Perfect Chemistry - I
(M.Sc., Chemistry)
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Written according to the New Syllabus (2012-2013) published by the Maharashtra State
Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education, Pune.
Std. XI Sci.
Perfect Chemistry - I
Salient Features :
TEID : 734
PREFACE
In the case of good books, the point is not how many of them you can get through, but rather how many can get
through to you.
Std. XI Sci. : PERFECT CHEMISTRY - I is a complete and thorough guide critically analysed and
extensively drafted to boost the students confidence. The book is prepared as per the Maharashtra State board syllabus
and provides answers to all textual and intext questions. Sub-topic wise classified question and answer format of
this book helps the student to understand each and every concept thoroughly. Neatly labelled diagrams have been
provided wherever required.
National Council Of Educational Research And Training (NCERT) questions and problems based on
Maharashtra board syllabus have been provided along with solutions for a better grasp of the concept and preparing
the students on a competitive level.
Additional information about a concept is provided in the form of Note. Definitions, statements and laws are
specified with italic representation. Formulae are provided in chapters which involve numericals to help the students
to tackle difficult problems. Solved problems are provided to understand the application of different concepts and
formulae. Quick Review has been provided which gives an overview of the chapters. Additional theory questions
have been provided to help the student gain insight on the various levels of theory-based questions.
Practice problems and multiple choice questions help the students to test their range of preparation and the
amount of knowledge of each topic.
The journey to create a complete book is strewn with triumphs, failures and near misses. If you think weve
nearly missed something or want to applaud us for our triumphs, wed love to hear from you.
Please write to us on : mail@targetpublications.org
A book affects eternity; one can never tell where its influence stops.
Yours faithfully
Publisher
Contents
No.
Topic Name
Page No.
States of Matter
38
Structure of Atom
88
Periodic Table
144
Redox Reactions
173
Chemical Equilibrium
223
Surface Chemistry
288
320
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01
1.0
Prominent scientists
Scientists
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778 1850)
(French chemist and physicist)
Contributions
Formulated the gas law.
Collected samples of air at different heights and
recorded temperatures and moisture contents.
iii. Discovered that the composition of atmosphere does
not change with increasing altitude.
i.
Published article in French journal on determining the
relative masses of elementary particles of bodies and
proportions by which they enter combinations.
ii. Published a research paper titled New considerations
on the theory of proportions and on determination of
the masses of atoms.
i.
ii.
Note:
In order to give a tribute to Avogadros contributions related to molecular theory, the number of elementary
entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) in 1 mole of a substance, 6.022 1023 is known as
Avogadro number.
1.1
Introduction
Q.1. Chemistry has played an important role in the fulfillment of basic needs of man. Explain.
Ans: Increasing population has led to an increase in the demands of basic needs of man (food, clothing and
shelter). Developments in the field of chemistry have helped to cope up with these necessities as follows:
i.
Food:
a.
The population of a country requires nutritious and hygienic food in sufficient quantity. To
achieve the same, there is a need to manufacture good quality fertilizers and insecticides.
b.
The advancement of chemistry has helped many countries to become not only self sufficient but
also an exporter of food commodities.
ii.
Clothing:
a.
Good quality clothes are required for every individual to adjust with changing environmental
conditions.
b.
Because of the production of synthetic fibres like nylon, rayon, etc. in factories, this need has
been fulfilled.
iii. Shelter:
a.
The human population needs comfortable and well-built houses. Iron, cement and steel are
required in large quantities for construction of such houses.
b.
Chemistry has played an important role in the extraction of these metals from their respective
ores.
Q.2. Define chemistry.
Ans: Chemistry is defined as the study of the composition, structure and properties of matter and the reactions
by which one form of matter may be converted into another form.
Q.3. Give reason : Chemistry is called as a central science.
Ans: i.
Chemistry is an active evolving science and is of vital importance to the entire world. Although the
subject has very ancient roots, it is a modern science.
ii.
The basic knowledge of chemistry is essential for development of subjects like physics, biology,
geology, engineering, environmental science and many others.
Therefore, it is called as a central science.
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Photosynthesis is the process through which trees and plants prepare their food using chlorophyll
(green pigment) in presence of sunlight. The process is a simple chemical reaction and takes place
naturally.
sunlight
CO2 + H2O
food grains/fruits/flowers/cotton/medicine etc.
chlorophyll
iv.
Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc. are combustible chemicals which are used to
produce energy which is used to drive trains, trucks, buses and all automobiles. The energy is also
used to generate electricity. Several electrochemical cells like Daniel cell, lead storage cell, dry cell,
nickel cadmium cell, lithium ion cell, fuel cell, etc., are used as a source of energy. These cells are
less polluting and more efficient. There are attempts being made to convert solar energy into
electrical energy using photovoltaic cells, the solar cells. Attempt is also made to obtain hydrogen
from water, which is used in fuel cells to generate electricity.
