
sijk bk
(iii)
sij1 =
for 1 i, j, k h(G).
(13.14)
0
if j =
6 i
o(C`i ) if j = i
Xh(G)
i=1
ri bi
where
ri Z+ .
The integers ri are positive and depend on the terms of ag , and the
bi were defined on page 417. So Z(CG) is generated by B. Further, as
conjugacy classes are pair-wise disjoint, this equation shows that the
elements of the set B is linearly independent over C, and so form a
basis for Z(CG).
(ii) By (i) each element of Z(CG) can be expressed as a linear combination of basis elements, hence sijk Z and (13.14) holds. These
integers are non-negative, for by (13.14) the integer sijk counts the
number of pairs (c1 , c2 ) where c1 C`i , c2 C`j and c1 c2 C`k , and
so being a counting function it must be non-negative.
(iii) Note first C`1 = {e}. Using the notation in (ii), if j 6= i then
c1 c2 6= e for all c1 C`i and c2 C`j ; hence sij1 = 0. But if j = i ,
then for every c1 C`i there is a unique c2 C`j with the property:
c1 c2 = e; so in this case sijk = o(C`i ).
2
The following rather technical lemma will be used to establish our second
set of orthogonality relations (Theorem 13.24). Part (ii) will also be used in
the proof of Lemma 14.1.
Lemma 13.23 (i) Suppose is a character of an irreducible G-module,
and ti = o(C`i ) for 1 i h(G).
ti (gi )/(e) tj (gj )/(e) =
Xh(G)
k=1
(ii) The complex number ti (gi )/(e) is an eigenvalue of the matrix whose
(j, k)th entry is sijk as given in Lemma 13.22.
Proof. Let be a representation associated with , that is a homomorphism from G to GLn . We can extend to a homomorphism from
CG to GLn by setting
(a1 g1 + + am gm ) = a1 (g1 ) + + am (gm )
420
for some
qi C,
(13.15)
Xh(G)
k=1
sijk ck .
Xl
r=1
r (gi )r (gj ) =
Xh(G)
k=1
sijk tk
Xl
r=1
r (gk )r (e)
The first part of the theorem follows. The second part also follows using
Theorem 5.19.
2
421
The set of all class functions CF (G) of a group G can be given the
structure of an Hermitian vector space. It is a space of dimension h(G) over
C with an Hermitian product h , iG defined as follows.
Definition 13.25 For f1 , f2 CF (G) the function h , iG : CF (G)
CF (G) C is given by
hf1 , f2 iG =
1 X
f1 (g)f2 (g).
gG
o(G)
gG
(13.17)
This shows that the set {1 , . . . , h(G) } is linearly independent in
CF (G), and so
l dim CF (G) = h(G).
Suppose now l < dim CF (G), and let A denote the l h(G) matrix
whose (i, j)th entry is i (gj ) where gj C`{j}, the j-th conjugacy class
of G. By assumption
rank of A l < h(G),
that is the h(G) rows of A are linearly dependent; hence we can find
complex numbers r1 , . . . , rh(G) at least one of which is non-zero to satisfy
422
Xh(G)
j=1
rj i (gj ) = 0
for
i = 1, . . . l.
Xl
Xh(G)
i=1
Xh(G)
j=1
Xh(G)
j=1
j=1
rj
rj i (gj ) i (gk1 )
Xl
i=1
i (gj )i (gk1 )
3 ((1, 2)) = s,
423
2-cycle
3-cycle
1 (g)
2 (g)
3 (g)
1
2
r
1
0
s
1
1
t
Xh(G)
i=1
n2i .
and
12 /6 + (1)2 /2 + 12 /3 = 1,
13.4
In this, the last of the theoretical sections, we give some further easily
developed character properties. Each of the main elementary group constructions subgroups and extensions, factor groups and direct products provide
important developments in character theory. We shall mainly be concerned
with properties associated with factor groups, the so-called lifts, and some
products as these are sufficient for the material to be presented in Chapter
424
14. We shall see that given a character of a factor group G/K, we can almost
immediately write down a character for G, and irreducibility is preserved. We
shall also be able to determine the linear characters of a group, that is those
with degree 1. For further properties the reader should consult the references
quoted in the introduction to this chapter.
We begin with the basic facts about lifts. First we have
Lemma 13.29 Suppose K is a normal subgroup of G, and is a character
of G/K. Let the class function
b on G be defined by
b(g) = (gK)
for g G.
Then
b is a character for G, and it has the same degree as .
Proof. Let : G/K GLn be a representation (homomorphism)
of G/K with character . Also let be the natural homomorphism
(Definition 4.13) mapping G into G/K. The composition : G
G/K GLn is a homomorphism, and so it is also a representation of
G. Its character satisfies
(g) = tr(g) = tr((gK)) = (gK) =
b(g)
for all
g G,
and so =
b. Further (K) =
b(e), hence and
b have the same
degree by Lemma 13.20.
2
Definition 13.30 The character
b of G given in Lemma 13.29 is called
the lift to G of the character of G/K.
The next result shows the close relationship between a character and
its lift
b.
Theorem 13.31
Suppose K / G.
it is well-defined. Further
for g G,
425
This shows that W is a G-submodule of Cn if, and only if, W is a G/Ksubmodule of Cn . Hence
b is irreducible if, and only if, is irreducible,
and so the same holds for the characters.
2
Example. The group E was described on pages 177 to 183. It has a normal
subgroup J = ha2 i / E, and o(J) = 2. The character 2 of J satisfies 2 (e) =
1, 2 (a2 ) = 1. This character lifts to E as follows: Those conjugacy classes
which involve even powers of a lift to 1, and those involving odd powers lift
to 1; see the character table (second row) on page 457.
Normal Subgroups
As we have commented several times before, given a group G it is important
to be able to construct its normal subgroups. We show now that we can use
the character table for G to do this easily. For a character of G we have
ker = {g G : (g) = (e)} / G,
see Definition 13.27. Also the intersection of several character kernels of G
forms a normal subgroup of G (Theorem 2.30). A vital fact in the theory is
the fact that the converse is also true as we show in the next result.
Theorem 13.32 Suppose K/ G. There exist irreducible characters 1 , . . . , r
of G with the property
\r
K=
ker i .
i=1
ker i = {K}
426
The reader should check that in the case G/ G the corresponding intersection
only contains the principal character.
Corollary 13.33
Linear Characters
We begin with
Definition 13.34
427
for g G,
428
13.5 Problems 13
Problem 13.1
for c1 , c2 C,
and v2 a = v1 .
13.5 Problems 13
429
(e; B 0 ) = I2 , (a; B 0 ) =
1 1
3 2
, (a2 ; B 0 ) =
2 1
3 1
,
for all
gG
1/2
3/2
1
0
C=
, D=
.
0 1
3/2 1/2
Secondly, define the functions i : D6 GL2 , i = 1, . . . , 4, by
1 : a r bs
7 Ar B s ,
2 : ar bs 7 A3r (B)s ,
r s
r s
3 ; a b
7 (A) B , 4 : ar bs 7 C r Ds ,
where 0 r < 6 and 0 s < 2. Show that each i is a representation of D6 ,
and determine which are faithful and which are equivalent.
(iv) Show that there is a representation of D4 with the properties
7 10
5 6
a =
, b =
.
5 7
4 5
Calculate all matrices A which satisfy A(g) = (g)A for all g D4 , and
determine whether is irreducible; see Problem 13.4(ii). Secondly do the
5 6
same calculation for the representation where a = 54 6
5 and b = 4 5 .
430
Problem 13.6
This problem concerns the entity Z(CG) which was
defined on page 417.
P
(i) Show that if K / G, then kK k Z(CG).
(ii) Suppose V is an irreducible G-module, and h Z(CG). Using Schurs
Lemma (Theorem 13.10) prove that there exists c C with the property
vh = cv
for all v V.
where the vertical bars denote the complex absolute value function.
(ii) Prove that if a G and a 6= e, then (a) 6= (e) for at least one
irreducible character of G.
(iii) If 1 , . . . , r is a list of the irreducible characters of a group G, show
that
Xr
Z(G) = {g G :
i (g)i (g) = o(G)}.
i=1
13.5 Problems 13
431
(i) Show that det CG is nonzero, and it takes either a real, or a pure
imaginary, value.
(ii) If ci is a representative of the ith conjugacy class of G, prove that
(det CG )2 =
Yr
i=1
for
g G.
Using linearity show that this procedure defines a G-module. You should refer
to Example (d) on page 404.
(ii) Let be the character of the G-module defined in (i). Show that, if
g G,
(g) = o({i : 1 i n and ig = i}).
The character is called the permutation charcater of G
(iii) Define : G Z by
(g) = (g) 1
for g G.
432
Xh(G)
i=1
ci i
(Restriction to a subgroup)
Suppose H G and is a
13.5 Problems 13
433
Chapter 14
Representation and character theory has proved to be extremely useful in answering questions about finite groups. It is also widely used of other branches
of mathematics and beyond, see for example James and Liebeck (1993), Chapter 30. The solution of a number of the most important theorems in the subject would not exist without it, for example it played a vital role in the proof
of the Feit-Thompson Theorem and in CFSG. In this chapter we give three
applications. First, using the theory developed in Chapter 13 we construct a
number of character tables, these include the tables for most groups of order
12 or less, S4 (in the problem section), and A5 . A number of properties of a
group can be read off its character table once it has been constructed, for
example its normal subgroup structure; see Theorem 13.32. Also these tables
can be used to determine nilpotency and/or solubility, but note there exist
pairs of groups with identical character tables and distinct second derived
subgroups (Hubbert (1998), page 44). It is a convenient fact that many of
the more interesting larger groups have relatively small character tables (because their element conjugacy classes are large), so for example the character
table for M11 (with order 7920) is only 10 10.
Secondly, we give a proof of Burnsides pr q s -theorem using character
theory. This was probably the first major success of the theory published
in 1903. It enables us to deduce that if only two distinct primes divide the
order of a group, then it is soluble. Non-character-theoretic proofs have been
found recently by H. Bender but they are much longer, see for example Issacs
(2008), Chapter 7.
Our final application is to the so-called Frobenius theory. We noted several times in the book that a result which asserts the existence of a normal
subgroup is important and, under certain conditions, this is exactly what
Frobeniuss result does. It was first developed in terms of permutation groups,
nowadays a more direct approach is used and we shall follow this here. We
give four applications, the last allows us to define the Suzuki groups first
discussed in Chapter 12.
433
434
for k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1,
a2
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
2
Table 1
If we take = (1 3)/2, then we obtain the same table except that the
second and third rows are interchanged. Similar tables can be constructed for
all cyclic groups, the reader should write down the tables for C2 and C4 , see
Problem 14.1. We shall not give the tables for the remaining Abelian groups
in our chosen range. Roughly speaking the character table for Cn Cm can
be constructed by multiplying together the tables for Cn and Cm .1 As an
example we shall construct the table for C2 C2 . The method we use is nonstandard, that is we do not obtain the table by multiplying together two
copies of the table for C2 .
Let C2 C2 ' ha, b | a2 = b2 = e, ab = bai = G. This group is Abelian
and so all of its irreducible characters have degree 1, and there are four of
them. Also hai / G, so the two irreducible characters for C2 can be lifted,
see Theorem 13.31, to characters of G. Hence this character table for G has
the following form where we still need to justify the entries in the third and
1
This procedure involves the use of the tensor product, see the references quoted in the
Introduction to Chapter 13.
435
fourth rows. (Note that this table contains three copies of the array 11 11
multiplied by 1, and one copy multiplied by 1 corresponding to the entries
in the table for C2 .)
g
ab
1
2
3
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Table 2
The first column is correct as each character has degree 1 (see Lemma
13.20(i)), that is i (e) = 1 for i = 1, . . . , 4. To justify the remaining entries
in the third and fourth rows we first rewrite them as
3 : 1, r1 , r2 , r3
and 4 : 1, s1 , s2 , s3 .
and
1 1 + 1 1 + 1 r1 + 1 s1 = 0,
(14.1)
In each case we take the first entry of the sets in (14.1) as the conjugacy
class representatives. The orders of these classes are 1, 1, 2, 2, . . . , 2, n, n, respectively, with n 1 of order two.
436
that is hAr , Bi is a matrix representation the group D2n over C for r in the
range 1, . . . , n 1. The question arises: Are these representations irreducible
(Definition 13.9)? The answer is yes provided r is in the given range, and this
follows from Problem 13.5. Hence by taking traces we obtain n1 irreducible
characters for our group, and they all have degree 2; see the table below. We
need to find the remaining four. We have ha2 i / D2n , and
D2n /ha2 i = {ha2 i, aha2 i, bha2 i, abha2 i}.
This factor group is isomorphic to C2 C2 whose character table was given
in Table 2 above. Hence the four remaining irreducible characters can be
constructed as lifts to D2n of the characters in Table 2; see Theorem 13.31.
If a conjugacy class in (14.1) involves even powers of a, that is a member of
the collection
e, {a2 , a2n2 }, {a4 , a2n4 }, . . . ,
then we lift the first column of Table 2 to the columns for the conjugacy
classes in this collection. Similarly if a conjugacy class involves odd powers
of a, we lift the second column of Table 2 to the columns for the odd power
conjugacy classes. Note that the second class in (14.1) will lift to the first
column if n is even, and to the second if n is odd. Further for the penultimate
class in (14.1) we lift the third column in Table 2 to the last but one column
in Table 3, and for the last class we lift the last column in Table 2 to the last
column of Table 3. These procedures provide n + 3 irreducible characters,
and so we obtain the character table for D2n when n > 1 as given below.
o(CD2n (g))
e
4n
an
4n
a
2n
...
...
an1
2n
b
4
ab
4
1
2
3
4
5
6
n+3
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
(1)n
1
(1)n
2
2
(2)n
1
1
1
1
n + n2n1
n2 + n2n2
nn1 + nn+1
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
1
(1)n1
1
(1)n1
nn1 + nn+1
nn2 + nn+2
n + n2n1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
Table 3
437
e
12
(1, 2)(3, 4)
4
(1, 2, 3)
3
(1, 3, 2)
3
1
2
3
4
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
2
0
1
2
Table 4
438
o(ha2 i) = 3, hence Q3 /ha2 i ' C4 where this factor group has the elements
ha2 i, bha2 i, aha2 i = b2 ha2 i and abha2 i = b3 ha2 i.
By Theorem 13.31, as Q3 /ha2 i is cyclic of order 4 we can immediately
write down four irreducible linear characters for Q3 as lifts of the corresponding characters for C4 given in Problem 14.1. Further, as 12 = 4 1 + 22 + 22
is the only solution in integers larger than one of an equation of the type
12 = 4 + x2 + y 2 , by Theorem 13.26(iv) we see that the two remaining
irreducible characters both have degree 2. Hence the character table for Q3
can be taken in the following form
g
o(CQ3 (g))
e
12
a3
12
a
6
a2
6
b
4
ab
4
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
i
1
i
0
0
1
i
1
i
0
0
Table 5
where we need to justify the entries in the last two rows. The first four entries
of the first and fourth columns are lifts of the first column of the table for
C4 , the second and third are lifts of the third column for C4 , the fifth is a lift
of the second column for C4 , and the sixth is a lift from the fourth column
for C4 . To establish rows 5 and 6 we first rewrite them as
5 : 2, r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 , r5
and 6 : 2, s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 .
and
0 + 2r1 + 2s1 = 0
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
4 + 2r2 2s2 = 0,
4 + 2r3 + 2s3 = 0,
2r4 2s4 = 0,
2r5 2s5 = 0,
and the values given in the table above follow easily. We can deduce from the
table that Q3 has three proper non-neutral normal subgroups, see pages 424
and 425; reader list them.
439
X5
i=1
2i (e) = 17 +
X5
i=3
2i .
The only solution in integers ri larger than one of the equation 43 = r12 + r22 +
r32 is r1 = r2 = 3 and r3 = 5 where some rearrangement of the suffixes may be
necessary. This shows that two of the remaining three irreducible characters
have degree 3 and the last has degree 5, that is 3 (e) = 4 (e) = 3 and
5 (e) = 5. In Problem 3.27W we gave a 3-dimensional representation of A5
over C. By taking traces (see (ii) in the quoted problem) we can immediately
write down the two degree 3 irreducible characters. We obtain two irreducible
characters because there are two distinct primitive fifth roots of unity. Hence
the character table for A5 is given by
g
o(CA5 (g))
1
2
3
4
5
e
60
1
4
3
3
5
(1, 2)(3, 4)
4
1
0
1
1
1
Table 6
(2, 4, 5)
3
1
1
0
0
1
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
5
1
1
(1 + 5)/2
(1 5)/2
0
(1, 3, 5, 2, 4)
5
1
1
(1 5)/2
(1 + 5)/2
0
To see that the last row of this table is correct we argue as follows. Rewrite
this row as 5, r, s, t, u. Using Column Orthogonality (Theorem 13.24) we have
3 + r2 = 4 (using column 2) and 5r 5 = 0 (using columns 1 and 2), hence
r = 1. Similarly we have 2 + s2 = 3 and 5 + 5s = 0, hence s = 1. We leave
the remaining two cases for the reader to evaluate. Note that, by Corollary
13.33, this construction provides a new proof of the simplicity of A5 for using
440
the table above we see immediately that the only proper normal subgroup of
A5 is hei, in each of the remaining rows the first entry is not repeated.
Further examples are given in the problem section, these include the
character tables for the three groups discussed in Chapter 8.
14.2
Burnsides pr q s -Theorem
We come now to one of the early successes of representation theory: Burnsides pr q s -theorem first proved in 1903. In Theorem 6.5 we showed that,
amongst other facts, all p-groups are soluble. Burnsides result extends this
to show that every group whose order has at most two distinct prime factors is
soluble. Note that p-groups satisfy the stronger condition of being nilpotent,
but this does not hold in the pr q s case; an example is S3 . Also Burnsides
result does not extend to three primes; the group A5 is an example.
The proof uses some of the character theory results that were proved
in Chapter 13. It also uses some properties of the algebraic integers in an
essential way as is shown in the next lemma, the basic facts are discussed in
the appendix to this chapter.
Lemma 14.1 (i) If is a character of G and g G, then (g) is an
algebraic integer.
(ii) If is an irreducible character of G, g G and C`{g} is the conjugacy
class of G which contains g, then
o(C`{g})(g)/(e) is an algebraic integer.
Proof. (i) By Lemma 13.20, (g) is a sum of roots of unity. Clearly a
root of unity is an algebraic integer, and so (i) follows by Theorem B19
(Appendix to this chapter).
(ii) By Lemma 13.23(ii), o(C`{g})(g)/(e) is an eigenvalue of a nonsingular n n matrix C with integer entries, and so it is a root of the
equation
det(C xIn ) = 0.
But this is a monic polynomial equation in the variable x with integer
coefficients. By definition its roots are algebraic integers, and so the
result follows.