With the help of chemistry it is easy to design and generate large number of materials like polymers,
plastic, liquid crystals, adhesives and surface coating materials like latex paints. Knowledge of
chemistry can also be used to synthesize new materials that can act as super conductors at or near
room temperature due to which loss of electricity will get reduced by almost 20%. Microprocessors
used in computers are silicon chips formulated and developed by chemists.
v.
L-dopa
Human insulin
Cisplatin and taxol
Azidothymidine (AZT)
Tamiflue
Treatment of diseases
For treatment of Parkinsons disease.
For treatment of diabetes.
Life saving drugs to give relief to cancer patients.
For treatment of AIDS.
For treatment of swine flu.
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#Q.6.Give five applications of subject chemistry which are not mentioned in the book.
Ans: i.
Warfare:
With the knowledge of chemistry, various destructive gases and bombs have been invented which are
used during wars.
ii.
Cosmetics:
Chemistry has helped to produce good quality cosmetics.
iii. Health:
Chemistry plays an important role in maintaining ones good health by providing knowledge about
proper intake of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins, etc.
iv. Education:
Chemistry provides inter-relationship to study the para-chemistry subjects such as Bio-chemistry,
Pharmacy, Herbal Science, Toxicology, Archaeology, Environmental Science, etc.
v.
In recent years, chemistry has given us new materials such as superconducting ceramics, conducting
polymers, optical fibres, micro alloys, carbon fibres, etc. which are used for various purposes.
1.3
Mixtures:
A mixture is a simple combination of two or more substances in which the constituent substances
retain their separate identities.
The composition of mixture can be varied to any extent. Therefore, mixtures do not have fixed
composition.
eg. Mixture of ethyl alcohol and water, salt in water, mixture of gases, etc.
Mixtures are of two types:
a.
Homogeneous mixture:
A mixture in which the concentration of the constituents remains uniform throughout the
mixture and all the constituents are present in one phase, is called a homogeneous mixture.
eg. Mixture of salt and water.
b.
Heterogeneous mixture:
If two or more phases are present in a mixture, it is called a heterogeneous mixture.
eg. Phenol - water system, silver chloride-water system, iron fillings-sand system, etc.
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ii.
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Note:
Names and symbols of some elements
Element
Aluminium
Argon
Silver
Gold
Actinium
Americium
Beryllium
Boron
Barium
Bismuth
Carbon
Chlorine
Calcium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Symbol
Al
Ar
Ag
Au
Ac
Am
Be
B
Ba
Bi
C
Cl
Ca
Cr
Co
Cu
Element
Cadmium
Caesium
Cerium
Curium
Calefornium
Erbium
Einsteinium
Fluorine
Francium
Iron
Galium
Germanium
Gadolinium
Hydrogen
Helium
Hafnium
Symbol
Cd
Cs
Ce
Cm
Cf
Er
Es
F
Fr
Fe
Ga
Ge
Gd
H
He
Hf
Element
Mercury
Holmium
Iodine
Irridium
Krypton
Lithium
Lanthanum
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Mendelivium
Nitrogen
Neon
Nickel
Symbol
Hg
Ho
I
Ir
Kr
Li
La
Lu
Lr
Mg
Mn
Mo
Md
N
Ne
Ni
Element
Neobium
Neodymium
Neptunium
Oxygen
Osmium
Potassium
Phosphorous
Lead
Palladium
Platinum
Promethium
Protoactinium
Plutonium
Radium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Symbol
Nb
Nd
Np
O
Os
K
P
Pb
Pd
Pt
Pm
Pa
Pu
Ra
Rb
Rn
Element
Rhodium
Rhenium
Sulphur
Scandium
Selenium
Strontium
Sodium
Technicium
Uranium
Tungston
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Zirconium
Symbol
Rh
Re
S
Sc
Se
Sr
Na
Tc
U
W
V
Xe
Yb
Zr
Q.14. Classify the following substances into elements, compounds, homogeneous mixtures and
heterogeneous mixtures.
Sand in water, Sodium chloride, Nitrogen, Sodium chloride in water, Pumice stone, Air, Phenolwater system, Carbon dioxide, Gold
Ans: i.
Sand in water
:
Heterogeneous mixture
ii.
Sodium chloride
:
Compound
iii. Nitrogen
:
Element
iv. Sodium chloride in water
:
Homogeneous mixture
v.
Pumice stone
:
Heterogeneous mixture
vi. Air
:
Homogeneous mixture
vii. Phenol-water system
:
Heterogeneous mixture
viii. Carbon dioxide
:
Compound
ix. Gold
:
Element
Q.15. Distinguish between
i.
Mixtures and compounds.
ii. Compounds and elements.
Ans: i.
Mixtures and compounds:
Mixtures
i.
The constituents of a mixture may be
present in any ratio.
ii. Mixtures may or may not be
homogeneous in nature.
iii. The properties of a mixture are in
between those of its constituents.
iv. The constituents of a mixture can be
easily separated by simple physical
means.
v. The melting and boiling points of
mixtures are usually not sharp.
Compounds
The constituents of a compound are always
present in a fixed ratio.
Compounds are always homogeneous in nature.
The properties of a compound are entirely
different from those of its constituent elements.
The constituents of a compound cannot be easily
separated by simple physical means but can be
separated by chemical processes.
Chemical compounds possess sharp melting and
boiling points.
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Elements
An element is a pure chemical substance made
of same type of atoms.
Elements cannot be broken down into simpler
substances.
Elements are distinguished by their atomic
number (number of protons in their nucleus).
Fundamental quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
Amount of substance
Electric current
Luminous intensity
SI unit
Metre
Kilogram
Second
Kelvin
Mole
Ampere
Candela
Symbol
m
kg
s
K
mol
A
cd
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Physical quantity
Area
Volume
Density
Velocity
Acceleration
Force
Pressure
Electric charge
Electric potential or Potential
difference
x.
Energy
(work or heat)
Concentration
Heat capacity
xi.
xii.
Unit
m2
m3
kg m3
ms1
ms 2
kg m s2 (newton, N)
kg m1 s2
As (coulomb, C)
kg m2 s2 A1
(J A1 s1 or
Volt,V or JC1)
kg m2 s2
(Joule s1)
mol m3
JK1 mol1
kg C1 (kg/Coulomb)
Some common SI prefixes used for expressing big and small numbers:
Prefix
Tera
Symbol
T
Magnitude
1012
Giga
109
10
1 000 000
10
10
1 000
100
Mega
myria
kilo
my
k
hecto
10
deka
da
10
deci
centi
102
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
n
p
f
10
10
1
0.1
0.01
10
0.001
10
0.000 001
10
10
12
10
15
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1.4
51.35
Percentage
C
38.91
51.35
38.91
Cu
d.
iii.
O
9.74
9.74
The law was further supported by different samples of pure water which contained same
amount of oxygen (88.81% by weight) and hydrogen (11.19% by weight) and different samples
of pure sugar which contained same amount of carbon (42.1% by weight), hydrogen (6.5% by
weight) and oxygen (51.4% by weight). This was irrespective of the source.
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And the ratio of weights of oxygen to that of carbon for carbon monoxide is
1.33g of oxygen
= 1.33
1.00g carbon
The two ratios are in the proportion
iv.
2.66
1.33
= 2 i.e., 2:1
Therefore, the ratio of the masses of oxygen that combine with the same mass of carbon is 2:1 i.e., a
simple ratio.
Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases:
a.
Joseph Louis Gay Lussac (a French chemist) observed that there exists a definite relationship
between volumes of gaseous reactants and the volumes of gaseous products. He generalized his
observations in the form of a law of combining volumes of gases.
b.
Gay Lussacs law states that, when gases react together to produce gaseous products, the
volumes of reactants and products bear a simple whole number ratio with each other, provided
volumes are measured at same temperature and pressure.
c.
eg. Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 1L of hydrogen gas reacts with
1 L of chlorine gas to produce 2 L of hydrogen chloride gas i.e.
Hydrogen + Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride
[1L]
[1L]
[2L]
[ 1 vol ]
[ 1 vol ]
[ 2 vol ]
Thus, the ratio of volumes is 1:1:2
d.
Volumes may be measured in any convenient unit such as L, mL, cm3, dm3, etc.
eg. Consider the reaction for the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen Sulphur trioxide
[ 200 mL ]
[ 100 mL]
[ 200 mL ]
[ 1 vol ]
[ 1 2 vol ]
[ 1 vol ]
The ratio of volumes is 2 : 1: 2.
Note:
The first three laws deal with the mass relationships whereas the fourth law deals with the volume of the
reacting gases.
Q.23. Who opposed the law of definite proportion? How were the objections ruled out?
Ans: i.
Berthollet (French scientist) opposed Prousts law of definite proportion.
ii.
He gave examples of the substances that contained different proportions of elements.
iii. However, the experimental work of analysis explained by Berthollet was based on impure samples or
incomplete reactions.
Hence, Berthollets objections were ruled out.
Q.24. Is the law of constant composition true for all types of compounds? Justify your answer.
Ans: No, law of constant composition is not true for all types of compounds. It is true for only those compounds
which are obtained from one isotope.
eg. Carbon exists in two common isotopes: 12C and 14C. When it forms 12CO2, the ratio of masses is
12 : 32 or 3 : 8. However, when it is formed from 14C i.e., 14CO2, the ratio will be 14 : 32 i.e., 7 : 16 ,
which is not same as in the first case.