2
The next lemma, which uses Lemma 13.20(iv), is essential for both of
Burnsides results below.
Lemma 14.2 Suppose is an irreducible representation of G with character , g G, and C`{g} is the corresponding conjugacy class of G. If
((e), o(C`{g})) = 1 then either
(i) |(g)| = (e),
or
(ii) (g) = 0.
441
Proof. As ((e), o(C`{g})) = 1, using the Euclidean Algorithm (Theorem B2) we can find integers r and s to satisfy r(e) + s o(C`{g}) = 1,
this gives, multiplying by (g)/(e),
r(g) + s o(C`{g})(g)/(e) = (g)/(e).
By Lemma 14.1, both (g) and o(C`{g})(g)/(e) are algebraic integers, hence
(g)/(e) is an algebraic integer.
(14.2)
By Lemmas 13.20(i), (ii) and (iv), (g) is a sum of roots of unity of the
form:
(g) = w1 + + wt and |(g)| (e),
(14.3)
where t = (e). So either |(g)| = (e), that is (i) holds, or |(g)| <
(e). This second possibility implies (g) = 0 as we show now. Using
(14.2) let
f (x) = xn + r1 xn1 + + rn
where
ri Z for i = 1, . . . , n
and y = rn Z,
using standard monic polynomial properties. The only possible conclusion from these facts is: y = 0, and then f (x) = x with a single root 0.
The result follows.
2
The first of Burnsides theorems is as follows. Conjugacy classes were defined in Chapter 5 where we proved that the order of a conjugacy class always
divides the order of the corresponding group (Theorem 5.19). Burnsides result shows that if the order of a conjugacy class is a power of a prime, then
the group cannot be simple provided it is not cyclic. The proof uses character theory and some properties of algebraic integers. Also, the pr q s -theorem
follows directly from it.
Theorem 14.3 Suppose C` is a conjugacy class of G not equal to {e}. If
for some prime p and non-negative integer n we have o(C`) = pn , then G
cannot be a non-Abelian simple group.
Proof. Suppose G is a non-Abelian simple group. Let C` = C`{g} =
{a1 ga : a G} where g 6= e. If o(C`) = 1 then g Z(G), and so
442
Z(G) 6= hei. If Z(G) = G then G is Abelian, otherwise Z(G) is a nonneutral proper normal subgroup of G, and so G is not simple. Both of
these cases are ruled out by our supposition, and so we may assume
that o(C`) = pn > 1.
Let 1 , . . . , h(G) be a list of the irreducible characters of G with
1 (g) = 1 for all g G. We make the following hypothesis:
For some i > 1 and g G,
i (g) 6= 0
and p - i (e).
(14.4)
The theorems conditions give (o(C`), i (e)) = 1 and so, by Lemma 14.2,
|(g)| = (e). If i is the representation of degree ni of G corresponding
to the character i , and r C, then by Schurs Lemma (Theorem 13.10)
gi = rIni .
There are two possibilities:
(a)
(b) i is faithful.
If (a) holds then G is not simple, and if (b) holds then g Z(G) where
g 6= e, and again G is not simple as we argued above. Therefore (14.4)
is false and so we may assume that i (g) = 0 for all i > 1 subject to
the condition p - i (e). But by Theorem 13.24 we have
0=1+
Xh(G)
i=2
i (e)i (g) = 1 + p
Xh(G)
i=2
i (e)/p i (g).
i (e)/p i (g) = 1/p.
But this is impossible because the left-hand side is a sum of integer multiples of algebraic integers, and so is itself an algebraic integer, whereas
1/p is not an algebraic integer. Hence our original supposition (G is
simple) is false and so the result follows.
2
Using this we can now deduce Burnsides famous 2-prime result.
Theorem 14.4 (Burnsides pr q s -Theorem) If o(G) = pr q s where p and
q are primes, and r and s are non-negative integers, then G is soluble.
Proof. If G is Abelian, or p = q, or either r or s equals 0, then the result
follows from Theorem 11.6 (in each of these cases the group is nilpotent).
Also, by Problem 11.6, it is sufficient to show that G is not simple and
non-Abelian. Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of G, and let g Z(P ). By
Lemma 5.21 we may assume that g 6= e. This gives CG (g) P , as g
commutes with every element of P . So by Theorem 5.19
443
o(C`{g}) = [G : CG (g)] = q t
for some integer t with 0 t r. If t = 0 then g Z(G), and so G is
not simple, and if t > 0 then Theorem 14.3 applies, and again G is not
simple.
2
Op (G) 6= hei?
Burnside, with some later corrections, showed that this holds in most cases.
The exceptions make use of some primes which arise in elementary number
444
theory and are somewhat surprising. (We need to consider cases when the
Qs1
integer o(P ) (= pr ) divides o(GLs (q)) (= i=0 (q s q i )).) It can be shown
that Op (G) > hei if pr > q s except possibly in one of the following three
cases:
(i) p = 2 and q = 2n + 1 where this number is a Fermat prime (and
so n is a power of 2), only five of which are known at the present time;
they are 3, 5, 17, 257 and 65537.
(ii) p = 2m 1 and q = 2. Here p must be a Mersenne prime (and so
m is also prime), at the present time 40 are known.
(iii) p = 2 and q = 7. In this case an example has been given for a group
with order 223 78 .
Further details can be found in Burnside (1904), Rose (1978), Huppert (1998),
and Problem 14.13.
g G\H.
(14.5)
445
(14.6)
Let K be defined by
K = G\
[
gG
g 1 (H\hei)g.
(14.7)
446
Proof. There are two cases to consider corresponding to the two lines
in the definition of above. First suppose g K, then by (i) a1 ga K
for a G, and so
(a1 ga) = (e) = (g).
Secondly suppose g G\K, so g 6= e and g = c1 hc for some h H
and c G. Now if b G
b1 gb = b1 c1 hcb (cb)1 H(cb)
and so
Xh(G)
i=1
ri i
gG\K
as is zero on K
X
1 o(G)
=
(h)i (h1 ).
hH\{e}
o(G) o(H)
This last equation follows from Lemma 14.5 as class functions are constant on conjugacy classes. Hence as (e) = 0
X
ri = 1/o(H)
(h)i (h1 )
hH
= h, i iH
by Definition 13.25
= h (e)1 , i iH
by definition of .
Now note that the restriction (Problem 13.19) of i to H can be expressed as a linear combination, with coefficients in Z of the irreducible
characters of H, hence ri Z for i = 1, . . . , h(G). Also repeating the
above argument we have
r1 = h, 1G iG = h (e) 1H , 1H iH = (e).
447
ri2 = h, iG
=
by Theorem 13.28
1 o(G) X
|(h)|2 as above
hH\{e}
o(G) o(H)
= h, iH
as
= h (e) 1H , (e) 1H iH
by definition
= 1 + (e)2 = 1 + r12
by Theorem 13.21.
(e) = 0
Xh(H)
i=1
i (e)i .
Xh(H)
i=2
i (e)i ,
this gives
(e) = 1 +
Xh(H)
i=2
(e)2 = o(H)
by Theorem 13.21(iii)
448
Sublemma 6
K = ker .
(14.9)
as follows. If k K we have
(k) = 1 +
Xh(H)
i=2
i (e)i (k) = 1 +
which proves the inclusion (14.9). For the reverse inclusion suppose
h H, then
(h) = 1 +
Xh(H)
i=2
i (e)i (h) =
Xh(H)
i=1
i (e)i = (h)
(14.10)
as ker = hei and is faithful. We also have using (14.7) and Lagranges
Theorem (Theorem 2.27)
o(K) = o(G) [G : H](o(H) 1) = [G : H].
(14.11)
o(H)o(ker )
= o(H)o(ker )
o(H ker )
o(H)o(K)
by (14.10)
by (14.9)
= o(G)
by (14.11). This gives o(ker ) = o(K), and so by (14.9) K = ker / G.
2
Proof of Theorem 14.10 Sublemma 6 shows that K is a normal subgroup of G. Also (14.10) shows that
G = KH
and K H = hei,
449
Fixed-point-free automorphisms
A Frobenius group G with respect to H having Frobenius kernel K is clearly
a semi-direct product of K by H; see the last line in the proof above and
Chapter 7. It has another property related to the notion of fixed-point-free
automorphisms which we discuss now. We begin with
Definition 14.8 Suppose is an automorphism of a group G which is not
the identity map. The map is called fixed-point-free on G if, and only if,
g 6= g for all g G where g 6= e.
For an example we return to the group S3 discussed above. We can define an
automorphism h of K by
gh = h1 gh for
and g K\{e}.
450
k = h1
2 kh2
and k 6= e.
Groups of order pq
451
G ' ha, b | aq = bp = e, b1 ab = ar i
where rp 1 (mod q) and rt 6 1 (mod q) for 0 < t < p. We show now that if
K = hai / G and H = hbi G, then G is Frobenius with respect to H, and
has Frobenius kernel K. We have G = KH by Lagranges Theorem, and so
we need to show that H g 1 Hg = hei provided g 6 H, that is g = bt au for
some t and u with u 6= 0. Let bm = h H, then
g 1 hg = (bt au )1 bm (bt au ) = au bm au = bm au(1r
6 H
As noted above Zassenhaus has shown that a non-soluble Frobenius complement will always involve the group SL2 (5), see (e) on page 450, and Passman (1968), page 202. Here we give an example of a Frobenius group whose
complement is this group. It can be shown that 2
2
We have shown that SL2 (5)/Z(SL2 (5)) ' A5 (see Problem 3.19), and so the presentation
on page 452 can be constructed using Problem 3.26W which gives a presentation of A5 ;
see Passman (1968), page 202 for details.
452
(14.12)
then r = s = 0
for all
D hA, B, Ci.
(14.13)
Suzuki Groups
For our last example we consider some Frobenius groups which are subgroups
of GL4 (22m+1 ) for m = 1, 2, . . . , some extensions will give an important class
of simple groups Suzuki groups. For the first of these we work over the field
F8 (so m = 1), and begin by defining the matrices
1
0
A(a, b) =
0
0
and
a
1
0
0
b a6 + ab + b4
a4
a5 + b
,
1
a
0
1
c3 0
0 c2
B(c) =
0
0
0
0
0
0
c2
0
0
0
,
0
3
c
453
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
,
C=
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
and define
Sz(8) = hA(a, b), B(c), C | a, b F8 , c F8 \{0}i.
It can be shown that this group is simple and has order 65 448 = 29120;
see Huppert and Blackburn III (1982b). Also it is possible to give a (finite)
geometrical description as follows. We work in the 3-dimensional projective
space over F8 , which we label P3 . (The space P3 has coordinates of the form
(a : b : c : d) where at least one of a, b, c and d is non-zero, and if t 6= 0 then
(a : b : c : d) = (ta : tb : tc : td). Also points with coordinates (0 : b : c : d) are
said to lie on the plane at infinity.) Let O denote the set of points
P (r, s) = (1 : r : s : r6 + rs + s4 ) for r, s F8 ,
and P () = (0 : 0 : 0 : 1).
454
1 a b aa2 + ab + b
0 1 a
aa + b
An (a, b) =
, for a, b F22n+1 ,
0 0 1
a
0 0 0
1
where is the automorphism of the multiplicative group of F22n+1 defined by
n+1
a = a2
(so a 2 = a2 ), and the matrix B(c) is replaced by Bn (c) which
n
n
n
n
is again diagonal with diagonal entries c12 , c2 , c2 and c1+2 . Now we
define
Sz(22n+1 ) = hAn (a, b), Bn (c), C | a, b, c F22n+1 and c 6= 0i.
The main properties of these groups are as follows.
(i) Sz(22n+1 ) is simple for n = 1, 2, . . . . This is proved as before by first
showing that an ovoid similar to that defined above is invariant under
collineations associated with the group.
(ii) The order of Sz(22n+1 ) is q 2 (q 1)(q 2 + 1) where q = 22n+1 . It is
easily seen that this order is not divisible by 3. Note that both q and
q 2 + 1 are congruent to 2 modulo 3. Thompson has shown that the
order of every non-Abelian simple group is divisible by 3 or 5, and it is
known that the order must be even (the Feit-Thompson Theorem). It
can be also be shown that the only simple groups whose orders are not
divisible by 3 are the Suzuki groups. There is a whole range of groups
whose orders are not divisible by 5, see Problem 14.23 and the Atlas.
(iii) For odd primes p, all Sylow p-subgroups of all Suzuki groups are
cyclic.
(iv) If g Sz(q) and g 6= e, then the centraliser CSz(q) (g) is nilpotent. The only other non-Abelian simple groups with this property are
L3 (4), L2 (2n ), L2 (9) and L2 (p) where p is a Fermat or Mersenne prime;
see page 444.
(v) The only outer automorphisms of Sz(q) are those generated by field
automorphisms of Fq .
(vi) When first discovered in 1960, these groups were thought to be new.
But it was soon realised that they had been studied in another guise
some years previously by Chevalley, for the Suzuki group Sz(22n+1 ) is
in fact isomorphic to the so-called Twisted Chevalley Group 2 B2 (22n+1 ).
For further details see the Atlas (1985) page xv.
(vii) Amongst the Suzuki groups Sz(8) has a number of individual properties; for instance (a) it is the only one involved (is a factor group of
14.4 Problems 14
455
14.4
Problems 14
Problem 14.1
Problem 14.2 (i) Complete the character table calculations for the group
C2 C2 started on page 435.
(ii) Confirm directly that the Column Orthogonality Relations hold for
the group A4 using Table 4 on page 437.
Problem 14.3
n is odd.
Problem 14.4 Construct the character table for the quaternion group Q2 .
What do you notice about this table and the one given for a group of order
8 (D4 ) in Section 14.1.
456
Problem 14.5
then
Using Theorem 13.15 and Corollary B20 on page 460, show that if g
G, o(g) = n and g is conjugate to g i for all i in the range 1 i n with
(i, n) = 1, then (g) is an integer for all characters of G.
(ii) Use (i) to show that all character values of all symmetric groups Sn
are rational integers.
Problem 14.6 Using the previous problem show that the character table
given for the permutation group S4 below is correct.
g
o(CS4 (g))
1
2
3
4
5
e
24
1
1
2
3
3
(1, 2)
4
1
1
0
1
1
Table 7.
(1, 2, 3)
3
1
1
1
0
0
(1, 2, 3, 4)
4
1
1
0
1
1
(1, 2)(3, 4)
8
1
1
2
1
1
Problem 14.7
Using the theory of tensor products (see for example
James and Liebeck (1994), Chapter 19) it can be shown that if is a character
of a group G, then so are S and A where, for g G,
S (g) = (2 (g) + (g 2 ))/2
e
24
1
1
1
3
2
2
2
Table 8.
a3
24
1
1
1
3
2
2
2
a2
6
1
2
0
1
b2
6
1
2
0
1
2
ab
4
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
a
6
1
2
0
1
2
b
6
1
2
0
1
14.4 Problems 14
Problem 14.9
457
0
0 1
a 7
and d
7
1 0
0 1
e
24
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
a2
24
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
b
12
1
1
1
1
0
2
2
0
0
Table 9.
c
12
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
a2 c
12
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
bc
12
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
i 3
i 3
bc2
12
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
i 3
i 3
a
4
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
ab
4
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
Problem 14.10 Use Burnsides first theorem (Theorem 14.3) to show that
no group of order 1200 can be simple.
Problem 14.11
Prove that if H is an Abelian subgroup of a nonAbelian simple group G, then [G : H] has at least two prime factors. (Hint.
Consider a centraliser of an element of H and use Theorem 14.3.)
Problem 14.12
458
B2 Algebraic Integers
459
Appendix B2
Algebraic Integers
For example 7, 1+i, 3 and (1+ 3)/2 are all algebraic integers. The reader
should check this.
For our purposes the main facts we need to know about the set of algebraic
integers A is that it is closed under addition, subtraction and multiplication.
Addition and multiplication are clearly associative and there exists a multiplicative identity 1, hence A forms an integral domain. We need to prove one
lemma before we can derive our main result.
Lemma B18 Let z1 , . . . , zm be a set of complex numbers, and let Z denote
the collection of all sums of the form
Xm
ri zi where ri Z.
i=1
Xm
j=1
rij zj
for i = 1, . . . , m.
for i = 1, . . . , m,
y),
and
the
coefficient
of y in this product is 1.
2
i=1 ii
460
Appendix B
Number Theory
Theorem B19 The set of algebraic integers is closed under addition and
multiplication, and so forms an integral domain.
Proof. Let y1 and y2 be algebraic integers satisfying monic polynomial
equations (with integer coefficients) of degrees n1 and n2 , respectively.
Further, define
zij = y1i y2j
for
0 i < n1
and
0 j < n2 ,
j=0
rij zij ,
(y1 + y2 )zij
and y1 y2 zij
where ri Z for i = 1, . . . , n.
Solution Appendix
Answers, hints and/or sketch solutions to most of the problems are given
below. If a problem has wide applicability then a fuller solution is provided.
Note that in some cases other methods will exist; you may find better, clearer
and/or shorter solutions compared with those given below. It is important to
note that a number of these solutions are incomplete, there are often details
for you to fill in. Please notify the author about any errors or omissions.
Solutions 2
Problem 2.1 (i) Let X = {g : g G} and, for a G, let Ya = {ag :
g G}. By closure Ya X, and for each g G, g = a(a1 g) and so
X = {a(a1 g) : g G} Ya ; hence X = Ya . Secondly, if Z = {g 1 : g G},
then Z X as G is closed under inverses, but g = (g 1 )1 and so X =
{(g 1 )1 : g G} Z, hence Z = X.
(ii) Use induction on n for the term g = g1 g2 gn when n > 2. For
n = 3 the associativity axiom applies. Secondly, assume that the result holds
for all bracketings of expressions with m elements where m < n. Consider
two bracketings of g:
(g1 gj ) (gj+1 gn ) and (g1 gk ) (gk+1 gn ) (2.1)
where j k. If j = k use the inductive hypothesis on the terms in the round
brackets, and if j < k, use the inductive hypothesis again to rewrite (2.1) as
(g1 gj ) (gj+1 gk ) (gk+1 gn ) and
(g1 gj ) (gj+1 gk ) (gk+1 gn ).
Now use associativity. A similar argument applies if j > k. A further inductive
argument is needed if more pairs of brackets are involved.
462
Solution Appendix
Solutions 2
463
(2.3)
and aa = (aa )
by (2.3). Now continue, you need to show that aa = bb so that you can
take aa as the unique neutral element.
Problem 2.5 (i) Apply Theorem 2.13; note that H G, and so H is
not empty.
(ii) H J = H is equivalent to H J, so apply (i).
(iii) By Theorem 2.34, both H and J are cyclic. Suppose H = hai and
J = hbi. If HJ 6= hei, then there exists integers k and l satisfying 1 k, l < p
and ak = bl . As (k, p) = 1 we can find an integer m to satisfy km 1 (mod p).
Then a = akm = blm and so H J; reversing this argument gives H = J.