Q.25. Verify the law of multiple proportions for the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen.
Ans: The chemical reaction of hydrogen with oxygen gives two compounds, water and hydrogen peroxide. Water
contains 88.89% by weight of oxygen and 11.11% by weight of hydrogen. The ratio of the percentages by
weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen is equal to
88.89% by weight of oxygen
= 8 = 8:1
11.11% by weight of hydrogen
And hydrogen peroxide contains 94.12% by weight of oxygen and 5.88% by weight of hydrogen. The ratio
of the percentages by weights is equal to
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Q.26. Give two examples which support the Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases.
Ans: i.
Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 2 L of hydrogen gas reacts with 1L of oxygen
gas to produce 2 L of steam (water vapour). i.e.,
Hydrogen + Oxygen
Steam (water vapour)
2L
1L
2L
(2 vol)
(1 vol)
(2 vol)
The ratio of volumes, is 2 : 1 : 2.
ii.
Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 1L of nitrogen gas reacts with 3 L of
hydrogen gas to produce 2 L of ammonia gas, i.e.
Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia
1L
3L
2L
(1 vol)
(3 vol)
(2 vol)
Here the ratio of volumes is 1 : 3 : 2
From these two examples, it can be concluded that there exists a simple ratio of whole numbers of volumes
of the gaseous reactants with gaseous products.
Hence, these examples support the Gay Lussacs law.
Note:
i.
Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes is applicable only to reactions involving gases and not to solids
and liquids.
ii.
The volumes of gases in the chemical reaction are not additive. For example, in case of reaction between
hydrogen and chlorine gases it appears to be additive. However in case of reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen, 2 volumes of hydrogen and 1 volume of oxygen, equal to 3 volumes of reactants get converted into
2 volumes of the product, steam.
iii. Similarly, in case of formation of ammonia, 1 volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen, equal to
4 volumes of reactants, react to get converted into 2 volumes of the product, ammonia.
1.5
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Q.28. How was the law of conservation of mass explained by Dalton on the basis of his atomic theory?
Ans: i.
Based on the assumptions of atomic theory, Dalton explained the law of conservation of mass.
ii.
He stated that, during a chemical reaction, atoms can rearrange and change their partners. Molecules
could be decomposed into atoms.
iii. However, total number of atoms in the reactants and products should be same. Thus, mass is
conserved during a reaction.
Q.29. How was the law of multiple proportion explained by Dalton on the basis of his atomic theory?
Ans: i.
The law of multiple proportion states that, if two elements chemically combine with each other
forming two or more compounds with different compositions by mass, then the ratios of masses of two
interacting elements in the two compounds are small whole numbers.
ii.
According to Daltons atomic theory, compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
combine.
iii. Dalton explained that under certain conditions, atoms of two types combine in the ratio 1:1 to form a
molecule. Under some other conditions, they may combine in the ratio 1:2 or 1:3 or 2:3, etc.
Note:
Dalton proposed some symbols for some common atoms and molecules. They are shown in the following
figure:
Oxygen
Sulphur
Carbon
Potassium
Methane
Hydrogen peroxide
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Water
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
11
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1.7
Molecules:
a.
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms of definite composition which are held
together by chemical bonds.
b.
A molecule may contain atoms of same elements or different elements.
c.
It is the smallest independent unit of a compound which exists freely. It has all the properties of
the original compound.
d.
It cannot be divided into constituent atoms with the help of simple methods but decomposition
into constituent atoms can be achieved under drastic conditions.
eg. Water molecule (H2O).
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eg.
Chlorine has two isotopes, Cl35 and Cl37, present in 75% and 25% proportion respectively. Hence,
the atomic weight of chlorine is the weighed average of these two isotopic weights i.e., (35.0 0.75)
+ (37.0 0.25) = 35.5.
Note:
i.
The variation of the exact atomic mass of isotope of elements with its relative abundance is obtained
by using the mass spectrometer with higher precision.
Intensity (percentage)
20
10
Ne (90.92%)
21
10
19
Ne (0.26%)
22
10
Ne (8.82%)
21
20
22
Atomic mass (amu)
23
ii.
By using Astons mass spectrometer, it was shown that Neon exists in nature in the form of a mixture
of the following three isotopes:
a.
Neon-20 with atomic mass 19.9924 u with natural abundance 90.92%
b.
Neon - 22 with atomic mass 21.9914 u with natural abundance 8.82%.
c.
Neon - 21 with atomic mass 20.9940 u with natural abundance 0.26%.
The observed atomic mass of Neon is its average atomic mass which is calculated as shown below:
Average atomic mass of Ne
(Atomic mass of Ne-20 % of Ne-20)
=
+ Atomic mass of Ne-21 % of Ne-21 100
12
ii.
iii.
iv.
1
of the mass of one
12
atom of Carbon-12.
The molar mass expressed in gram is known as gram molar mass. 1 gram molar mass is also known
as 1 gram molecule or 1 gram mole or 1 mole.
1 mole of the element is the amount of the element equal to its atomic mass in gram. It is also called 1
gram atom of the element.
13
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1.8
Avogadros law
v.
vi.
At standard temperature and pressure (STP condition), i.e., at 273.15 K and 1 atmosphere, the volume
of 1 mole of a gas i.e., molar volume of a gas can be calculated by gas equation,
PV = nRT
V
Volume per mol (molar volume) =
n
V
RT
=
, (R = 0.08206 L atm mol1 K1)
n
P
0.08206 273.15
=
= 22.414 L mol1.
1atm
Thus 1 mole of any pure gas occupies a volume of 22.414 L (or 0.022414 m3) at standard temperature
and pressure.
The value 22.414 L mol1 is called Avogadros molar volume or molar gas volume at STP.
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ii.
iii.
Hydrogen and chlorine do not exist in free atomic state but exist in molecular state and molecules
take part in the reaction to form hydrogen chloride.
The reaction may be written as
Hydrogen
Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride
According to
Gay Lussacs law:
[1 volume]
[1 volume]
[2 volumes]
According to
Avogadros law: (V n)
[n molecules]
[n molecules]
[2n molecules]
molecule
2
molecule
2
[1 molecule]
Dividing by 2n
iv.
1
1
molecule of hydrogen and
molecule of chlorine give 1 molecule of HCl. If
2
2
molecules of hydrogen and chlorine are considered to be monoatomic, it indicates that atoms are
divisible and this is contrary to Daltons atomic theory which states that atom is indivisible.
So, the molecule of hydrogen and chlorine are considered to be diatomic.
This shows that
X
molecules of
hydrogen
(1 Volume)
X
2X
molecules of
molecules of
chlorine
hydrogen chloride
(1 Volume)
(2 Volume)
ii.
iii.
The amount of a substance equal to its atomic mass or molar mass in grams is 1 mole of a substance.
Thus, one mole of a substance is defined as the amount of the substance that contains the number of
particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons, etc.) as present in 0.012 kg of carbon12.
iv.
i.
ii.
15
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6.022 1023
molecules of
O2
6.022 1023
molecules of
CO2
6.022 1023
molecules of
CH4
6.022 1023
molecules of
Ar
22.4 L
32.0 g
22.4 L
44.0 g
22.4 L
16.0 g
22.4 L
39.9 g
Number of
fundamental
particles
Multiplied by
Avogadros number
Mass of
substance
Divided by
molecular weight
(molar mass)
Multiplied by
molecular weight
(molar mass)
Divided by
Avogadros number
Number of
moles
Multiplied by
Volume
22.4 dm3
occupied by
gas at STP
in dm3
Divided by
3
22.4 dm
Mole triangle
Note:
i.
W
mass of a substance
=
M
molar mass of thesubstance
iii.
16
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1.9
eg.
One mole of ethanol C2H5OH (molecular mass 46) contains,
2 moles of carbon atom = 12 2 = 24 g
24
100 = 52.17%
46
16
Percentage of oxygen =
100 = 34.78%
46
6
100 = 13.04%
Percentage of hydrogen =
46
Each 100 g sample of ethanol contains 52.17 g carbon, 34.78 g oxygen and 13.04 g hydrogen.
Empirical formula:
The empirical formula of a compound is defined as a chemical formula indicating the relative number
of constituent atoms in a molecule in the simplest ratio.
eg.
The empirical formula of ethanol (C2H5OH) is C2H6O and that of benzene (C6H6) is CH.
Molecular formula:
The formula which gives the actual number of each kind of constituent atoms in one molecule of the
compound is called the molecular formula of the compound.
It is an integral multiple of empirical formula.
eg.
The molecular formula of ethanol is C2H5OH and that of benzene is C6H6.
Percentage of carbon =
ii.
iii.
Q.45. Write the steps for determination of empirical and molecular formula of a compound.
Ans: Steps for determination of empirical and molecular formula of a compound:
i.
First the percentage of all the elements present in the compound are experimetally determined. If the
sum of the percentages of the constituent elements is less than 100%, then oxygen is present. The
difference between 100 and sum of the percentages of the constituent elements is the percentage of
oxygen.
ii.
The number of moles of each constituent element present in 100g of the substance is obtained by
dividing percentage of the element by its atomic mass.
iii. The ratio of number of moles of constituent elements is determined. It is then converted into smallest
simple whole number ratio.
eg. For ethanol, C2H5OH, the smallest simple whole number ratio in the order of C : H : O is 2 : 6 : 1.