Problem 2.6 SS = {s1 s2 : s1 , s2 S}, so SS S by group closure, also
S SS because se SS for s S. Secondly suppose T T = T , so T is
closed under the group operation (for if t1 , t2 T , then t1 t2 T T = T ) and
it is non-empty by definition. Since T is not empty, we use Theorem 2.7(iii)
for inverses and the neutral element; hence T G. False if G is infinite, an
example is G = Z and T is the non-negative integers.
464
Solution Appendix
n
m
m
n
=n
and
,
Z,
(m, n)
(m, n)
(m, n) (n, m)
so (g m )n/(m,n) = e which gives o(g m ) | n/(m, n). If not equal reverse argument
to obtain a contradiction as in (iv) below. If m = 0, then (m, n) = n and
g 0 = e, and if m < 0 use g n = e.
(iii) Use (ii) and the Euclidean algorithm.
(iv) Suppose first (m, n) = 1, then LCM(m, n) = mn. We have (gh)mn =
m n n m
(g ) (h ) = e, and so o(gh) = m1 n1 where m1 | m and n1 | n. If m1 < m.
We have
(g m1 n1 hm1 n1 )n/n1 = e, so g m1 n hm1 n = e,
and so g m1 n = e as o(h) = n. There exist integers r and s with rm + sn = 1
or snm1 = m1 rmm1 , hence e = g snm1 = g m1 as g m1 n = e which implies
that o(g) m1 < m, a contradiction. If m and n have a common factor,
remove it first and repeat this argument.
(v) By Lagranges Theorem (Theorem 2.27), the order of each element
of G divides o(G), hence g o(G) = e for all g G. Second part follows by
definition.
(vi) By (iv) we have g mn = e. Also by the Euclidean Algorithm (Theorem
B2), as (m, n) = 1, there exist r, s Z satisfying rm + sn = 1. Put a = g sn
and b = g rm , then ab = g = ba and am = e = bn . Suppose also a0 b0 = g = b0 a0
and (a0 )m = e = (b0 )n , then (a0 )m (b0 )m = (a0 b0 )m = (ab)m = am bm which
gives (b0 )rm = brm . But rm = 1 sn, and so b = b0 . Using a similar argument
we have a = a0 .
0 1
(vii) For example let A = 10 1
and B = 1
. Then A4 = B 3 = I2 ,
0
1
1 1
but AB = 0 1 which has infinite order in GL2 (Q) as (AB)r = 01 1r .
Problem 2.8 (i) As o(G) < we can pair off elements ai of order larger
1
1
than 2 (so ai 6= a1
i ) by {(a1 , a1 ), (a2 , a2 ), . . . }. Hence if o(G) is even, there
are an even number of elements of order 1 or 2 in G, but there is exactly one
element e of order 1.
(ii) We have o((Z/pZ) ) = p 1 (every positive integer less than p is
coprime to p), so by Problem 2.7(v), if g (Z/pZ) then o(g p1 ) = e.
(iii) Use (i) as p 1 is the only element of order 2 in (Z/pZ) , hence
(p 2)! 1 (mod p) as inverses are unique.
Problem 2.9 We have g1 = e, and so the table has the following form,
where the operation is defined by elements in the top row times elements in
the left-hand column,
Solutions 2
465
e
g2
gn
e
e
g2
gn
g2
g2
...
...
...
...
...
...
gn
gn
and each row and each column inside the box is a permutation of {g1 , . . . , gn }
with determined first entry, see Theorem 2.8. The converse does not hold
as the example T below shows. The operation given by T is closed and it
has a neutral element and inverses. But it is not associative, and left and
right inverses are not always equal. For instance (g3 g4 )g2 = g5 g2 = g3 and
g3 (g4 g2 ) = g3 g5 = g4 , also g2 g4 = e and g3 g2 = e.
T
e
g2
g3
g4
g5
e
e
g2
g3
g4
g5
g2
g2
g4
g5
e
g3
g3
g3
e
g2
g5
g4
g4
g4
g5
e
g3
g2
g5
g5
g3
g4
g2
e
466
Solution Appendix
Problem 2.12
(3)
(ii) Left cosets are (3, n)S5 , and right cosets are S5 (3, n), for n =
(3)
1, . . . , 6, where S5 is the subgroup (' S5 ) of the group of all permutations on {1, . . . , 6} which fix 3; see Chapter 3.
(iiia) {A : det A = t}, one coset for each t Q .
Solutions 2
467
468
Solution Appendix
1
h1
[H, J],
2 [h1 , j1 ]h2 = [h1 h2 , j1 ][h2 , j1 ]
Solutions 2
469
470
Problem 2.24
Solution Appendix
Solutions 2
471
472
Solution Appendix
Solutions 3
Problem 3.1 (i) We have (1, k)(1, j)(1, k) = (j, k) if j 6= k and j, k 2,
now use Lemma 3.5.
(ii) For j > 1, use (1, j)(j, j + 1)(1, j) = (1, j + 1), induction, and (i); see
Problem 3.21.
(iii) For j > 1 we have (1, 2, . . . , n)1 (1, j)(1, 2, . . . , n) = (2, j + 1) and
(2, j + 1)(1, 2)(2, j + 1) = (1, j + 1), now use (i) and induction.
(iv) If i, j, k and l are distinct, use (i, j)(k, l)(i, j)(k, m) = (k, l, m) and
Theorem 3.12.
Problem 3.2
Solutions 3
473
the last statement is best proved using results from Section 5.2. But by direct
calculation we see that the first class contains
(1,2,3,4,5), (1,2,4,5,3), (1,2,5,3,4),
(1,3,4,2,5), (1,4,2,3,5) and (1,4,5,2,3),
and their inverses (so 12 in all), and the second class contains the remaining
twelve 5-cycles. Note that for each pair of conjugate 5-cycles there are five
conjugating elements, so for example the conjugating elements for the pair
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and (1, 2, 4, 5, 3) (that is : 1 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) = (1, 2, 4, 5, 3)) are
(1, 3, 2), (3, 4, 5), (1, 4)(3, 5), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5) and (1, 5, 4, 2, 3).
(vii) A normal subgroup is a union of conjugacy classes one of which must
be {e} (Theorem 2.29(ii)), also the order of a subgroup divides the order of
the group by Lagranges Theorem. By (ii) possible orders for proper nonneutral normal subgroups are 1+3 (the neutral element and three 2-cycle by
2-cycles) and 1+3+8 (the even permutations). Both of these form subgroups
of S4 because they are closed under products and inverses, and therefore are
normal.
(viii) Similarly the conjugacy classes of A4 have orders 1, 3 and 4 (twice),
and o(A4 ) = 12, hence A4 has a normal subgroup of order 4 as in S4 above, it
is often denoted by V . This is the only non-neutral proper normal subgroup
of any alternating group.
Problem 3.4 (i) As and are disjoint, they apply to disjoint subsets of
the underlying set N = {1, . . . , n} upon which Sn is acting. But 1 = and
so if the cycle (a, b, . . . ) occurs in , the cycle (. . . , b, a) occurs in which
contradicts the hypothesis.
(ii) No. For example let = (1, 2)(3, 4), = (5, 6) and = (1, 3); here
= (1, 2, 3, 4) and = (4, 3, 2, 1).
(iii) has the form (i, i, i 2 , . . . ) and has the form (i, i, i 2 , . . . ). So
corresponding entries are equal, but do they have the same length? Yes, for
if the length of is k and of is l, and k < l. Then i k = i whilst i k 6= i, a
contradiction.
(iv) By Theorem 3.4 suppose = 1 . . . r where the i are disjoint cycles
which commute in pairs. So = p = 1p . . . rp , and hence sp = for 1 s r.
If o(s ) = m < p, then we can find integers t, u to satisfy tp + um = 1
(Euclidean Algorithm (Theorem B2)), and s = stp+um = . In this problem
e and are synonymous.
Problem 3.5 If Sn , then = 1 2 . . . r where each i is a cycle of
length ti , say, and t1 + + tr = n; note, some may be 1-cycles. Now the
order of a k-cycle is k, the order of a k-cycle by l-cycle is LCM(k, l) provided
k + l n, et cetera. So the order of is LCM(t1 , . . . , tr ). For S7 , the orders
are 1, 2, . . . , 7 (cycles and others, for example a 2-cycle 2-cycle 3-cycle
has order 6), 10 (2-cycle 5-cycle), and 12 (3-cycle 4-cycle).
For An we need the extra condition: 2 | ((t1 1) + + (tr 1)). For A7 the
orders are 1, 3, 5, 7 (cycles), 2 (2-cycle 2-cycle), 3 again (3-cycle 3-cycle),
4 (2-cycle 4-cycle), and 6 (2-cycle 2-cycle 3-cycle).
474
Solution Appendix
Solutions 3
475
n
n + 1 2n
(n + 1) (2n) 1 n
.
476
Solution Appendix
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 1
r s t u 1
!
=
1 2 3 4 5
1 r s t u
3
!
= 2 ,
1 0
0 1
, I2 and
5 0
0
Solutions 3
477
Problem 3.14 Suppose the 4-element field consists of {0, 1, c, c + 1} where
c2 = c + 1 and we work modulo 2 (so 1 = 1). Let A = 01 11 , then A2 =
1 1
3
1 0 and A = I2 giving an order 3 cyclic subgroup in GL2 (2). Secondly,
for each 2 2 matrix C GL2 (4) we define a 4 4 matrix C GL4 (2) as
follows: if 0 occurs in C replace it by the 2 2 zero matrix 00 00 , if 1 occurs
in C replace it by I2 , if c occurs in C replace it by the 2 2 matrix A defined
above, and if c + 1 = c2 occurs in C replace it by A2 . This defines a map
from GL2 (4) to GL4 (2), you need to check that all matrices C constructed
in this way have determinant 1.
Using the methods given in Chapter 4 we can show that this map is an
injective homomorphism, or the subgroup condition (Theorem 2.13) can be
applied. Note that we have o(GL4 (2)) = 20160 and o(GL2 (4)) = 180; see
Chapter 12, especially Problem 12.13.
Problem 3.15 If A = (aij ), B = (bij ) U Tn (F ), then aij = bij = 0 if
i > j, and the (i, j)th term of AB is
aii bij + + aij bjj ,
(3.1)
(3.3)
(3.4)
(an2,n1 an1,n an2,n an1,n1 )/an2,n2 an1,n1 ann ,
(note det( ac db ) = ad bc) with similar expressions for the remaining superdiagonals.
(i) By (3.1) above the diagonal of AB is (a11 b11 , . . . , ann bnn ), so use (3.2),
and Theorems 2.13 and 2.29.
(ii) By (3.3), (3.4), . . . above, if the first r superdiagonals of A consist
entirely of zeros, this also holds for A1 , so use again Theorems 2.13 and
2.29.
(iii) If A ITn (F ) and a is an entry in A above the main diagonal, then it
can equal an arbitrary element in F . So in this case there are p choices, and
as there are n(n 1)/2 such entries, the order of ITn (F ) is pn(n1)/2 . Now
use Theorem 3.15(iii) with q = p.
(iv) If the (r + 1)st superdiagonal of IZTn,r (F ) (that is the first with nonzero elements) is a1,r+1 , a2,r+2 , . . . , anr,n , then the (r +1)st superdiagonal of
478
Solution Appendix
Solutions 3
479
cdc . . . d = (cd)r2 ,
480
Solution Appendix
Solutions 4
481
Solutions 4
Problem 4.1 (ia) We have a = cos a+i sin a = eia , so (a+b) = ei(a+b) =
eia eib = ab. (ib) Same as (ia), isomorphism as (ln2 a)2 = 2ln2 a = a, for
all a R+ . (ic) (a + b)3 = a b = a3 + b3 , an automorphism.
(ii) As a = e for all a G, (a + b) = e = ee = ab.
(iii) Use Lemma 3.8.
(iv) This follows as det(AB) = det A det B for A, B GL2 (F ).
(v) The map f : R2 R given by f (x, y) = x satisfies f (x1 +x2 , y1 +y2 ) =
x1 + x2 = f (x1 , y1 ) + f (x2 , y2 ).
Problem 4.2 (i) GL2 (2) = {I2 = 10 01 , A1 = 01 10 , A2 = 10 11 , A3 =
1 0
0 1
1 1
We
1 1 , B1 = 1 1 , B2 = 1 0 } with matrix multiplication modulo 2.
0 1
2
2
2
3
3
have A1 = A2 = A3 = B1 = B2 = I2 . Define 1 : GL2 (2) S3 by 1 1 1 =
(1, 2, 3) and 01 10 1 = (1, 2), and check by cases that (AB)1 = A1 B1 for
the map is clearly bijective.
(ii) We have F1 = F \{1} with operation a b = a + b ab. It is closed, for
if a + b ab = 1 then (1 a)(1 b) = 0 but 1 6 F1 ; the neutral element is 0;
the inverse of a is a/(a 1); and it is associative because
(a + b ab) + c (a + b ab)c = a + b + c ab ac bc + abc
= a + (b + c bc) a(b + c bc).
Define 2 : F F1 by a2 = 1 a. This is clearly bijective and (a b)2 =
1 (a + b ab) = (1 a)(1 b) = a2 b2 .
(iii) A polynomial f (x) has the form a0 + a1 x + + ak xk where ai Z,
and an element m Q+ has the prime factorisation pa0 0 pa1 1 . . . pakk again with
ai Z, and where pi is the i-th prime number with p0 = 2. So we can
define a map 3 from polynomials f (x) to rational numbers m by: The zero
polynomial is mapped to 1, and (a0 + a1 x + + ak xk )3 = pa0 0 pa1 1 . . . pakk . If
f1 (x) = a00 + , then
(f (x) + f1 (x))3 = ((a0 + a00 ) + . . . )3
a +a0
a0
= p0 0 0 = pa0 0 . . . p0 0 . . .
= f (x)3 f1 (x)3 .
Problem 4.3 (i) If g, h G, (g h)() = ((gh)) = (gh) [ is a
homomorphism] = (g)(h) [ is a homomorphism] = (g())(h()).
(ii) As e = e, e im(), and if a, b im() there exist a1 , b1 satisfying
1
1
a1 = a and b1 = b. This gives a1
and a1 b = a1
1 =a
1 b1 = a1 b1 ,
1
that is a b im().
(iii) We have ab = ab when a, b H, and so ab H, that is 0 is
well-defined, and it is a homomorphism because is a homomorphism.
482
Solution Appendix
Solutions 4
483
(iv) We have
J/G
0
and H2 / H1 .
1
0 0
(4.1)
1
1 0
for suitably chosen j1 and j2 in J. Hence JH2 / JH1 follows by (4.1). Now
JH1 /JH2 = JH2 H1 /JH2 [as H2 H1 ] = H1 /(H1 JH2 ) [by the Second
Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 4.15)] = (H1 /H2 )/((H1 JH2 )/H2 ), by the
Third Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 4.17). Now use (i).
Problem 4.7 (i) We have g n K = (gK)n = K, so g n K.
(ii) Integers r and s exist satisfying rm + sn = 1, so g = g rm g sn but
n
g K by (i) and g m K by hypothesis, hence g K.
Problem 4.8 (i) Use Problem 4.6(ii).
(ii) Use the definition.
Problem 4.9 (i) For n > 0 use induction as an+1 = an a, and for
n < 0 use Lemma 4.4.
(ii) First show 0 is well-defined using: If aK = bK then a1 b = e,
so a = b. The factor group G/K exists by definition, and (aKbK)0 =
(abK)0 = ab = ab = (aK)0 (bK)0 .
(iii) Use [j1 , j2 ] = (j11 j21 j1 j2 ) = [j1 , j2 ] for j1 , j2 J, and Lemma
4.3(ii).
Problem 4.10 (i) Define : G G by g = g n , g G, this is a homomorphism by given condition. The kernel is Gn = {g G : g n = e} / G, and
the image is Gn = {g n : g G} G, see Lemma 4.3 and Theorem 4.2(ii).
Also
g 1 an g = g 1 agg 1 ag . . . g 1 ag = (g 1 ag)n
for all a, g G, so Gn / G. By the First Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem
4.11), we have G/Gn ' Gn , hence o(Gn ) = o(G/Gn ) = [G : Gn ] by Theorem
2.27.
(ii) If n = 2 then abab = a2 b2 , or ba = ab. If n = 3 then ababab = a3 b3 ,
and so (ba)2 = a2 b2 . This gives
a3 b2 = a(a2 b2 ) = ababa = (ab)2 a = b2 a3 .
But o(a) is not divisible by 3, as 3 - o(G), and so we can choose c G to
satisfy c2 = a3 . Now use first part as this applies for all a, b G.
484
Solution Appendix
Problem 4.11
there is k K1 \K.
Theorem (Theorem
morphism Theorem
hence
gh = (ghK1 , . . . , ghKn )
= (gK1 hK1 , . . . , gKn hKn ) = (gK1 , . . . , gKn )(hK1 , . . . , hKn )
= gh.
Tn
The kernel is the set of g which satisfy gKi = Ki for all i, that is g i=1 Ki ,
and so the result follows by Corollary 4.12.
Problem 4.13 (i) Theorem 4.16(ii). We have H G2 by (i) of
Theorem 4.16. As K / G1 , if g G1 and k K, we have g 1 kg = k1 K
and g 1 kg = (g)1 kg = k1 . But is surjective, so every element of G2
has the form g for some g G1 , hence H / G2 .
Secondly, define a map : G1 G1 /H by g = (g)H for g G1 .
The map is surjective because is surjective, and it is a homomorphism
because
gh = (gh)H = (g)(h)H = (g)H(h)H = gh.
The kernel is H, for if h H then h H. Hence by the First Isomorphism
Theorem (Theorem 4.11)
G1 / ker = G1 /H ' G2 /H.
(i) Theorem 4.16(iii). If a, b J1 , there exist x, y J satisfying
x = a and y = b. Now J G2 so x1 y J, (a)1 b J, (a1 b) J,
and so finally a1 b J1 . Hence J1 G1 as e J1 . Clearly K J1
therefore K J1 by Corollary 2.14.
(ii) Let be the natural homomorphism G G/K, it is surjective with
kernel K; so the Correspondence Theorem applies. Now G/K is simple, so G
has no normal non-neutral subgroup J satisfying K < J < G. Conversely, if
no such J exists, then G/K has no non-neutral proper normal subgroup.
(iii) By (ii) G/H is simple. Suppose it is not cyclic of prime order, so
there exists J/H such that hei < J/H < G/H, and by the Correspondence
Theorem H < J < G which is impossible as H is maximal. For the required
example let G = S5 and H = h(1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (2, 3, 5, 4)i; see Problem 3.11. Now
H is maximal (use a computer check, or see Problem 3.9) and [G : H] = 6,
but H is not normal; for example (1, 2)(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)(1, 2) = (1, 3, 4, 5, 2) 6 G,
and also 6 is not prime!