17
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For fractional ratios, the whole number ratio is obtained by multiplying it with suitable integer. For
this, minor fractions may be neglected.
The empirical formula of the compound is obtained by writing the whole numbers of the ratio of number
of moles of elements as the subscripts to the right side of the corresponding atoms of the elements.
Molecular mass of the substance is experimentally determined. The ratio (r) of molar mass of the
substance to the empirical formula mass of the substance is determined, then
Molecular formula = r empirical formula of compound.
Molecular formula
H2O
C
CH4
H2O2
C2H2
C6H12O6
B2H6
P4O10
O2
2H2O
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19
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Note:
Some Common Compounds:
No.
Compound
i.
Phosphoric acid
ii.
Sodium phosphate
iii.
Ferric phosphate
iv.
Aluminium phosphate
v.
Copper phosphate
vi.
Ferrous phosphate
vii.
Hydrogen chloride
viii.
Sodium chloride
ix.
Cuprous chloride
x.
Cupric chloride
Formula
H3PO4
Na3PO4
FePO4
AlPO4
Cu3(PO4)2
Fe3(PO4)2
HCl
NaCl
Cu2Cl2
CuCl2
No.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
xvi.
xvii.
xviii.
xix.
Compound
Ferrous chloride
Ferric chloride
Stannous chloride
Stannic chloride
Sulphuric acid
Sodium sulphate
Copper sulphate
Ferrous sulphate
Ferric sulphate
Formula
FeCl2
FeCl3
SnCl2
SnCl4
H2SO4
Na2SO4
CuSO4
FeSO4
Fe2(SO4)3
Q.53. Show that Law of conservation of mass is fully justified in a balanced chemical equation.
A balanced chemical reaction can be used to establish the weight relationships of reactants and
Ans: i.
products.
ii.
This is in accordance with the law of conservation of mass, which states that, total mass of reactants
is always equal to total mass of the products.
eg.
The mass relationship is given in following balanced reaction.
(Atomic masses: Fe = 55.85 u, Cl = 35.45 u)
2Fe(s)
+ 3Cl2(g)
2FeCl3(s)
(2 atoms)
(3 molecules)
(2 molecules)
[2 (55.85 + 3 35.45) g]
[2 55.85 g] [3 35.45 2 g]
[111.7 g ]
[ 212.7 g]
[324.4 g]
324.4 g
324.4 g
Hence, the mass is conserved during the reaction.
*Q.54. What are limiting and excess reactants?
The stoichiometric coefficients of reactants and products in the balanced chemical equation
Ans: i.
determines the amounts of reactants required and products formed in a chemical reaction.
ii.
Usually, to save cost cheaper reactant is taken in excess while the costlier reactant is used in lesser
amount.
iii. As and when the reactant, which is taken in lesser amount, gets consumed the reaction stops. For the
reactant, which is taken in excess, only a part of it is consumed while the rest is left behind with the
products.
iv. Thus, the reactant taken in inadequate quantity is called as limiting reactant. It is the reactant that
reacts completely, but limits further progress of the reaction.
The excess reactant is the reactant which is taken in excess compared to the limiting reactant. Hence,
v.
some amount of it remains unreacted.
Q.55. In the combustion of methane in air, what is the limiting reactant and why?
Ans: In the combustion of methane in air, methane is the limiting reactant because the other reactant is oxygen of
the air which is always present in excess. Thus, the amounts of carbon dioxide and water formed will
depend upon the amount of CH4 burnt.
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Pure substances
Substances which always
have a fixed composition.
Elements
Pure substances which are made
up of only one component.
eg. Gold, silver, etc.
Mixtures
A simple combination of two
or more substances in which
the constituent substances
retain their separate identities.
Compounds
Pure substances which are made
up of two or more components.
eg. Water, ammonia, etc.
Homogeneous mixture
A mixture in which the
concentration of the constituents
remains uniform throughout the
mixture and all the constituents
are present in one phase.
eg. Mixture of salt and water
ii.
iii.
iv.
Heterogeneous mixture
A mixture in which two
or more phases are present.
eg. Phenol-water system
Contributing Scientists
i. Lomonosove (Russian scientist)
ii. Antoine Laviosier (French chemist)
Joseph Proust (French chemist)
John Dalton (British scientist)
Joseph Louis GayLussac (French chemist)
Important Formulae
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Mass of element
Atomic mass
Atomic mass
Mass of one atom =
6.022 1023
Molecular mass
Mass of one molecule =
6.022 1023
Mass of substance
Number of moles (n) =
Molar mass of substance
Number of molecules = n Avogadro number
Volume of gas at STP = n 22.414 L.
Mass of the element in1mole of the compound
Percentage (by weight) =
100
Gram molecular weight of the compound
Molecular formula = r empirical formula (where r is ratio of molecular mass to empirical mass).