Solutions 4
485
486
Solution Appendix
Solutions 4
487
for i = 0, 1, 2, 3.
Hence using the methods in the example quoted above, there are 32 automorphisms and the automorphism group is isomorphic to an extension of D8 by
C2 ; the copy of D8 is obtained if we only consider the automorphisms 0 , 2
and and there powers and products.
(iii) If o(G) = 1 or 2, the only automorphism is the identity map as automorphisms map e to e. Conversely suppose Aut G = hei. So consequently
all inner automorphisms equal the identity map, that is a1 ga = g for all
a, g G, and hence G is Abelian. Now the map defined by a = a1 is an
automorphism (for (ab) = b1 a1 = a1 b1 = ab), and so all elements
of G have order at most 2, that is G is an elementary Abelian 2-group, see
Problem 4.18 above. But by (iii) in this problem if G has order larger than 2,
then there exists a non-identity automorphism (that is a non-singular linear
map) which is a contradiction.
Problem 4.20 (i) Use Problem 3.1 and check that (1, j) 2 = (1, j) for
j = 2, . . . , 6. Begin with
(1, 2) 2 = (1, 5)(2, 3)(4, 6)
= (1, 5)(1, 2)(1, 3)(1, 2)(1, 4)(1, 6)(1, 4)
= (1, 2)(3, 6)(4, 5) . . . (1, 3)(2, 4)(5, 6) = (1, 2).
(ii) The symmetric group S6 has six subgroups isomorphic to S5 , each of
which contains the set of permutations that fix a particular element of the
set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. This is typical of all symmetric groups. But because of
the facts given in (i) S6 has a further set of six subgroups isomorphic to S5
obtained by looking at collections of products of four 2-cycles. For instance
the elements
(1, 4)(2, 6)(3, 5), (1, 2)(3, 4)(5, 6), (1, 4)(2, 5)(3, 6) and (1, 5)(2, 6)(3, 4)
generate a copy of S5 . To see this we note that these four elements in S6 satisfy the relations in the presentation of S6 given in Problem 3.21 with n = 4.
For example if we label these four permutations a, b, c, d respectively, then
ab, bc, cd have order 3, and ac, ad, bd have order 2. The remaining five subgroups can be obtained by permuting the entries 4, 5 and 6. Note that each
subgroup contains ten of the fifteen products of three 2-cycles, but four are
sufficient to generate the subgroup. Two notable facts about these new subgroups are: They contain no 2-cycles, and unlike the first set of six subgroups
they are transitive on the six-element set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Problem 4.21 Conjugations by even elements define inner automorphisms
in A5 , but by Theorem 3.3, conjugation by odd elements (that is members
488
Solution Appendix
Solutions 5
489
Solutions 5
Problem 5.1 (i) Two orbits: {1, 2, 3}, {4}; stab(x) = hei if x = 1, 2, 3, and
is G if x = 4.
(ii) and (iii) One orbit, and all stabilisers equal hei.
(iv) Two orbits: {1, 2}, {3, 4}; stab(1) = stab(2) = {e, (3, 4)} and stab(3) =
stab(4) = {e, (1, 2)}.
(v) One orbit. Given x and y there is an even permutation mapping
x to y; stab(j) equals set of elements of A4 which fix j. For instance
stab(1) = {e, (2, 3, 4), (2, 4, 3)} ' A3 ' C3 .
(vi) If v V , orbit of v is {w : w = v\a for a F } = {va : a F }. Also
stab(v) = {1} if v 6= 0, and stab(v) = F if v = 0.
(vii) Note first f (x1 , . . . , xn )\ = f (x1 , . . . , xn ) is a polynomial in
x1 , . . . , xn ; so maps Q [x1 , . . . , xn ] into itself. If is the identity permutation then f \ = f , and for , Sn using associativity of composition we
have
f (x1 , . . . , xn )\ = f (x1( ) , . . . , xn( ) )
= f (x(1) , . . . , x(n) )
= f (x1 , . . . , xn )\
= (f (x1 , . . . , xn )\)\ ;
this gives an action. Hence the orbit of f is the set of all polynomials obtained
by replacing some of the variables with others. For example, if f = x1 +c then
the orbit of f is the set {xi + c : i = 1, . . . , n}, and if f = x21 + + x2n then
the orbit of f is f itself. The stabiliser of f is the subgroup of all elements
of Sn such that f \ = f ; for example, the stabiliser of x1 + c is hei, and the
stabiliser of x21 + + x2n is Sn .
By the Orbit-stabiliser Theorem (Theorem 5.7) we have o(Of ) = [Sn :
stab(f )], also o(Sn ) = n!, hence o(Of ) is a divisor of n! by Lagranges Theorem (Theorem 2.27).
Problem 5.2 Suppose o(G) = pr q s , o(H) = pt q u , o(J) = pv q w , where
t, v r and u, w s. The hypothesis implies either (a) t = r and w = s, or
(b) v = r and u = s. Suppose (a), the proof is the same for (b) and can be
extended if more primes are involved. Now H J H, so o(H J) | pt q u ,
and H J J, so o(H J) | pv q w . Hence
o(H J) | pv q u
490
Solution Appendix
Solutions 5
491
Problem 5.8 (i) Use Theorem 2.13. If gx = xg, for x X and g CG (x),
then xg 1 = g 1 x et cetera.
(ii) Use Definition 2.32.
(iii) If h H, then CG (H) CG (h) by definition, now use the fact that
this holds for all h H.
(iv) We have H CG (J), so hj = jh for all h H and j J. As H J
this shows that j Z(H) for all j J; the result follows.
(v) For first part use the definition and for second part we have a
g 1 CG (H)g, iff gag 1 CG (H), iff gag 1 commutes with h for all h H, iff
gag 1 h = hgag 1 for all h H, iff ag 1 hg = g 1 hga for all h H, and so
iff a CG (g 1 Hg).
(vi) g CG (H) iff ghg 1 = h for all h H, and g NG (H) iff ghg 1 H
for all h H.
(vii) If CG (H) = hei, there is h H such that ah 6= ha for all a G\hei
which implies Z(J) = hei for all J in the given range. If CG (H) 6= hei, there
exists b G satisfying b 6= e and bh = hb for all h H. This shows that
hbiH G and b Z(hbiH), impossible by hypothesis.
Problem 5.9 (i) If D6 = ha, b | a6 = b2 = (ab)2 = ei, then C(e) = C(a3 ) =
D6 , C(at ) = hai if 3 - t, and C(bat ) = hbat , a3 i, so the centraliser of each
element of order 2 has order 4.
For S4 see Problem 5.26. Similarly for (ii).
(iii) We have A5 is the disjoint union of five conjugacy classes, they are
{e}, twenty 3-cycles, twelve 5-cycles, twelve 5-cycles, and fifteen 2-cycles 2cycles; see Problem 3.3. So the numerical Class Equation (Theorem 5.20(ii))
for A5 gives
60 = 1 + 20 + 12 + 12 + 15.
The centralisers of the 3- and 5-cycles are the cyclic groups they generate (of
orders 3 and 5, respectively), and
CA5 ((1, 2)(3, 4)) = {e, (1, 2)(3, 4), (1, 3)(2, 4), (1, 4)(2, 3)}.
Problem 5.10 Note that a permutation on the set {m + 1, . . . , n} commutes with , also any power of commutes with . Now check that there is
nothing else in CSn ( ).
Problem 5.11 (i) As Z(G) / G, we have haiZ(G) G if a G (Lemma
4.14(ii)), and if h Z(G) then ah = ha. Now note that a 6 Z(G).
(ii) As H is Abelian, H CG (H). Use (i) to show that if a CG (H)\H
then H is not maximal Abelian.
Problem 5.12 (i) Use definition.
(ii) If a CG (CG (A)) then ay = ya for all y CG (A), that is for all y
such that yc = cy for all c A. This is true for all a A.
492
Solution Appendix
(iii) By (i) and (ii) we have CG (A) CG (CG (CG (A))), and for the reverse
inclusion substitute CG (A) for A in (ii).
Problem 5.13 (i) Suppose H / K and NG (H) < K. There exists
k K\NG (H), and for h H, k 1 hk H. But k 6 NG (H) = {g G :
g 1 Hg = H} which is a contradiction.
(ii) We have, where h, h0 H,
g 1 NG (H)g = {x : x = g 1 ag and for all h there exists h0 with a1 ha = h0 }
= {x : x = g 1 ag and for all h there exists h0
with gg 1 a1 gg 1 hgg 1 agg 1 = h0 }
= {x : for all h there exists h0 with gx1 g 1 hgxg 1 = h0 }
= {x : for all h there exists h0 with x1 g 1 hgx = g 1 h0 g}
= NG (g 1 Hg).
(iii) NJ (H) = {g J : g 1 Hg = H}, so NJ (H) J, and NJ (H)
NG (H) as J G; hence NJ (H) NG (H) J. But if k NG (H) J then
k J and k 1 Hk = H. This gives k NJ (H) and equality follows.
(iv) If [H, K] H, then for h H and k K we have [h, k] = h1 k 1 hk
H, and so k 1 hk H and k 1 Hk H. We can interchange k and k 1 , and
so kHk 1 H, that is k 1 Hk = H and k NG (H). For the converse, if
k NG (H) and h H, then [h, k] = h1 (k 1 hk) H.
(v) Use the coset action, so the set X equals the collection of right cosets
of J in G, and o(X) 0 (mod p) by hypothesis. By Problem 5.3 this shows
that o(fix(J, G)) 0 (mod p). But J is fixed by this action, hence at least
two elements of X are fixed (as p 2). Suppose the second is Jg where
Jg 6= J. So g 6 J and g 1 Jg = J, but this implies that g NG (J) giving
the result. Easier arguments exist using the Sylow theory.
a12
a22 a12
Problem 5.14 (i) Let A = aa11
GL2 (Q), then dA1 = a
a
21 a22
21
11
where d = det A 6= 0. Now if A NG (D), then C = A1 x0 y0 A D, for all
non-zero x, y Q. The off-diagonal entries of C are
a11 a21 (y x)
As these are zero we obtain either a11 = a22 = 0, or a12 = a21 = 0 (we
cannot have a11 = a12 = 0 because A is non-singular). Hence A is diagonal
or anti-diagonal, and NG (D) is the subgroup of diagonal and anti-diagonal
matrices in GL2 (Q).
(ii) In the 3 3 case NG (D) is the subgroup of all matrices with one
non-zero entry in every row and column; see Problems 3.12 and 3.15.
Problem 5.15 (i) We have H NG (H) G. Let o(H) = r, o(NG (H)) =
rs and o(G) = rst [by Lagranges Theorem (Theorem 2.27)]. By Lemma
5.25(iii) the number of conjugates of H in G is t, so by Problem 2.23(ii) the
total number of elements of G in a conjugacy class of H is less than rt, that
Solutions 5
493
(ii) The matrix a0 cb is non-singular provided a 6= 0 6= c, so there are two
choices for both a and c, and three for b; therefore o(H) = 12, and so by (i)
Z(G) H.
(iii) Let h1 gh H where h = ac db and g = 0r us . The lower left-hand
entry of h1 gh is 0 when ac(r u) + c2 s = 0. This holds for all non-singular
matrices h = ac db when s = 0 and r = u, or by (i) when g Z(G). Therefore
core(H) = Z(G).
(iv) By Theorem 5.15, G/core(H) = G/Z(G) is isomorphic to a subgroup
of S4 as [G : H] = 4, see (ii). But o(G/Z(G)) = 24, and so G/Z(G) ' S4 .
Problem 5.20 Let H be the normal closure of hai in G, see Problem 2.25.
As CG (a) / G, H CG (a); see quoted problem. This problem also shows
that H can be expressed as
H = hg 1 au g : g G, u Zi.
494
Solution Appendix
for g, g1 G, t, u Z,
Solutions 5
495
p3 = o(G) = o(Z(G)) +
Xr
i=1
o(C`(yi )) = p + sp,
hence s = p2 1 and r = p2 + p 1.
Problem 5.23 (i) Suppose j 1 aj = b. Then C(b) = {g : gb = bg} =
{g : gj 1 aj = j 1 ajg} = {g : jgj 1 a = ajgj 1 } = {j 1 hj : ha = ah} =
j 1 C(a)j.
P (ii) As each element of G lies in exactly one conjugacy class, o(G) =
o(C`(xi )) where xi is a representative of the i-th conjugacy class (1 i
r), and the sum is taken over these classes. By Theorem 5.19, this gives
X
X
o(G) =
[G : CG (xi )] =
o(G)/ci where ci = o(CG (xi )),
and so 1 = 1/c1 + + 1/cr .
(iii) For fixed r the above equation only has finitely many solutions, see
Problem B4. Hence there can only be finitely many groups with r conjugacy
classes.
(iv) For r 3, the solutions are 1 = 1/1 = 1/2 + 1/2 = 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/6 =
1/2 + 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3. The solution 1/2 + 1/2 corresponds to the
group C2 ; 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 corresponds to C3 ; 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/6 corresponds
to S3 ; whilst 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/4 does not correspond to a group.
Problem 5.24 By Lemma 5.25 the number of conjugate subgroups g 1 Hg
is bounded by [G : H], and the minimum overlap between two of them is hei.
So
[
g 1 Hg 1 + (o(H) 1)[G : H],
o
gG
now use Lagranges Theorem (Theorem 2.27). If H satisfies the given condition, then
[
g 1 Hg = G
gG
496
Solution Appendix
Solutions 6
497
Solutions 6
Problem 6.1 (i) We have K is maximal and K / G. Now as G/K is a
p-group, by Cauchys Theorem (Theorem 6.2) it contains an element of order
p, and so a subgroup of order p with the form J/K for some J satisfying
K / J G; this follows using the Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16).
But K is maximal, hence J = G and [G : K] = p.
(ii) Suppose the cyclic group G has generator a. By Theorem 4.20, G has
a unique subgroup H generated by ap which has index p in G. If h H then
h is a power of ap , that is h = (ap )r = (ar )p for some r Z, and so every
element in H is a p-power. Now use Problem 2.13(ii) and see Theorem 6.6.
See also Section 10.2.
(iii) As G is a p-group, the conjugacy classes have orders 1, p, p2 , . . . . Also
K / G, so K is a union of conjugacy classes. But o(K) = p and {e} is
a conjugacy class in K. Therefore K consists entirely of elements whose
conjugacy classes have order 1, that is they belong to Z(G).
Problem 6.2 (i) Note automorphisms map p-elements to p-elements.
(ii) Let a, b G with ap = bp = e. By Problem 4.6, G0 Z(G), and so
[a, b] Z(G). Now e = ap = b1 ap b = (b1 ab)p = (a[a, b])p = ap [a, b]p [by
Problem 2.17(ii) with t = p] = [a, b]p . This shows that (ab)p = ap bp which
gives closure.
Problem 6.3 There are five group types, three of which are Abelian with
all of their subgroups normal and Z(G) = G. Subgroup lattice diagrams are
given on pages 547 to 551.
(i) G is cyclic, so G ' ha | a8 = ei. By Theorem 4.20, the proper nonneutral subgroups are ha2 i ' C4 , ha4 i ' C2 .
(ii) G is Abelian and all elements have order 2, that is G is elementary
Abelian (Problem 4.18). We can write G as ha, b, c | a2 = b2 = c2 = e, ab =
ba, bc = cb, ca = aci. It has 7 elements of order 2, and so 7 subgroups of order
2: hai, . . . , habci. By trial we see that it also has 7 subgroups of order 4 each
isomorphic to T2 : ha, bi, ha, ci, hb, ci, hab, bci, ha, bci, hb, aci and hc, abi. There
are 21 (unordered) subsets of a 7-element set, and each subgroup isomorphic
to T2 contains three of them; hence seven in all.
(iii) The third Abelian possibility is that G not cyclic and it has an element
of order 4, so we can write G as ha, b | a4 = b2 = e, ab = bai with elements
e (order 1), a2 , b, a2 b (order 2) and a, a3 , ab, a3 b (order 4). Hence there are
three subgroups of order 2. There are also 3 subgroups of order 4: hai, habi
(isomorphic to C4 ) and ha2 , bi ' T2 .
(iv) G = ha, b | a4 = b2 = e, ba = a3 bi ' D4 . The non-neutral elements are
2
a , b, ab, a2 b, a3 b (order 2) and a, a3 (order 4). Hence G has five subgroups
isomorphic to C2 and one isomorphic to C4 . By trial we see that it also
has two isomorphic to T2 : ha2 , bi, ha2 , abi. (A subgroup of order 4 is normal
and so contains the central involution a2 , hence adding another involution
generates a copy of T2 .) As the only non-neutral element that commutes with
both a and b is a2 we have Z(G) = ha2 i ' C2 , and so checking cosets we
498
Solution Appendix
deduce G/Z(G) = haZ, bZi ' T2 . The centre Z(G) and the three subgroups
of order 4 are normal (see Problem 2.19). By trial the others are not, they
do not commute with a.
(v) G = ha, b | a4 = e, b2 = a2 , ba = a3 bi ' Q2 . The non-neutral elements
are a2 (order 2) and a, a3 = ab2 = b2 a, b, ab, a2 b = b3 = ba2 , a3 b = ab3 (order
4). Hence G has only one subgroup of order 2: ha2 i, and three of order 4:
hai, hbi and habi which are all cyclic. As above only e and a2 commute with
all elements and so Z(G) = ha2 i, and checking cosets we have G/Z(G) =
haZ, bZi ' T2 . Subgroups have index 2 or equal Z(G), and so are ALL
normal a very unusual feature that is the group is called Hamiltonian,
see Problem 7.13.
Problem 6.4 (i) In G1 we have bar b = a3r for r Z, hence a = b2 ab2 =
b(bab)b = ba3 b = a9 which gives a8 = e. Similarly in G2 . Now in G1 ,
ar b = ba3r , and so all elements of G1 have the form ar bs for 0 r < 8
and 0 b < 2. Again the same is true for G2 . Check that if ar bs = e, then
r = s = 0.
(ii) Subgroups of G1 are hei; ha4 i, hbi, ha4 bi (Order 2); ha4 , bi(' T2 );
2
ha i, ha2 bi (cyclic, order 4); hai, habi (cyclic, order 8); ha2 , bi (' C4 C2 );
and G1 all normal except hbi and ha4 bi which are conjugate.
Subgroups of G2 are hei ; ha4 i , hbi, ha2 bi, ha4 bi, ha6 bi (Order 2); ha4 , bi,
4 2
ha , a bi (' T2 ); ha2 i, habi, ha3 bi (' C4 ); hai (' C8 ); ha2 , bi (' D4 );
ha2 , abi (' Q2 ); and G2 those marked are normal. Note that this
group has three non-isomorphic subgroups of order 8 only one of which is
Abelian.
(iii) Both groups have three maximal subgroups of order 8, normal subgroups of all powers of 2 dividing 16, and a five-term normal series (see
Chapter 9).
(iv) In G1 we have ha4 i = (G1 )0 < Z(G1 ) = ha2 i, and in G2 we have
ha4 i = Z(G2 ) < (G2 )0 = ha2 i.
(v) The subgroup lattices of G1 and C8 C2 are identical except for the
top group. But note that their normal subgroup lattices are not identical
because one group is Abelian whilst the other is not. The reader should draw
diagrams of these lattices; see pages 557 and 558.
Problem 6.5 (i) Let be the natural homomorphism G G/Z(G). As
G/Z(G) is Abelian and has order p2 , see Problems 5.3 and 4.16(ii), it has
a normal subgroup H/Z(G), say, of order p. The Correspondence Theorem
(Theorem 4.16) now shows that G has a normal subgroup H of order p2 .
There are two possibilities (a) H contains an element of order p2 (and so is
cyclic), and (b) all non-neutral elements of H have order p (and so H is an
elementary Abelian p-group).
2
Solutions 6
499
Case (b) H = hai hbi where a and b have order p; see Chapter 7.
If c = [a, b], then by Problem 4.6, c Z(G), that is ca = ac and cb = bc.
If p = 2 then G is Abelian (see Corollary 2.11, in fact it is an elementary
Abelian 2-group), but it is not Abelian if p > 2.
(ii) Working over a p-element field we can take, for example,
a=
1 1 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
!
,b=
1 0 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
!
,c=
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
!
.
(iii) ES1 (3). The proper subgroups are hai, habi, hab2 i (' C9 ); ha3 , bi ('
C3 C3 ); ha3 i, hbi, ha3 bi, ha6 bi (' C3 ) and hei, all are normal except hbi, ha3 bi
and ha6 bi, and second to fifth are maximal. The centre is ha3 i.
ES2 (3). The proper subgroups are hc, ai, hc, bi, hc, abi, hc, ab2 i (' C3
C3 ); hci, hai, hbi, haci, hac2 i, hbci, hbc2 i, habi, hab2 i, ha2 bi, ha2 b2 i, habci, ha2 bc2 i
(' C3 ) and hei. Second to fifth are maximal, and first to sixth and hei are
normal, and the centre is hci.
Problem 6.6 If o(G) = p2 use Theorem 5.22 and the fact that Cp Cp
contains p subgroups of order p. If o(G) = p3 then, apart from Cp3 , each of
the groups involved (Cp2 Cp , Cp3 , ES1 (p) and ES2 (p)) have more than one
subgroup of order p; see the previous problem and Section 7.2. This fact can
also be proved directly using Theorem 10.21 and Problem 2.17(ii); see Doerk
and Hawkes [1992], page 204. Note that the result is false for p = 2, Q2 has
a unique subgroup of order 2 and it is clearly not cyclic (or Abelian).
If o(G) = pn where n > 3 then, by Theorem 6.5, we can find K to satisfy:
K / G and o(K) = p. Suppose G/K has two subgroups, H/K and J/K, of
order p. We may assume that H/K Z(G/K) (see Chapter 10). It follows
that HJ G and o(HJ) = p3 (use Theorem 5.8). Now by the case above,
this group has a unique subgroup of order p2 , and so H = J, G/K has a
unique subgroup of order p, and so is cyclic. Let G = hK, ai and A = hai. If
G A = hei, then G has two subgroups of order p, they are {c A : cp = e}
and K, which is impossible. Therefore K A and G = KA = A.
Problem 6.7 (i) The group is Abelian by definition. Using the relations
n
n+1
we have ap0 = e and apn
= apn1 = = ap0 = e, and so the order of every
generator is a power of p, hence all elements are p-elements as the group is
Abelian.
(ii) Use the equations above.
(iii) If H Cp and H contains infinitely many of the an , then H = Cp
by (ii). But if H only contains ai1 , . . . , aik , where i1 < < ik , then by (ii)
again H = haik i.
Problem 6.8 (ia) As 32 is the largest power of 3 dividing o(S6 ), by Theorem 4.22 a Sylow 3-subgroup of S6 is isomorphic to either C9 or C3 C3 .
Using the quoted problem we see that S6 contains no element of order 9. We
can also note directly that C3 C3 ' l(1, 2, 3), (4, 5, 6)i is a Sylow 3-subgroup
of S6 .
500
Solution Appendix
(mod p).
Solutions 6
501
and so
pr pt = ps pu ,
502
Solution Appendix
Solutions 6
503
p
and so
P K / G.
This shows that P K = G (as 5 | o(P K)), and so every proper non-neutral
normal subgroup K of G has order 12. But by Problem 6.13(i) we see that
K contains a normal, and so characteristic, Sylow subgroup which is normal
in G but not of order 12 which is a contradiction.
504
Solution Appendix
Solutions 6
505
506
Solution Appendix
has fewer than t prime factors, as o(G) is square-free. There are two cases.
(a) If p is the largest prime factor of o(H), then the inductive hypothesis
gives P , a Sylow p -subgroup of H normal in H. By the first part P / G.
(b) Secondly, suppose p - o(H); but p | o(G), and so p | o(G/H). By
the inductive hypothesis, G/H has a normal Sylow p -subgroup P1 , say. Let
be the natural homomorphism G G/H (see Definition 4.13), and let
J = P1 1 . Using the Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16) we have
[G : J] = [G/H : P1 ], and p - [G : J] as p - [G/H : P1 ];
this shows that p | o(J). Let P be a Sylow p -subgroup of J, and so P is
also a Sylow p -subgroup of G. Now by Problem 6.10(iii), P H/H is a Sylow
p -subgroup of G/H, and P H/H = P J = P1 . Hence P1 = P H/H,
and the Second Isomorphism Theorem gives P H/H ' P /(P H) ' P
as P is cyclic.
Therefore P = P1 and the result follows because these facts show that
there is a unique Sylow p -subgroup of G which is normal by Sylow 3.
(i) Using Dedekinds Law (Problem 2.18) we have, as H
Problem 6.21
K1 H,
(H K1 )(H K2 ) = H (H K1 )K2 = H,
because H (H K1 )K2 and K1 K2 = G.
(ii) Let G = S4 , K1 = V (' T2 ), K2 = h(1, 2, 3), (1, 2)i ' S3 and H =
h(1, 2, 3, 4), (1, 3)i ' D4 ; see Section 8.1. Now H K1 = V , H K2 = hei and
so the RHS equals V and V < H.
(iii) Using the factor group definition we have
NG/K (KP/K) = KNG (KP )/K.
Now P is a Sylow p-subgroup of KP , as (o(K), p) = 1, and KP / NG (KP ).
Hence the Frattini Argument (Theorem 6.14) gives
NG (KP ) = KP NNG (KP ) (P ) = KP NG (P ) = KNG (P );
Use a conjugation argument for the second inequality, and P NG (P ) for
the third. Now combine identities.
(iv) Put K1 = K H. By (iii)
NH/K1 (K1 P/K1 ) = K1 NH (P )/K1 .
Using the Second Isomorphism Theorem (Theorem 4.15) this gives
K1 NG (P )/K1 = NG/K1 (K1 P/K1 ) = K1 NH (P )/K1 ,
which shows that
NH (P ) NG (P ) K1 NH (P ).
The result now follows by Problem 2.18(ii).
Solutions 6
507
508
Solution Appendix
Solutions 7
Problem 7.1 (i) Lemma 7.5. (i) and (ii) follow from the definitions;
if h and j do not commute in H1 , say, then (h, e, . . . , e) and (j, e, . . . , e) do
not commute in the product, and vice versa. For (iii) use the isomorphism
given by the map (j, (k, l)) 7 ((j, k), l) for j J, k K and l L; a similar
argument applies in (iv). For (v) let i be defined by (h1 , . . . , hn )i = hi and
proceed as in the proof of Lemma 7.2.
(i) Theorem 7.6. Follow the proof of Theorem 7.4 by showing that if
g G, then g has the unique representation: g = h1 . . . hn where hi Hi ,
and also the order of the terms in this product is unimportant (consider each
pair {Hi , Hj } in turn). Now as in the proof of Theorem 7.4, define by
g = h1 . . . hn and proceed as before.
(ii) You only need to check condition (iii) and this follows by Lagranges
Theorem (Theorem 2.27).
Problem 7.2 (i) Expand [(a, b), (c, d)] = (a, b)1 (c, d)1 (a, b)(c, d) =
(a1 c1 ac, b1 d1 bd) = ([a, c], [b, d]), and use this to define an isomorphism.
(ii) (e, e) H J, and if (h1 , j1 ), (h2 , j2 ) H J, then (h1 , j1 )1 (h2 , j2 ) =
H J, as H G and J K. Also (g, k)1 (h, j)(g, k) =
(g hg, k jk) H J as H / G and J / K.
Secondly, define a map : G K G/H K/J by (g, k) = (gH, kJ).
It is clearly surjective and
1
(h1
1 h2 , j1 j2 )
1
1
Solutions 7
509
Problem 7.4 (i) If n = 2 and hi , h0i Z(Hi ), i = 1, 2, then (h1 , h2 )(h01 , h02 )
= (h1 h01 , h2 h02 ) = (h01 h1 , h02 h2 ) = (h01 , h02 )(h1 , h2 ). Now use induction.
(ii) Again suppose first n = 2, and let jr H1 and kr H2 , all r. As we
have a direct product, each jr commutes with every ks and vice versa, so
[j1 k1 , j2 k2 ] = k11 j11 k21 j21 j1 k1 j2 k2
= j11 j21 j1 j2 k11 k21 k1 k2 = [j1 , j2 ][k1 , k2 ],
now use this identity.
(iii) We have Hi , K / G, so [Hi , K] Hi K / G. Also as in (ii) [G, K] =
[H1 , K] . . . [Hn , K], and so this is a subgroup of (Hi K) . . . (Hn K) = G? ,
say. So [K, K] G? , but K = K 0 = [K, K] which gives the result.
Q
Problem 7.5 (i) If ex(G) has prime factorisation i psi i , then for each
i there exists hi G with o(hi ) = psi i ti for some ti with (pi , ti ) = 1. Let
Q
gi = htii then o(gi ) = psi i , so let g = i gi , then o(g) = ex(G).
(ii) By Problem 2.7, the element g constructed in (i) will act as a generator
of G as its order equals o(G).
(iii) If F is the given field, let r = ex(F ) where F is the multiplicative
group of F . By (i) the polynomial xr 1 has at least r non-zero roots in the
field, but it cannot have more by assumption.
Problem 7.6 (i) Note first that there is a mistake in the statement of
the problem: The subgroup J must be normal for the result to hold as
the following example shows. Let G = h(1, 2, 3, 4), (1, 2)i ' S4 and H =
h(5, 6, 7), (5, 6)i ' S3 , so GH ' S4 S3 . If J = h(3, 4)(6, 7), (2, 3, 4)(5, 6, 7)i,
then J ' S3 and so it is not Abelian, J G H but not normal, and
J G = J H = hei.
Now suppose L = GH and J / L, then [J, G] J G and [J, H] J H,
and using Problem 2.17(iii) we obtain
[J, L] = [J, G][J, H] (J G)(J H).
If either J G or J H is non-neutral then we are done, otherwise [J, L] = hei
which implies that J is Abelian.
(ii) Let G = ha1 i ha5 i, a direct product of five copies of Cp , and let
H1 = ha1 , a2 a3 i, H2 = ha2 , a3 i and H3 = ha4 , a5 i. The direct product of the
Hi has order p6 , and so not isomorphic to G.
Problem 7.7 (a) Given r and s with r s, the group Cps = hxi has
sr
a subgroup of order pr which is cyclic, and generated by xp
(by Theorem
4.20); and (b) if Hi Gi , i = 1, . . . , k, with each Gi Abelian of order psi i ,
then
H1 Hk G1 Gk .
So, if n = ps11 . . . pskk , m = pr11 . . . prkk , and ri si for i = 1, . . . , k, we obtain a
subgroup of order m by (b) and the Basis Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups
(Theorem 7.12) provided for each i we can find a subgroup Ji of order pri i in
510
Solution Appendix
which in turn give n3 = n11 = 1. Hence a group G with order 891 has
normal subgroups J of order 81 and K of order 11. Clearly J K = hei for J
only contains elements which have order a power of 3, and K only contains
elements of order 11. Also JK = G, for by Theorem 5.8, o(J K)o(JK) =
o(J)o(K) which shows that o(JK) = o(G). Now apply Theorem 7.4.
(iib) Here 405 = 34 5, and as above n3 = 1, but n5 = 1 or 81. If n5 = 1, we
obtain 14 direct product groups as in (i); and if n5 = 81 there is one possible
further group isomorphic to: C5 o C34 . If C5 is generated by a, then the 320
elements of order 5 are ar b where r = 1, 2, 3 or 4, and b is an element of C34
(all b have order 3 and there are 80 of them). Note that the Sylow theory
implies that n3 = 1 in this group. You need to show that if G ' C5 o H,
where H is a normal subgroup of G with order 81, then H is Abelian and all
elements have order 3. One way to do this is to use Theorem 11.11, in fact
this group only has one non-neutral proper normal subgroup.
Problem 7.9 If there is a unique maximal subgroup use Problem 2.13(ii).
If not, by Theorem 7.8 G is a direct product of its Sylow subgroups, there
cannot be more than two factors because the maximal subgroups are simple.
Now use the fact that the only simple p-groups are the cyclic p-groups.
Problem 7.10
define , by
for g G, h H.
Solutions 7
511
512
Solution Appendix
Problem 7.14 (i) Clearly ha1 , . . . , ak i = ha1 i hak i, and the subgroups are normal because the group is Abelian. The condition
hai i ha1 , . . . , ai1 , ai+1 , . . . , ak i
is equivalent to the given condition.
(ii) All a G where a 6= e satisfy o(a) = p, so o(hai) = p, also if ai , aj G,
hai i haj i equals hei or hai i, now use (i) and Problem 4.18.
Problem 7.15 (i) Note that as G and H are elementary they can be
treated as vector spaces over Z/pZ, see Problem 4.18.
(ii) Let Dk be the direct product of all of the cyclic factors Ci of order pk
where Dk = hei if there are no such factors. So G ' D1 Dt for some
integer t, and further pk G = pk Dk+1 pk Dt . This gives pk G/pk+1 G '
pk Dk+1 pk Dk+2 /pk+1 Dk+2 , and now we can use (i).
(iii) Use (ii).
(iv) If : G H is an isomorphism, then (pk G) = pk H, and we can
apply the Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16). Reverse argument for
converse.
(v) We have (a) if : G H is a homomorphism then, for all p, Gp is
a subgroup of Hp ; and (b) G ' H if and only if Gp ' Hp for all primes p.
These facts give the result; the condition is:
Up (k, G) = Up (k, H)
Solutions 7
513
514
Solution Appendix
Problem 7.21 By the Sylow theory and Theorem 6.9, G has a unique
normal cyclic subgroup P of order q, either 1 or q cyclic subgroups of order
p each of which have intersection hei with Q. If J is a subgroup of order p,
by Lagranges Theorem (Theorem 2.27), G = P J, and so G ' J o P . If
there is only one subgroup J, it is normal (by the Sylow theory), and so G
is the direct product of J and P and, as both of these are cyclic, G ' Cpq
by Theorem 7.6. Also by the Sylow theory, G can only have q subgroups J
if p | q 1. So you have to show that if this condition is satisfied, then there
can only be one non-Abelian group (up to isomorphism) of order pq.
Using the semi-direct product theory you need to consider the possible
homomorphisms from J ' Cp to Aut P ' Cq1 . If the condition above was
not satisfied the only possible homomorphism would be the trivial one, and
the product would be direct. As Aut P is cyclic, the image of J under is
the unique cyclic subgroup of order p. For uniqueness use Problem 7.18.
Problem 7.22 G ' C12 : hei, C2 , C3 , C4 , C6 , and G; all unique.
G ' C6 C2 : hei, C2 3 copies, C3 , T2 , C6 3 copies, and G.
G ' D6 : hei, C2 7 copies, C3 , T2 3 copies, C6 , D3 2 copies and G.
The centre is ha3 i, the derived subgroup is ha2 i, and the Fitting subgroup is
hai (note that D3 is not nilpotent),
G ' Q3 : hei, C2 , C3 , C4 3 copies, C6 , and G. The centre is ha3 i, the
derived subgroup is ha2 i, and the Fitting subgroup is hai.
See Problem 3.10 for A4 ; the centre is hei, and the derived and Fitting
subgroups are both isomorphic to the unique subgroup of order 4.
Subgroup lattice diagrams for these groups are given on pages 552 to 556.
Problem 7.23 (a) In this case hai hbi = hei, and as hbi is maximal, it is
normal (Theorem 6.5). Hence G ' hai o hbi.
(b) We have (aZ(G))p = Z(G), ap Z(G) with ap 6= e; and so ap = btp .
(c) Replacement gives ap = bp and we still have a 6 hbi. By Problem 6.5,
0
G = Z(G), and by Problem 2.17 we have (ab)p = ap bp [b, a]p(p1)/2 = e.
(d) Use (c).
(e) By the Sylow theory Aut Cp2 has a unique Sylow p-subgroup of order
p. So there is a injective homomorphism from Cp Aut Cp2 , and any two
such have the same image. Now use the quoted problem.
Problem 7.24 Follow the method given. We have 84 = 4 3 7, n3 1
(mod 3) and n | 28 by the Sylow theory. Hence by hypothesis we have n3 = 28.
But then [G : NG (P )] = 28 if P is a Sylow 3-subgroup, hence NG (P ) =
P = CG (P ) as P is Abelian. Therefore the main condition for Burnsides
Normal Complement Theorem (Theorem 6.17) applies, and P has a normal
complement J of order 28. Note also G has 56 elements of order 3, so only
28 of order different from 3. Further n7 1 (mod 7) and n7 | 12 which shows
that n7 = 1 and G has a unique (normal) subgroup K of order 7.
Solutions 8
515
Solutions 8
Problem 8.1 (a) The largest factor groups are as follows: D3 for S4 (
the smallest non-neutral normal subgroup is V with order 4); A4 for SL2 (3)
(Problem 3.4); and D6 for E, note that ha2 i / E.
(b) Centralisers. For S4 we have C((1, 2)) = h(1, 2), (3, 4)i, C((1, 2, 3)) =
h(1, 2, 3)i, C((1, 2, 3, 4)) = h(1, 2, 3, 4)i and C((1, 2)(3, 4)) = h(1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 2)i
' D4 ; for SL2 (3) we have C(a3 ) = SL2 (3) [the centre], C(a2 ) = hai [order
6], C(ab) = habi, and C(a) = hai; and for E we have C(a2 ) = E [the centre],
C(a) = C(b) = C(c) = C(bc) = ha2 , bci ' C6 C2 , C(ac) = haci and
C(abc) = habca2 i [order 4].