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Ar
Ar
40
Ar
38
Solution:
To find:
Formula:
abundance
35.96755
37.96272
39.9624
0.337%
0.063%
99.600%
(NCERT)
Calculation:
Average atomic mass of argon
=
100
Calculation:
Average atomic mass of chlorine
34.9689 75.77 + 36.9659 24.23
=
100
= 35.4528 g mol1
Ans: Average atomic mass of chlorine = 35.4528 g mol1.
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Example 3
Boron occurs in nature in the form of two isotopes having atomic mass 10 and 11. What are the percentage
abundances of two isotopes in the sample of boron having average atomic mass 10.8?
Solution:
Given: Atomic masses of two isotopes of boron = 10 and 11, Average atomic mass of boron = 10.8
To find: The percentage abundances of two isotopes in the sample of boron having average atomic mass 10.8
atomic mass of 10 B percentage
Formula: Average atomic mass =
100
11
+ atomic mass of B percentage
x 10 + (100 x) 11
= 10.8
100
x = 1100 + 1080
x = 20
Percentage abundance: 10B = 20%, 11B = (100 20) = 80%
Ans: Percentage abundance: 10B = 20%, 11B = 80%.
Type II : Problems based on Avogadro number and mole concept
*Example 4
Calculate the number of moles and molecules of ammonia present in 5.6 dm3 of its volume.
Solution:
Let number of moles present in 5.6 dm3 of ammonia = x
Number of moles present in 22.414 dm3 of ammonia = 1
5.6
x=
= 0.25 mole
22.414
1 mole of NH3 (ammonia) = 6.022 1023 molecules
Volume occupied by x g of NH3 at S.T.P = 22.414 dm3 .[1 mole of any gas occupies 22.414 dm3 at S.T.P]
22.414 3.49
= 17.46 g mol1.
4.48
Ans: Molar mass of ammonia is 17.46 g mol1.
x=
23
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*Example 6
Calculate the mass of potassium chlorate required to liberate 6.72 dm3 of oxygen at STP, molar mass of
potassium chlorate is 112.5 g mol1.
Solution:
The molecular formula of potassium chlorate is KClO3.
Required chemical equation:
2KClO3
2KCl + 3O2
[2 112.5 = 225 g]
[3 22.414 = 67.242 dm3]
Thus, 225 g of potassium chlorate will liberate 67.242 dm3 of oxygen gas.
Let x gram of KClO3 liberate 6.72 dm3 at S.T.P.
225 6.72
x=
= 22.49 g
67.242
Ans: Mass of potassium chlorate required is 22.49 g.
*Example 7
Calculate the volume of oxygen required for complete combustion of 0.25 mole of methane at STP.
Solution:
Required chemical equation:
+ 2O2
CO2 + 2H2O
CH4
[1 mole]
[2 moles]
Thus, 1 mole of CH4 requires 2 moles or 2 22.414 dm3 of O2 for complete combustion.
x=
= 0.5 dm3
22.414
Ans: The volume of hydrogen required is 0.5 dm3.
*Example 9
Calculate the number of atoms of hydrogen present in 5.6 g of urea (molar mass of urea = 60 g mol1).
Also calculate the number of atoms of N, C and O.
Solution:
Given:
Mass of urea = 5.6 g
Molar mass of urea = 60 g mol1
To find:
The number of atoms of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and oxygen
Calculation:
Molecular formula of urea: CO(NH2)2
1 molecule of urea has total 8 atoms, out of which 4 atoms are of H, 2 atoms are of N, 1 of C and 1 of O.
1 mole or 60 g of urea contains 6.022 1023 molecules
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60
= 21.829 1023
= 2.183 1024 atoms of carbon.
Similarly,
In 60 g of C3H7OH, there are 8 6.022 1023 atoms of hydrogen.
60
= 5.821 1024 atoms of hydrogen.
Similarly,
In 60 g of C3H7OH, there are 1 6.022 1023 atoms of oxygen
In 72.5 g of C3H7OH, let there be z atoms of oxygen.
72.5 1 6.022 10 23
z=
= 7.277 1023 atoms of oxygen.
60
Ans: 72.5 g of isopropanol contains 2.183 1024 atoms of C,
5.821 1024 atoms of H and
7.277 1023 atoms of O.
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Example 11
Calculate the number of moles and the volume in litres of the following gases at STP:
i.
1.6 g of oxygen
ii.
3. 5 103 kg of nitrogen
iii. 85 103 kg of hydrogen sulphide
Solution:
i.
For Oxygen:
One mole of O2
= 2 16 = 32 g (molar mass)
= 22.414 dm3 at STP
weight(w)
1.6
Number of moles of O2 =
=
32
molar mass (M)
= 0.05
Volume of oxygen (at STP)
= moles 22.414 L
= 0.05 22.414 L
= 1.12 L or dm3
ii.