(c) Normalisers. In S4 we have
N (h(1, 2)i) = h(1, 2), (3, 4)i,
N (h(1, 2, 3)i) = h(1, 2, 3), (2, 3)i ' D3 ,
N (h(1, 2, 3, 4)i) = N (h(1, 2), (3, 4)i) = N (h(1, 2)(3, 4)i)
= h(1, 2, 3, 4), (2, 4)i ' D4 ,
also h(1, 2, 3), (2, 3)i and D4 are self-normalising, and the normalisers of V and
A4 are both equal to S4 . For SL2 (3) we have N (ha2 i) = hai, N (habi) = Q2 ,
hai is self-normalising, and the normalisers of ha3 i and Q2 are both equal to
SL2 (3). For E we have: all subgroups with a 1 in the diagram on page 180
have E as their normaliser, N (hbi) = ha2 , bci, N (habci) = habc, a2 i, N (haci) =
N (ha2 , abci) = hac, bi, N (hc, abi) = ha2 c, abi [order 12], N (hbci) = ha2 , bci,
and hac, bi is self-normalising.
Problem 8.2 By Sylow 4, n2 1 (mod 2) and n2 | 3, and so n2 = 1 or
3. If it equals 1 the result follows, so suppose it is 3 and let P1 , P2 and P3 be
the three Sylow 2-subgroups. By Theorem 5.8, if J = P1 P2 ,
o(P1 P2 )o(J) = o(P1 )o(P2 ),
(8.1)
so
hP1 , P2 i NG (J).
516
Solution Appendix
Solutions 8
517
518
Solution Appendix
0
1
A=
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0 1
1
1
1 0
, B=
0 0
1
0 0
0
0
0
0
1
0 0
0
0
0 0
, C=
0 1
1
1 0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
.
0
1
Problem 8.8 (i) We have a5 = bab and b = aba, so the elements are
ar and ar b for 0 r < 12 where bar = a12r b. This gives one element of
order 1, one of order 2, two of order 3, 14 of order 4, two of order 6 and four
of order 12. There are 18 subgroups including: has i for s = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6,
has bi for 0 s 5 all of which are cyclic, ha3 , at bi ' Q2 for t = 0, 1, 2, and
ha2 , au bi ' Q3 for u = 0 or 3. So all subgroups are either cyclic or dicyclic.
The centre is ha6 i, of order 2, and the derived subgroup is ha2 i of order 6.
(ii) Follow the method given in the question.
Problem 8.9
Solutions 8
519
520
Solution Appendix
Problem 8.12 The main data are given in the following table where A
stands for Abelian.
Group
C16
C4 C4
C4 oC4
C2 C8
C 2 o1 C 8
D8
C 2 o2 C 8
Q4
C4 C22
C4 oC22
D4 C2
Q2 C2
F
C24
Elts. of
No.
No.
order subgps. normal
2;4;8 A;non-A A;non-A
1;2;4
3;12;0
3;12;0
3;4;8
3;4;8
9;2;4
5;6;4
1;10;4
7;8;0
7;8;0
11;4;0
3;12;0
7;8;0
15;0;0
5;0
15;0
22;1
11;0
10;1
16;3
12;3
8;3
27;0
22;1
30;5
14;5
18;5
67;0
5;0
15;0
10;1
11;0
8;1
5;2
4;3
4;3
27;0
10;1
14;5
14;5
12;5
67;0
Max.
subgps.
All of order 8
C0
C 00 3
C 00 3
C 0 2, C 00
C 0 2, C 00
C 0, D 2
C 0 , D, Q
C 0, Q 2
C 0 4, C 00 2, C 000
C 00 2, C 000
00
C , C 000 2, D 4
C 00 3, Q 4
C 00 3, D 3, Q
C 000 15
Centre Derived
subgp.
G
G
C22
G
C4
C2
C2
C2
G
C22
C4
C4
C4
G
hei
hei
C2
hei
C2
C4
C4
C4
hei
C2
C2
C2
C2
hei
Notes. The cyclic group C16 also has eight elements of order 16. The fourth
to seventh groups are all semi-direct products of C2 by C8 ; C8 has four automorphisms i where ai = a2i+1 for i = 0, 1, 2, 3; see Problem 6.4 where
it is shown that the fourth and fifth groups have identical subgroup lattices; see diagrams on pages 557 and 558. In the maximal subgroup column,
C 0 , C 00 , C 000 , D and Q stand for C8 , C4 C2 , C23 , D4 and Q2 , respectively. Also
(a) the group C4 o C4 is discussed in Problem 7.20, (b) Q2 C2 is Hamiltonian, see Problem 7.13, and (c) the group F can be taken as C2 o D4 or
C2 o Q2 , see Problem 3.23.
Solutions 9
521
Solutions 9
Problem 9.1 Use the facts that under the equivalence relation (a) the sets
of factors are unordered and (b) two equivalent series have the same number
of factors.
Problem 9.2 (ia) hei / C2 / V / A4 / S4 , there are three different series
as there are three possibilities for the second factor; see Section 8.1. (ib)
hei / C2 / C2 C2 / A4 , again there are three possibilities; see Problem 3.10,
(ic) hei / C2 / C4 / Q2 / SL2 (3), again three possibilities; see Section 8.2. (id)
hei / C3 / C6 / D6 / E, there are six others, see the diagram on page 180.
Note that none of these series are normal series, see Problem 9.15.
(ii) C6 and S3 with factors C2 and C3 , is the smallest example, there are
many others.
Problem 9.3 Suppose the given composition series for G is hei / H1 / /
Hm = G. By Problem 2.14, the series hei K / H1 K / / Hm K = K
is a subnormal series which, after the removal of redundant terms forms a
composition series for K; use Lemma 9.2 to check this. Also hei = heiK/K /
H1 K/K / / Hm K/K = G/K can similarly be made into a composition
series for G/K. Now using the Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16) on
G with normal subgroup K we can construct a subnormal series from K to
G, and combining these two series gives the result.
Problem 9.4 (i) If G is finite, use Theorem 9.3. If not, refer to the Web
Appendix to Chapter 7. If G contains infinite order elements, it cannot have
a composition series because Z does not have one (if K / Z then Z/K ' Z;
see Theorem 4.19). If the group is countable and all elements have finite
order, then infinite direct products are involved. So for example, the group
Cp Cp . . . with infinitely many factors Cp clearly does not have a composition series (which must have finite length).
A full proof of this result needs more facts about infinite Abelian groups
than are given in the book; see for example Kaplansky [1969] for more information.
(ii) If Cpn = hai, then the only composition series is
hei / hap
n1
i / hap
n2
i / / hap i / hai
522
Solution Appendix
and hei / J / G,
(9.2)
Solutions 9
523
Problem 9.13 (a) We have (e, e)(a, k) = (ea, (e, a) ea k) = (a, k).
(b) Using the definitions we have
(a, k)(a, k)1 = aa1 , (a, a1 ) ka1 ((a1 , a))1 k 1 1
= (e, z),
a
say. Now as a is an automorphism, if za = e then z = e. Applying a to z
we obtain using (iii) in Definition 9.14 in the second line
za = ((a, a1 ))a ka1 a ((a1 , a))1 k 1
= ((a, a1 ))a ((a1 , a))1 k (a1 , a) ((a1 , a))1 k 1
= ((a, a1 ))a ((a1 , a))1 = e,
using (ii) in Definition 9.14 with a1 = a3 = a and a2 = a1 .
Problem 9.14 Suppose o(G) = pq where p < q, so G has a normal
Sylow q-subgroup P , say, and 1 or q Sylow p-subgroups. In the first case
G ' Cp Cq (' Cpq ). In the second case G is a cyclic extension of P by a
subgroup of G with order p. But as (p, q) = 1, applying Theorem 9.17 we
have k0 = e, and so all extensions are semidirect. The theory will provide
several but they are all isomorphic. Note that as o(Aut (P )) = q 1, the
condition p | q 1 is necessary for the map in Theorem 9.17 to exist.
Problem 9.15 (i) Use the fact that if G has a chief series, H and K are
normal subgroups of G, and H < K, then K/H is a chief factor for G if and
only if it is a minimal normal subgroup of G/K.
(ii) Use induction and the Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16), there
is little to prove if the group is simple.
(iii) Again use the Correspondence Theorem and a property of minimal
normality.
(iv) Let K be a minimal normal subgroup of G, and H1 be a maximal
normal subgroup of K, note K/H1 is simple. Further, let H1 , . . . , Hj be the
conjugates of H1 in G; each Hi is maximal normal in K as K / G. Show that
K/Hi are mutually isomorphic and, using a conjugation argument, show that
H1 Hj = hei.
Now using induction on i prove that K/(H1 Hi ) is isomorphic to a
direct product of copies of K/H1 . The result follows by putting i = r.
(va) hei / V / A4 / S4 , this has one less term than the corresponding
composition series;
(vb)
hei / V / A4 ;
(vc)
(vd)
(ve)
524
Solution Appendix
Solutions 10
Problem 10.1 We have if g Zn+1 , then gZn Z(G/Zn ) which
implies that gZn commutes with aZn for all a G, that is [a, g] Zn . This
argument reverses.
Problem 10.2 (i) S4 is centreless so its hypercentre is hei. The hypercentre
for SL2 (3) is its centre, and for E it is ha2 , bi ' C2 C2 (and so not the
centre); to prove these facts use Problem 10.1.
(ii) Suppose Dn = ha, b | an = b2 = e, bab = an1 i. If n = 2k then o(Dn ) =
2
, so Dn is a 2-group, and hence nilpotent (Theorem 10.6). If n = 2k r
k
k
k
where r > 1 is odd, then o(a2 ) = r, o(b) = 2, and ba2 = a2 (u1) b. Now
apply Theorem 10.9(ix). This second part can also be established by showing
that the Sylow 2-subgroups are not normal and using Theorem 10.9(vii)
(iii) Use Problem 3.15(iv) and Definition 10.1, or see Robinson (1982),
page 123.
(iv) By Definitions 10.1 and 10.5 we have Dn+1 (G) = [. . . [[G, G], G] . . . , G]
= hei, (n + 1 copies of G) if, and only if, G is nilpotent with class n.
k+1
Problem 10.3 Elements of the group G can be treated as infinite sequences z = (g1 , . . . , gi , . . . ) where gi Hi for all i, and gi = e for all but
finitely many positive integers i. The product is component-wise as in the
finite direct case. As each gi has order a power of p, each z also has an order
which is a power of p because it only has finitely many non-neutral entries.
Hence G is a p-group, and Hn is isomorphic to a subgroup of G. Now consider
sequences with an element of Hn at the n-entry and e in all other entries.
Suppose G is nilpotent with class m and n > m. So we have a group of
nilpotency class m with a subgroup of larger nilpotency class, that is n. But
this is impossible for an easy extension of of Theorem 10.6(iii) shows that the
nilpotency class of a subgroup cannot be larger than the nilpotency class of
the group itself.
Problem 10.4 (i) If the nilpotency class number r is 1, then G0 = hei.
If r > 1, then by the inductive hypothesis H/Z(H) = G/Z(G) which gives
G = HZ(G). Now using Problem 2.17 we have
G0 = [HZ(G), HZ(G)] = H 0
and so
G = HG0 = HH 0 = H.
Solutions 10
525
526
Solution Appendix
Now suppose L < K/ G and [K/L, G/L] = K/L. This gives K = [K, G]L. (To
see this use: if is an endomorphism of G and a, b G, then [a, b] = [a, b].)
This implies
[K, G] = [[K, G], G].
Applying (xiv) this property shows that [K, G] = hei, and so K = L which
contradicts our supposition. We can also use this argument to show that G/K
satisfies (xiv). Therefore by applying induction on o(G) we may suppose G/K
is nilpotent. But then using by Problem 10.7, we see finally that the original
group G is nilpotent.
Problem 10.10
c1 [b, c1 , a]c K
and so
[a, b1 , c] K
(see the proof of Theorem 10.4), and so [Di (G), D(j+1)i (G)] = hei which
gives the result.
(ii) We have where all products run from 0 to n (note that some careful
consideration using Problem 2.17 is needed for the first equality)
Solutions 10
527
Y
Y
[[Kni , Ki ], G]
[Kni , [Ki , G]] [[Kni , G], Ki ]
Y
[Ln , G] =
then
when
528
Solution Appendix
(ii) This example was suggested by Ben Fairbairn. Let G be the group
of all 2 2 upper-triangular matrices with determinant
1 defined over F9
(Problems 3.15 and 12.1). The subgroup H = { 10 x1 : x F9 } is normal
in G. It has order 9 and it is the unique Sylow 3-subgroup in G. Also the
subgroup J of diagonal matrices in G is cyclic and has order 8. (It forms a
Sylow 2-subgroup, there are nine in all with generators c0 cx7 one for each
x F9 where c is a multiplicative generator of F9 .) It follows easily that G is
isomorphic to the semi-direct product
J o H. Two other normal subgroups
are given as follows: H 0 = { a0 ax : x F9 , a = 1 or 2} with order 18, and
H 00 = { y0 xz : x F9 , {y, z} = {1, 1}, {2, 2}, {c2 , c6 } or {c6 , c2 } } with order
36.
The maximal subgroups
of G are H 00 and the nine Sylow 2-subgroups,
2 0
and so (G) = 0 2 ' C2 . Incidentally this subgroup is also isomorphic to
Z(G). Now as H 0 / G, we can define an endomorphism : G
C4 in the
usual way. (The four cosets of H 0 in G are generated by 0c c07 H 0 and its
second, third and fourth powers. As (G) H 0 , we have (G) ' hei, but
(G) ' (C4 ) ' C2 .
Problem 10.16 Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of J. This gives KP/K is
a Sylow p-subgroup of J/K (see Problem 6.10). Now as J/K is nilpotent, we
have KP/K is a characteristic subgroup of J/K, and so KP / G. Also P is a
Sylow p-subgroup of KP , and hence using the Frattini Argument (Theorem
6.14) we have G = NG (P )K NG (G). By Lemma 10.14 this shows that
G = NG (P ) and P / G. As this argument holds for all Sylow subgroups of G
the result follows by Theorem 10.9(vii).
Problem 10.17 If G = HJ and L is a maximal subgroup of H, then LJ
is a maximal subgroup of G, see Problem 7.3(ii). Therefore (G) L J,
and so (G) (H) J. This gives the result.
Problem 10.18 (i) If G = S4 then (G) = hei. We also have H =
h(1, 2, 3, 4), (1, 3)i < G and H is isomorphic to D4 . Therefore (H) = ha2 i 6
hei = (G).
(ii) Note first that the question needs to be amended so that K is a proper
subgroup of (H). Suppose K 6 (G), so there exists a maximal subgroup
L of G with K 6 L and G = KL (as L is maximal). Hence H = H KL =
(H L)K (by Problem 2.18(i)), so H = H L (by Theorem 10.12) that is
H L. This gives K (H) H L G contradicting our hypothesis.
(iii) Use (ii).
Problem 10.19 (i) Let J be minimal subject to the condition: G = JK.
We have J K / J as K is normal, and J K / K as K is Abelian, so
J K / JK = G. If we assume that J K (H), then by Problem
10.18(ii) J K (G) K = hei by hypothesis, and we have the required
subgroup. Hence suppose J K 6 H for some H which is a maximal subgroup
of J. But in this case J = H(J K) and G = JK = HK which contradicts
the minimality of J. Therefore our assumption is valid.
(ii) One example from Chapter 8 is as follows. Using the notation of Section
8.3 let G = E, then (G) = ha2 i, so let K = hci. In this case we can take
Solutions 10
529
J = ha, bi. Note that this phenomenon can also occur if (G) = hei, for
example if G = S4 . Let K = V , the subgroup generated by the 2-cycles
2-cycles, and then we can take J = h(1, 2, 3), (1, 2)i; there are four choices for
the subgroup J.
Problem 10.20 (i) If g G then by conjugation g induces an automorphism, g say, of K, that is g is a homomorphism G Aut (K). We have
Kg = Inn (K) ((G))g (Gg )
using Problem 10.15. But Inn (K)/ Aut (K) (Theorem 5.26), and so by Problem 10.18(ii) we have Inn (K) (Aut (K)).
(ii) Put K = (G) in (i).
(iii) If D4 = ha, b : a4 = b2 = (ab)2 = ei, then (D4 ) = ha2 i ' C2 , and
Inn (D4 ) ' C2 C2 (see page 84). Now apply (ii) with G = D4 .
Problem 10.21 (i) Let H be a maximal subgroup of G, then by Theorem
6.6 we have H / G and [G : H] = p. This shows that G/H is Abelian,
and so G0 H (Problem 4.6). Also G0 has exponent p, and so ap H for all
a G. Hence G0 Gp (G). Conversely, note first that G/G0 Gp is an Abelian
group with exponent p and so can be treated as a vector space over Fp , and
(G/G0 Gp ) = hei (Lemma 10.19). Also if J / G and J (G), then (G)
is the inverse image (using the natural map) of (G/J) because, via the
Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16), maximal subgroups correspond.
Now the reverse inclusion (G) G0 Gp follows.
(ii) As G0 Gp = (G), the factor group G/(G) is an Abelian group with
exponent p which can be treated as as vector space over Fp .
Problem 10.22 (i) If a, g G, then [a, g p ] = [a, g]p = e and so g p Z(G).
Consequently every element of G/Z(G) has order p and as G is a finite pgroup we see that G/Z(G) is an elementary Abelian p-group.
(ii) We have o(Z(G)) 6= 1 by Lemma 5.14, it is not p2 by Problem 4.15 (for
otherwise G/Z(G) would be cyclic), and it is not p3 as G is not Abelian. So
Z(G) is cyclic with order p. Also by Theorem 10.1, G0 Z(G), and G0 6= hei
as G is not Abelian, hence G0 = Z(G). Now use Problem 10.21 to show that
(G) = G0 .
Problem 10.23 (i) One method uses Problem 10.21(i). If p = 2 we show
that all commutators belong to G2 . Suppose o(a) = 2k and o(b) = 2l . Now
k
[a, b] = a2
1 2l 1
ab = a2
k1
1 2
) (ab2 1 )2 b2 ,
a product of squares. This shows that (G) G2 , now apply Problem 10.21
for the reverse inequality.
(ii) Let p = 3 in the second group given in Problem 6.5, that is ES2 (3)
generated by a, b and c. Here all elements x satisfy x3 = e, so hx3 | x Gi =
hei whilst (G) = hci; see Problem 10.22. The first group in Problem 6.5,
ES1 (3), does satisfy the condition given in (i).
530
Solution Appendix
Problem 10.24 (i) Use Problem 9.16 with K = (G) and J/K = F(G/K).
As J/K is nilpotent (Theorem 10.22 and Definition 10.23), the quoted problem shows that J is nilpotent, which implies F(G/(G)) F(G)/(G). For
the converse, as F(G) is nilpotent, we see that F(G)/(G)) is a nilpotent subgroup of G/(G). Hence F(G)/(G) F(G/(G)) which gives the result.
(ii) For S4 we have (S4 ) = hei, and so the result is trivial in this
case. For SL2 (3) we have (SL2 (3)) ' C2 (which also equals the centre) and F(SL2 (3)) ' Q2 . Now Q2 /C2 ' C2 C2 , and SL2 (3)/C2 ' A4
(Problem 4.4). Now note that F(A4 ) is the largest nilpotent normal subgroup of A4 that is C2 C2 generated by the 2-cycles 2-cycles. For E
we have (E) ' C2 and F(E) ' C6 C2 . Now clearly F(E)/(E) ' C6 .
We also have E/(E) ' D6 , and the largest nilpotent normal subgroup of
D6 = ha, b : a6 = b2 = (ab)2 = ei is hai ' C6 . For the details on these
constructions see Chapter 8.
Problem 10.25 (i) Let i be the largest integer satisfying K G(i) 6= hei;
see page 234. So (K G(i) )0 K G(i+1) = hei, and it follows that K G(i)
is Abelian and is normal in G.
(ii) Suppose first CG (F(G)) 6 F(G). By (i) we can find J so that J/F(G) /
G/F(G), F(G) < J CG (F(G))F(G), and J/F(G) is Abelian. Now J =
J (CG (F(G)) = (J CG (F(G)))F(G) by Problem 2.18. This shows that
D3 (J CG (F(G))) [J 0 , CG (F(G))] [F(G), CG (F(G))] = hei,
which in turn shows that J CG (F(G)) F(G) and J = F(G). This contradiction now shows that CG (F(G)) F(G) which in turn implies that
CG (F(G)) = Z(F(G)).
(iii) As G is soluble it contains a non-neutral normal subgroup, this follows
from (i).
(iv) Use Problem 10.24(i) and (iii).
Problem 10.26 (i) hei / C3 / S3 is a supersoluble series for S3 . But S4 is
not supersoluble, its normal series hei / V / A4 / S4 has a non-cyclic factor
V ' T2 .
(ii) Assume S = (H0 , . . . , Hm ) is a supersoluble series for G. Its factors
are cyclic, so suppose Hi+1 /Hi ' Ck . Now S can be refined by inserting
new terms between Hi and Hi+1 so that the new factors have prime orders
corresponding the the prime factors of k. This can be done for all factors in
S.
(iii) See the proofs of Theorems 11.2 and 11.3. Now see (i). The group V
is finite Abelian so supersoluble, and S4 /V ' S3 is also supersoluble, but S4
is not supersoluble.
(iv) If J0 , . . . Jm and K0 , . . . , Kn are supersoluble series for G and H,
respectively, then
J0 K0 , . . . Jm K0 , Jm K1 , . . . , Jm Kn
is a supersoluble series for G H.
Solutions 10
531
(v) Finite p-groups are supersoluble by Theorem 6.4. So the result holds
by this, (iv), and Theorem 10.9(viii). Now note that S3 is not nilpotent, and
S4 is not supersoluble.
(vi) Let H0 , . . . , Hm be a supersoluble series for G, and let Ji = Hi G0 .
Now J0 , . . . , Jm is a supersoluble series for G0 . Also if g G then g induces
an automorphism of Ji+1 /Ji (by conjugation), so
G/L Aut (Ji+1 /Ji )
where
But Ji+1 /Ji is cyclic (by definition), so by Theorem 4.23 it follows that G/L
is Abelian. Therefore L G0 (Problem 4.6), and hence
Ji+1 /Ji Z(G0 /Ji ),
that is J0 , . . . , Jm is an upper central series for G0 .
(vii) Suppose H0 , . . . , Hm is a supersoluble series for G/K, and is the
natural homomorphism G to G/K, then
hei / H0 1 = K / H1 1 / / Hm 1 = G
is a supersoluble series for G.
(viii) Zappa has shown that the terms of a supersoluble series can be
rearranged so that the all of the factors of odd order come first followed by
those of even order. This can now be used to prove the result, see the quoted
reference.
(ix) This is a substantial problem, try to establish each of the following
propositions in turn. (a) If G is supersoluble, then all of its maximal subgroups
have prime index in G. (b) Using induction on o(G) and Problem 11.9(ii),
show that all subgroups of G are reverse Lagrange. (c) For the converse,
again use induction on o(G). Note first that G has at least one normal Sylow
p-subgroup P where p | o(G). (d) Use the inductive hypothesis and Halls
Theorems (Chapter 10) to show that G/P is supersoluble. (e) By hypothesis,
there exists a subgroup L of G with [G : L] = p. Prove that L P / G and
G/(L P ) is supersoluble. (f) Suppose we can choose a subgroup K of G
satisfying K/ G, K LP and o(K) is as small as possible. Now K = hei and
we can complete the argument. But if K 6= hei, then [K, P ] < K, so consider
the chief factor (see Problem 9.15) K/M of L with [K, P ] M < K, and use
this to show that K = hei. For further details see Rose [1978], page 292.
(x) The real numbers R form an example of a non-supersoluble Abelian
group. This group does not have a finite series with cyclic (finite or infinite)
factors, in any such series at least one factor must be uncountable. Of course
all finite Abelian groups are supersoluble.
532
Solution Appendix
Solutions 11
Problem 11.1 (ia) Coefficients are rational, so we may assume that the
leading coefficient is 1, hence the cubic has the form f (y) = y 3 + ry 2 + sy + t
where r, s, t Q. Put y = x r/3.
(ib) Use
0 = (u + v)3 + a(u + v) + b
= u3 + 3u2 v + 3uv 2 + v 3 + au + av + b
= u3 + v 3 + (u + v)(3uv + a) + b.
p
(ic) Set v = a/3u, then 2u3 = b + (b2 + 4a3 /27).
(iia and b) For (iia) proceed as above and for (iib) we have
x4 + ax2 + bx + c = (x2 + rx + s)(x2 + ux + t)
= x4 + (r + u)x3 + (s + t + ru)x2 + (rt + su)x + st,
so put r + u = 0, s + t r2 = a, r(t s) = b and st = c. Second and third
equations give 2t = r2 + a + b/r and 2s = r2 + a b/r. So fourth gives
4c = 4st = (r2 + a + b/r)(r2 + a b/r) = r4 + 2ar2 + a2 b2 /r2 .
Problem 11.2 (ia) Suppose Dn = ha, b | an = b2 = e, bab = an1 i. We
have hai / Dn and Dn /hai ' C2 . Now use Theorems 11.4 and 11.6.
(ib) This is similar to (ia).
(ic) We have hei / V / A4 / S4 is a soluble series for S4 ; see Section 8.1.
(ii) By Lemma 7.3 and Theorem 7.4, G / G H and (G H)/G ' H.
This can also be done by combining the soluble series for G and H and using
properties of the direct product.
Problem 11.3 (i) By Problem 3.19, the only subnormal series for SL2 (5)
with more than two terms is: hei / C2 / SL2 (5), and so this series is a composition series for SL2 (5) (use the Jordan-Holder Theorem (Theorem 9.5)).
Hence SL2 (5)/C2 is simple (in fact it is isomorphic to A5 , see Problem 6.16).
Therefore SL2 (5) is not soluble.
(ii) If o(G) = p < 200, then G ' Cp which is soluble. If o(G) < 60 or
o(G) = 60 and G 6' A5 , then use Problems 6.15 and 6.16, and Theorem 11.4.
This can be extended to groups satisfying o(G) < 120. At least three nonsoluble groups of order 120 exist, they include S5 , SL2 (5), A5 C2 . There
is a (unique) simple (and so non-soluble) group of order 168, see Problem
12.7, and at least one of order 180, that is A5 C3 . In fact these six groups
complete the list of non-soluble groups of order less than 200, a fair amount
of checking is needed to establish this; see the GAP program and Section 6.7
in the Atlas.
Problem 11.4 Suppose G is the smallest non-soluble group of order p2 q 2
or pn q. If G is not simple, it has a normal subgroup K where 1 < o(K) < o(G),
and by minimality it is soluble; as is G/K for the same reason. We can now
use Theorem 11.4.
Solutions 11
533
Case 1 o(G) = pn q. Using the first part and the Sylow theory we have
np = q, so let P1 and P2 be distinct Sylow p-subgroups of G and let L =
P1 P2 . There are two subcases. Subcase 1 for all choices of P1 and P2 ,
L = hei. In this case G has q(pn 1) elements of order a power p, and so
only q others. But G has at least one Sylow q-subgroup of order q, and as it
is unique it is normal contradicting the simplicity of G. Subcase 2 L 6= hei,
we may suppose L has maximal order. It is a p-group so nilpotent, hence by
Theorem 10.9(iv), if
Mi = NG (Pi ),
we have
L / M = hM1 , M2 i.
534
Solution Appendix
(iii) See Theorem 6.18, the group has a normal cyclic subgroup hai. A
substantial number of simple groups come close; for example A5 , L2 (11) and
J1 have Abelian Sylow subgroups many of which are cyclic.
Problem 11.7 (i) If G is non-Abelian and soluble, then its derived
series has at least three terms including hei and G, its second from bottom
term will be non-neutral, normal and Abelian by Theorem 11.10.
(ii) If G is not soluble, then its derived series does not reach hei, that is
there is an integer k such that G(k) = G(k+1) = (G(k) )0 giving the required
perfect subgroup. Note that G itself might be perfect.
Problem 11.8 (i) One example is SL2 (3); see Section 8.2.
(ii) A Reverse Lagrange group will have a p-complement for all primes
dividing the order of the group, so will be soluble by Halls Second Theorem.
Or we can argue as follows. First we show that G must have a proper nonneutral normal subgroup. Let o(G) = p1 p2 . . . where p1 p2 . . . There
exists a subgroup H of G with [G : H] = p1 , so by Theorem 5.15, if core(H) =
hei then G is isomorphic to a subgroup of Sp1 . Hence p1 p2 . . . | p1 ! which is
only possible if p2 = = 1 and G ' Cp1 . Therefore if we exclude this
case, the subresult follows. Now use induction and Theorem 11.4; start by
assuming that G1 is Reverse Lagrange and not soluble, and has the smallest
possible order with these two properties.
Problem 11.9 (i) The subnormal series hei / J / K / G can be refined
to a chief series, see Problem 9.15 (iii) and (iv). By definition, J and K are
consecutive terms in this series, so K/J is elementary Abelian by Problem
9.15 again.
(ii) Let J = core(H) and K be minimal subject to the condition J < K.
Using the definitions of the core, and of K, we have K 6 H, and so by
maximality of H we have KH = G. Next we show
K H = J.
(11.1)
Solutions 11
535
and so
G(2) Z(G0 ),
by (iv) on page 104. We also have G0 /G(2) is cyclic, and so this gives by the
Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16) G0 /Z(G0 ) is cyclic. Therefore using
Problem 4.16(ii) we have: G0 is Abelian and so G(2) = hei.
Problem 11.13 We show first that G is soluble using induction on o(G),
if o(G) = 1 there is nothing to prove. Now let o(G) > 1 and let p0 be the
smallest prime dividing o(G). By Burnsides Normal Complement Theorem
(Theorem 6.17), G has a normal p0 -complement K, say, so K / G and G/K '
P where P is a Sylow p0 -subgroup of G. Using Theorem 6.9(i) we see that
all Sylow subgroups of K are cyclic, hence K is soluble by the inductive
hypothesis. Further P is a p0 -group, and so is soluble. Therefore G is soluble
by Theorem 11.4.
Now by Problem 4.6(ii), G(n) /G(n1) is Abelian for n = 0, 1, . . . , and all
of its subgroups are cyclic. Hence they are themselves cyclic, this follows
using the Sylow theory and Problem 4.15(ii). Therefore by Problem 11.12,
G(2) = G(3) = hei and the result follows.
Problem 11.14 (ia) If G1 is not simple, it has a proper normal subgroup
K which is soluble by the definition of G1 , as is G1 /K for the same reason.
But then G1 is soluble by Theorem 11.4.
(ib) Suppose every pair of distinct maximal subgroups has neutral intersection. Now H1 = NG1 (H1 ), and if o(H1 ) = m, then H1 has o(G1 )/m
conjugates all of which have neutral intersection. So the conjugates of H1
have (m 1)o(G1 )/m = o(G1 ) o(G1 )/m = r non-neutral elements. As
m > 1, we have (o(G1 ) 1)/2 < r < o(G1 ) 1, but this is impossible as
each non-neutral element of G1 belongs to exactly one maximal subgroup
(because of the neutral intersection of the subgroups containing them), and
so there are o(G1 ) 1 in total.
(ic) Let L = NG1 (J), then J 6= NH1 (J) by Theorem 10.7 as J is nilpotent,
so J < L H1 . By (ia) L < G1 , and so it is contained in some maximal H
of G1 . It follows that J < L H1 H H1 contradicting the maximality
536
Solution Appendix
property of J.
(id) By (ib and c) the counter-example postulated in (ia) does not exist.
(ii) As finite Abelian groups are nilpotent, (i) shows that G0 < G by Theorem 11.10, and G0 / G by Problem 2.16. But then G0 is Abelian, and so
G00 = hei.
Problem 11.15 By Theorem 2.30 we have [H, J] / G, and by Problem
2.16 G0 [H, J], hence G0 = [H, J]. If hi H and ji J we have h1
2 j1 h2 =
1
0
0
h3 j3 and j2 h1 j2 = j4 h4 . Note also [h, h ] = e and [h, h j] = [h, j] as H is
Abelian, and so by Problem 2.17(iii) j 1 [h, j 0 ]j = [j 1 hj, j 0 ], et cetera. Hence
we have
1
(h2 j2 )1 [h1 , j1 ]h2 j2 = j21 [h1 , h1
2 j1 h2 ]j2 = j2 [h1 , h3 j3 ]j2
Solutions 11
537
(iv) GL3 (2) (which is isomorphic to L2 (7), see Chapter 12) has two sets of
subgroups each isomorphic to S4 . An example from the first set is generated
by
!
!
1 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 1 1 ,
and
0 1 0
0 0 1
and an example from the second set is generated
!
1 1 0
1 1
1 0 0
0 1
and
0 0 1
0 0
by
!
1
0 .
1
Note that in both cases the first generating element has order 3, the second
has order 2, and their products both have order 4; see Problem 3.18. Matrices
in the first example above only fix (0, 0, 0) in the 3-dimensional vector space
defined over F2 , that is they only fix one point in the space, but in the
second example every matrix fixes two points (0, 0, 0) and (0, 0, 1) a line
in the space. For this reason the examples cannot be conjugate, even though
they are isomorphic.
(v) The group L2 (11) has order 660, and it has non-isomorphic subgroups
of order 12 and index 55 (so Hall {2, 3}-subgroups). For example if the group
is given by the permutation representation stated on page 295, then
D6 ' h(1, 3)(2, 7, 11, 5, 10, 9)(4, 8, 6), (1, 3)(2, 11)(4, 8)(5, 9)i L2 (11),
A4 ' h(1, 3, 2)(4, 6, 5)(7, 9, 8), (1, 3)(2, 11)(4, 8)(5, 9)i L2 (11).
Problem 11.19 (i) Clear.
(ii) Use Problem 2.23.
(iii) Use Problem 2.15.
(iv) Use the Correspondence Theorem (Theorem 4.16).
Problem 11.20 (i) For S4 one example is h(1, 2, 3, 4), (1, 3)i and h(1, 2, 3)i;
for SL2 (3) take the copy of Q2 and one of the Sylow 3-subgroups; and for E
use the definition.
(ii) Sylow 3- or 5-subgroups of S5 are cyclic in the form h(a, b, c)i or
h(a, b, c, d, e)i, but these never commute.
(iii) Condition 6. Take P1 = h(1, 2, 3, 4), (1, 3)i as a Sylow 2-subgroup.
Condition 7. Use Problem 3.18.
Problem 11.21 This is a project not directly relevant to the chapter, so
is left as an exercise for the reader to complete. See Suzuki [1986], pages 102
and 103.
538
Solution Appendix
Problems 12
Problem 12.1 We have c3 = 2c + 1, c4 = 2, c5 = 2c, c6 = 2c + 2, c7 =
c + 2, c8 = 1, c = 2c + 1, c2 = 2c + 2, c3 = c, c4 = 2, c5 = c7 = c + 2, c6 =
c + 1, c7 = c5 = 2c, c8 = 1, c + c = c3 + c3 = c4 + c4 = 1, c2 + c2 = c6 + c6 = 0
and c5 + c5 = c7 + c7 = 2.
Problem 12.2 Examples of Steiner systems for the given parameters are
as follows.
(a) {1, 2, 3} {1, 4, 5} {1, 6, 7} {1, 8, 9} {2, 4, 6} {2, 5, 8}
{2, 7, 9} {3, 4, 9} {3, 5, 7} {3, 6, 8} {4, 7, 8} {5, 6, 9}.
(b) {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 5, 6, 7} {1, 8, 9, 10} {1, 11, 12, 13} {2, 5, 8, 11} {2, 6, 9, 12} {2, 7, 10, 13}
{3, 5, 9, 13} {3, 6, 10, 11} {3, 7, 8, 12} {4, 5, 10, 12} {4, 6, 8, 13} {4, 7, 9, 11}.
(d)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
{1, 2, 4, 8, 11}
{1, 3, 4, 6, 8}
{1, 3, 6, 9, 11}
{1, 4, 7, 8, 9}
{2, 3, 4, 6, 11}
{2, 3, 6, 9, 10}
{2, 4, 9, 10, 11}
{3, 4, 5, 6, 9}
{3, 5, 8, 9, 10}
{4, 6, 7, 9, 11}
{1, 2, 3, 6, 7}
{1, 2, 5, 6, 11}
{1, 3, 4, 7, 11}
{1, 3, 7, 8, 10}
{1, 5, 6, 8, 9}
{2, 3, 4, 7, 9}
{2, 3, 7, 8, 11}
{2, 5, 6, 7, 9}
{3, 4, 5, 7, 8}
{3, 6, 7, 8, 9}
{4, 6, 8, 9, 10}
{1, 2, 3, 8, 9}
{1, 2, 5, 7, 8}
{1, 3, 4, 9, 10}
{1, 4, 5, 6, 7}
{1, 5, 7, 10, 11}
{2, 3, 4, 8, 10}
{2, 4, 5, 6, 10}
{2, 5, 8, 10, 11}
{3, 4, 5, 10, 11}
{3, 6, 8, 10, 11}
{4, 7, 8, 10, 11}
{1, 2, 4, 6, 9}
{1, 2, 6, 8, 10}
{1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
{1, 4, 5, 9, 11}
{1, 6, 7, 9, 10}
{2, 3, 5, 7, 10}
{2, 4, 5, 7, 11}
{2, 6, 8, 9, 11}
{3, 4, 8, 9, 11}
{4, 5, 6, 8, 11}
{5, 6, 9, 10, 11}
{1, 2, 4, 7, 10}
{1, 2, 7, 9, 11}
{1, 3, 5, 8, 11}
{1, 4, 6, 10, 11}
{1, 8, 9, 10, 11}
{2, 3, 5, 9, 11}
{2, 4, 6, 7, 8}
{2, 7, 8, 9, 10}
{3, 5, 6, 7, 11}
{4, 5, 7, 9, 10}
{5, 7, 8, 9, 11}
This system was constructed ad hoc starting with {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Other methods are given in the Web Appendix to Chapter 12.
(ii) Two non-isomorphic Steiner systems S(2, 3, 13) with 26 members can
be generated as follows. In each case the first 13 members are (1,3,9) (a subset
of the set of the quadratic residues mod 13) and its twelve translates by the
map x 7 x + 1 giving a set of 13 triples in all. The second set of 13 triples
can be either (1,2,5) or (1,2 11) and their translates under the same map.
(iii) This is a version of S(2, 3, 7).
Problem 12.3 If u = 1, then we are counting those members of the
Steiner system which contain a1 . Ignoring a1 these members form a version
of the system S(r 1, s 1, t 1), so use Theorem 12.2 again. Similarly if
u = 2, and we look for the members containing a1 and a2 , we have a version
of the system S(r 2, s 2, t 2). Now carry on.
Problem 12.4 (i) A non-singular square matrix can be diagonalised using
elementary row and column operations, and each of these operations can be
performed by pre- or post-multiplying the given matrix by an elementary
matrix. Note that as all matrices in SLn (q) have determinant 1, the elementary operation that multiplies a row or column by a non-zero constant is not
required. For further details see any standard text of linear algebra.
Solutions 12
539
540
Solution Appendix
a H and so aH = H, and a(at cH) = at+1 cH. Also as bat = a4t b and
bat cH = a4t bcH, we have b = (3, 6, 4)(5, 7, 8), as bH = H (note b H) and
b(cH) = cb2 H = cH.
(v) and (vi) Continuing as above we have c(H) = cH and c(cH) = c2 H =
H (as o(c) = 2), so c maps 1 to 2 and 2 to 1. Now c can map 3 to 5 or 7 or 8.
If 3 is mapped to 5, then c = (1, 2)(3, 5)(4, 7)(6, 8) with similar expressions
in the other two cases. We have
(3, 6, 4)(5, 7, 8)(1, 2)(3, 5)(4, 7)(6, 8)(3, 4, 6)(5, 8, 7) = (1, 2)(3, 7)(4, 8)(5, 6)
et cetera, this and similar identities gives the equalities, and the result follows
because we started with an arbitrary simple group of order 168.
Problem 12.8 First, the elements of L2 (11)
are defined
as cosets each
b
containing pairs of matrices of the form ac db and a
c d , and so A has
domain L2 (11). We have (a) the map A is a perm. of P as A L2 (11) is
non-singular; (b) composition of maps corresponds to matrix multiplication,
and (c) the identity map z z corresponds to the identity matrix I2 .
For the next part use transvections as discussed in Section 12.2. Note that
has order 11 and corresponds to the perm. (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10),
has order 2 and corresponds to the perm. (0, )(1, 10)(2, 5)(3, 7)(4, 8)(6, 9),
as we are working over the field F11 . If we set a 7 and b 7 , then the
relations in the presentation (12.5) given on page 261 are satisfied.
Problem 12.9 By Theorem 5.15, as L2 (11) is simple it cannot have a
proper subgroup of index less than 11, that is of order more than 60. By
Lagranges Theorem (Theorem 2.27) further possible subgroup orders are 55,
44, 33, 30, 22, 20, 15 12 and 11 as well as some smaller ones. The group does
have (maximal) subgroups of orders 60, 55 and 12 and no others.
To see this each possible order must be checked in turn. So for example
it cannot have subgroups of order 15 or 33 as these would be cyclic but the
group does not possess elements of order either 15 or 33. Also note that the
group has no elements of order 4, and products of elements of orders 2 and
11 give elements of order 3, 5 or 6. On the positive side there are maximal
subgroups isomorphic to A5 , F11,5 and D6 .
For A5 , one method is as follows: Use the presentation P3 for A5 given
in Web Section 3.6, choose three elements of L2 (11) each with order 3 such
that the orders of their products is 2 in all cases. One example is
(1, 2, 8)(3, 6, 9)(4, 10, 11)(5, 7, 12), (1, 6, 7)(2, 5, 4)(3, 10, 12)(8, 11, 9),
(1, 5, 3)(2, 9, 10)(4, 7, 8)(6, 12, 11).
This can also be done by using P2 from the same Web Section, and choosing
two elements of order 5 which satisfy the relevant relations. One choice is
(1, 3, 2, 4, 11)(5, 8, 7, 10, 12), (1, 7, 6, 8, 4)(2, 5, 10, 11, 9).
For F11,5 generated by an element a of order 11, and b of order 5, let a be
the cyclic perm. of order 11 given in the previous problem (ie one not using
Solutions 12
541
the symbol , here replace by 12 and add one to each finite symbol), and
look for products of two disjoint 5-cycles again not using the symbol . An
example for b is (1, 7, 6, 8, 4)(2, 5, 10, 11, 9) where b4 ab = a9 .
Lastly for D6 , take b from the previous problem as a generator of order 2, and look for an element c of order 6 (that is a product of two disjoint 6-cycles) to satisfy the D6 relation: bcb = c5 . One example for c is
(1, 5, 4, 11, 10, 3)(2, 8, 9, 12, 6, 7). As above we have replaced the basic symbols 0, 1, . . . , 10 by 1, 2, . . . , 11, and by 12.
Problem 12.10 First obtain ten equations for the coefficients of an order
2 matrix C L3 (3), the first is det C = 1, and the remaining nine equate
corresponding entries in C and C 1 . The top row of C can be a triple of
elements from the set {0, 1, 2} allowing repetitions except (0, 0, 0). Show that
for each of these triples there are three corresponding order 2 matrices, except
for the triple (1, 0, 0) when there are nine, and for the triple (2, 0, 0) when
there are 36. One set of order 2 matrices which generate L3 (3) is
A=
0 1 1
0 2 0
1 1 0
!
, B=
0 2 1
1 1 1
2 1 1
!
, C=
1 0 0
1 2 0
2 0 2
!
.
0 1 2
1 1 2
2 2 0
!
, b 7
0 0 2
0 2 0
2 0 0
!
, c 7
1 0 0
1 1 2
0 0 1
!
.
Each of these matrices commute with A, and they generate a copy of GL2 (3)
in L3 (3).
542
Solution Appendix
then an element of order 4 which commutes with this and belongs to the
group is
d = (5, 6, 8, 7)(9, 10, 12, 11)(13, 20, 16, 17)(14, 19, 15, 18)(21, 27, 24, 26)(22, 28, 23, 25),
note that its cube also has this property. Now look for elements of the group
whose first cycle(s) are elements of S4 defined on {1, 2, 3, 4}. You will find
that for each element of S4 , say = (1, 2, 3), there are four elements of U3 (3)
which commute with c and begin with the chosen cycle; so for our chosen
example they are
(1, 2, 3)(5, 17, 26, 8, 20, 27)(6, 13, 21, 7, 16, 24)(9, 14, 28, 12, 15, 25)(10, 19, 23, 11, 18, 22),
and its product with d, d2 or d3 . These four elements form a coset (of order
3) of the normal subgroup hdi in J.
Problem 12.13 For the first proof note that B12 is diagonal with diagonal
entries {a21 , a22 , a23 } so B1 is an involution only if it belongs to the centre; the
top left-hand entry of B32 is zero and so B3 cannot be an involution; and
if b3 = 0 then B22 has diagonal {b21 , b2 , b2 } and the product of these entries
must equal 1. Apply (a), then use Problem 5.21(iii) as L3 (4) / SL3 (4) and
[SL3 (4) : L3 (4)] = 3, a prime.
Solutions 12
543
For the second proof note that the order of the centre of the first given
Sylow 2-subgroup of L4 (2) (with order 64) is 2, whilst the order of the centre
of the second given Sylow 2-subgroup, now of L3 (4) and again with order 64,
is 4. Hence the groups cannot be isomorphic.
Problem 12.14 Use the notation 1 , . . . set up in Section 12.4.
(i) Apply conjugation. For this solution we write a \ b for the conjugate of a
by b, that is b1 ab. One solution is as follows: 1 = \ 1 1 , 2 = 12 \ ,
2 = 3 \ 5 4 , 1 = 2 \ 4 3 , and 2 = \ 1 23 . For the converse note
that = (2 1 2 1 )4 \ 22 2 2 . For the presentation note that \ = 4
and \ = 2 .
(ii) h1 , 2 i ' C3 C3 is a Sylow 3-subgroup, hi ' C5 is a Sylow 5subgroup, and hi ' C11 is a Sylow 11-subgroup. For the prime 2 we have:
8 = 22 = e and 2 2 = 3 , hence h, 2 i is a Sylow 2-subgroup. It is isomorphic to a semi-dihedral group of order 16; see Problem 6.4. Note that M11
has 495 Sylow 2-subgroups, 55 Sylow 3-subgroups, 396 Sylow 5-subgroups
and 144 Sylow 11-subgroups.
(iii) One method is as follows. Let = 4 = (1, 4)(2, 6)(3, 5)(8, 9) be the
chosen involution. By (i) commutes with , 1 and 2 , and so after some
computer algebra checking we see that CM11 () = h, 1 , 2 i = H with order
48. Note M11 has 165 involutions all of which are conjugate, so by Theorem 5.19 we have o(H) = 48. Now = (1, 2, 9, 3, 4, 6, 8, 5)(10, 11), so if we
take = (1, 3, 9)(4, 5, 8)(7, 10, 11) (then = (1, 2)(3, 5)(4, 6)(7, 10)) and
D = {e, }, then D and D generate a copy of S4 using the standard coset
product. Hence H is isomorphic to an extension of C2 by S4 .
(iv) One set of involutions is:
a = (4, 7)(5, 8)(6, 9)(10, 11),
b = (1, 10)(2, 5)(4, 11)(8, 9),
c = (1, 5)(2, 9)(3, 11)(8, 10),
d = (2, 3)(5, 6)(8, 9)(10, 11).
Problem 12.15 (i) The orbits of K under the coset action are permuted
by G, and as G is transitive and K is non-neutral, all of these orbits are
of the same order p, and K is transitive. From this we see that there is a
Sylow p-subgroup Q of G which is a subgroup of H. By Sylow 2, all Sylow
p-subgroups are conjugate in G, and so they all belong to K as K is normal.
Therefore o(K) = pnp s where s | t and s > 1. Now use Problem 6.11(ii) to
show that K = G.
(ii) By our first definition, M11 is a transitive subgroup of S11 and it has
order n = 7920 = 8 9 10 11. We have n/11 = 720 5 (mod 11), hence
using (i) we can take t = 5 and n11 = 144 > 1, as n11 1 (mod 11). Now
apply (i). For M23 we have n0 = o(M23 ) = 48 20 21 22 23, n0 /23 11
(mod 23), so t = 11, n23 = 40320 > 1, and n23 1 (mod 23).
Subgroup Lattices
547
Subgroup Lattices
The diagrams on this and the next eleven pages illustrate the subgroup lattice
structure for groups of order 8 and 12, and two of order 16. They follow the
same style as those in the main text. Except possibly for the top group all
circles in these diagrams represent cyclic groups, and ovals mainly represent
direct products of two cyclic groups except where indicated (for D6 ).
Subgroups of C8
The diagram given below for C8 is very simple reflecting the fact that primepower order cyclic groups have only a limited range of subgroups; see Theorem 4.20. The proper non-neutral subgroups are ha4 i ' C2 and ha2 i ' C4 .
C8
Subgroup Lattice
for
C8
ha2 i
ha4 i
hei
C8 ' ha | a8 = ei
548
Solution Appendix
Subgroups of C4 C2
The second diagram gives the lattice structure for C4 C2 , note that it is
slightly more complicated than that given on the previous page for C8 . The
proper non-neutral subgroups are ha2 i, hbi and ha2 bi isomorphic to C2 , hai
and habi isomorphic to C4 , and ha2 , bi isomorphic to T2 .
C4 C2
Subgroup Lattice
for
C4 C2
ha , bi
hai
habi
hbi
ha2 bi
ha2 i
C4 C2 '
hei
4
2
ha, b | a = b = e, ab = bai
Subgroup Lattices
549
Subgroups of (C2 )3
Of the groups illustrated the lattice structure for (C2 )3 given below is one of
the most complicated. The proper non-neutral subgroups are hai, . . . , habci,
seven in all each isomorphic to C2 , and seven copies of T2 as given in the
diagram below. Also the automorphism group for this group is isomorphic
to L2 (7) ( ' L3 (2)) with order 168. If we treat (C2 )3 as a three-dimensional
vector space over F2 (Problem 4.18), then an automorphism of the group
corresponds to a non-singular linear map of this vector space. These maps
permute the seven non-neutral elements a, b, . . . , abc, see the lower main row
in the diagram.
ha, b, ci
Subgroup Lattice
for
(C2 )3
hab, bci
ha, ci
ha, bci
hac, bi
hab, ci
ha, bi
hb, ci
haci
hai
hbci
habci
hci
habi
hbi
hei
(C2 )3 ' ha, b, c | a2 = b2 = c2 = e, ab = ba, bc = cb, ca = aci
550
Solution Appendix
Subgroups of D4
The fourth diagram illustrates the subgroup structure for the dihedral group
D4 . The proper non-neutral subgroups are ha2 i, hbi, habi, ha2 bi and ha3 bi isomorphic to C2 (the first is normal whilst the others are not), hai ' C4 , and
hb, a2 bi and hab, a3 bi isomorphic to T2 . These last three subgroups are normal,
they each have index 2 in the main group.
Subgroup Lattice
D4
for
hai
D4
3
hb, a bi
hab, a bi
ha2 i
hbi
ha2 bi
habi
ha3 bi
hei
Subgroup Lattices
551
Subgroups of Q2
The last of the order 8 group diagrams is for the quaternion group Q2 . Notice
that it has a rather simple structure. The three cyclic subgroups, hai, hbi and
habi, have index 2 and so are normal, the centre is ha2 i with order 2, and the
remaining subgroups are hei and the group itself. Hence all of its subgroups
are normal a rare occurrence, and the group is called Hamiltonian. See the
discussion on page 119.
Q2
Subgroup Lattice
for
Q2
hbi
hai
habi
ha2 i
hei
Q2 ' ha, b | a2 = b2 = (ab)2 i
552
Solution Appendix
Subgroups of C12
The first of the diagrams of the order 12 groups is for C12 , it is slightly more
complicated than that for C8 because the integer 12 have more divisors.
The proper non-neutral subgroups are ha6 i ' C2 , ha4 i ' C3 , ha3 i ' C4 and
ha2 i ' C6 .
C12
Subgroup Lattice
for
C12
ha2 i
ha3 i
ha4 i
ha6 i
hei
Subgroup Lattices
553
Subgroups of C6 C2
This diagram is for the group C6 C2 , it has a similar structure to that for
C4 C2 . The proper non-neutral subgroups are ha3 i, hbi and ha2 bi isomorphic
to C2 , ha2 i ' C3 , ha2 , bi ' T2 , and hai, habi and ha2 bi isomorphic to C6 .
Subgroup Lattice
C6 C2
for
C6 C2
ha2 bi
habi
hai
ha , bi
ha2 i
ha3 i
hbi
ha3 bi
C6 C2 '
hei
ha, b | a6 = b2 = e, ab = bai
554
Solution Appendix
Subgroups of A4
The diagram below gives the subgroup lattice structure for the alternating
group A4 . This is the only illustrated group which is not Reverse Lagrange,
that is A4 has no subgroups (or elements) of order 6. But unlike all other
alternating groups it has a normal subgroup isomorphic to C2 C2 , its unique
Sylow 3-subgroup. The remaining proper non-neutral subgroups are habi, hbai
and hba2 bi isomorphic to C2 , and hai, hbi, ha2 bi and hb2 ai isomorphic to C3 ,
none of which is normal.
A4
Subgroup Lattice
for
A4
hab, bai
hai
hbi
ha2 bi
hb2 ai
hbai
hba2 bi
habi
hei
ha2 , bi
ha2 i
hai
ha3 , bi
ha3 , abi
D6
ha3 , a2 bi
for
Subgroup Lattice
hbi
ha3 bi
ha2 bi
ha4 bi
habi
ha5 bi
hei
D6 ' ha, b | a6 = b2 = (ab)2 = ei
ha3 i
@A
I
IB
@
IA
@
IA
@
IB
@
IB
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@
@ B
@A
R
@
R
@
ha2 , abi
D6
Subgroup Lattices
555
556
Solution Appendix
Subgroups of D6
The diagram for D6 is given on the previous page. It shows that this group has
14 proper non-neutral subgroups, they are ha3 i, hbi, ha3 bi, ha2 bi, ha4 bi, habi
and ha5 i each isomorphic to C2 (the first is normal but the others are not);
ha2 i ' C3 ; ha3 , bi, ha3 , abi and ha3 , a2 bi isomorphic to T2 ; hai ' C6 ; and
ha2 , bi and ha2 , abi isomorphic to D3 . The last three and ha2 i are normal.
Subgroups of Q3
The last order 12 group diagram is for the dicyclic group Q3 . Note the similarity to that for Q2 given on page 551. Note also all of its proper non-neutral
subgroups are cyclic, they are ha3 i ' C2 , ha2 i ' C3 and hai ' C6 which are
all normal, and hbi, habi and ha2 bi isomorphic to C4 .
Subgroup Lattice
Q3
for
Q3
hai
hbi
habi
ha2 bi
ha2 i
ha3 i
hei
Subgroup Lattices
557
Subgroups of C8 C2
The last two diagrams are for two particular groups of order 16, see Problem
8.12. There are identical except for their top groups, and so illustrate the
fact that particular groups cannot be characterised by their subgroup lattice
diagrams alone. The first of these, for C8 C2 , should be compared with those
for C4 C2 and C6 C2 . The proper non-neutral subgroups are ha4 i, hbi and
ha4 bi isomorphic to C2 , ha2 i and ha2 bi isomorphic to C4 , ha4 , bi ' T2 , hai
and habi isomorphic to C8 , and ha2 , bi ' C4 C2 .
C8 C2
@
@
@
@
Subgroup Lattice
for
C8 C2
hai
ha2 , bi
@
@
@
@
ha4 , bi
@
@
@
hbi
@
@
@
@
@
ha2 bi
@
@
habi
@
ha2 i
@
@
@
4
ha bi
ha4 i
@
hei
558
Solution Appendix
G1
@
@
@
@
Subgroup Lattice
for
G1
hai
ha2 , bi
@
@
@
@
ha4 , bi
@
@
@
ha2 bi
@
@
habi
@
ha2 i
Z(G1 )
@
()
()
@
@
4
ha bi
hbi
ha4 i
@
G01
@
@
@
@
@
hei
G1 ' a, b | a8 = b2 = e, bab = a5 i
http://www.springer.com/978-1-84882-888-9