For Nitrogen:
One mole of N2
= 2 14
= 28 g = 28103 kg (molar mass)
= 22.414 dm3 at STP
w 3.5 103
=
Number of moles of N2 =
M
28 103
= 0.125
Volume of N2 (at STP) = moles 22.414 L
= 0.125 22.414
= 2.8 L or dm3
iii. For Hydrogen sulphide:
One mole of H2S = (2 1) + (1 32) = 34 g i.e., 34 103 kg (molar mass) = 22.414 dm3 at STP
85103
w
=
Number of moles of H2S =
M
34 103
= 2.5
Volume of H2S (at STP) = moles 22.414 L
= 2.5 22.414 = 56 L or dm3
Ans: i.
Number of moles and volume of oxygen in 1.6 g of oxygen are 0.05 and 1.12 L respectively.
ii.
Number of moles and volume of nitrogen in 3.5 103 kg of nitrogen are 0.125 and 2.8 L
respectively.
iii. Number of moles and volume of hydrogen sulphide in 85 103 kg of hydrogen sulphide are 2.5 and
56 L respectively.
Example 12
Calculate the number of moles and number of molecules of 12 g of carbon, 64 g of oxygen and 72 g of
water.
(Atomic masses: C = 12, O = 16, H = 1)
Solution:
Given:
Atomic masses of C = 12, O = 16 and H = 1.
To find:
The number of moles and number of molecules of 12 g of carbon, 64 of oxygen and 72 g of water.
Formula:
Mass of the substance(w)
1.
Number of moles (n) =
Atomic mass or molecular mass of substance(M)
2.
Number of molecules = n Avogadro number
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Calculation:
a.
For Carbon:
w 12
=
( Atomic mass of C = 12)
M 12
=1
ii.
Number of molecules = 1 6.022 1023 = 6.022 1023
For Oxygen:
64
i.
Number of moles =
( Molecular mass of O2 = 2 16 = 32)
32
=2
ii.
Number of molecules = 2 6.022 1023
= 12.044 1023 = 1.2044 1024
i.
b.
c.
For Water:
72
( Molecular mass of H2O = (2 1) + (1 16) = 18)
18
=4
ii.
Number of molecules = 4 6.022 1023
= 24.088 1023= 2.4088 1024
Number of moles and number of molecules in 12 g of carbon are 1 and 6.022 1023 respectively.
Number of moles and number of molecules in 64 g of oxygen are 2 and 1.2044 1024 respectively.
Number of moles and number of molecules in 72 g of water are 4 and 2.4088 1024 respectively.
i.
Ans: i.
ii.
iii.
Number of moles =
Number of moles =
Example 13
Calculate the mass of the following
i.
0.25 mole of iron
ii.
2.5 moles of ammonia
iii. 250 molecules of sodium chloride
iv. 1.2 moles of methane
Solution:
i.
0.25 mole of iron (Fe):
Atomic mass of iron = 56
1 mole of Fe
56 g of Fe 56 103 kg of Fe
ii.
iii.
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iv.
Ans: i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Example 14
What will be the mass of one 12C atom in g?
Solution:
1 mole of
12
Mass of 1 atom of
12
C =
12
C = 12 g
12
g = 1.9927 1023 g
23
6.022 10
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*Example 16
Calculate the mass percentage composition of the elements in nitric acid (H = 1, N = 14, O = 16).
Solution:
Given:
Atomic mass of H = 1, N = 14 and O = 16
To find:
The mass percentage of H, N and O in HNO3
Mass of element in one mole of compound 100
Formula: %(by weight) =
Gram molecular weight of compound
Calculation: Molecular formula of nitric acid : HNO3
Percentage of hydrogen =
100
63
= 1.59 %
14
Percentage of nitrogen =
100
63
= 22.22%
48
Percentage of oxygen =
100
63
= 76.19%
Ans: Mass percentage of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen in nitric acid are 1.59%, 22.22% and 76.19%
respectively.
Example 17
Calculate the mass percentage of different elements present in sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).
(NCERT)
Solution:
Given:
Molecular formula of sodium sulphate = Na2SO4
To find:
The mass percentage of Na, S and O in sodium sulphate
Mass of element in one mole of compound 100
Formula: %(by weight) =
Gram molecular weight of compound
Calculation:Atomic mass of Na = 23, S = 32, O = 16
Percentage of sodium =
142
32
100 = 22. 54 %
Percentage of sulphur =
142
64
100 = 45.07 %
Percentage of oxygen =
142
Ans: Mass percentage of sodium, sulphur and oxygen in sodium sulphate are 32.39, 22.54 and 45.07
respectively.
*Example 18
Analysis of vitamin C shows that it contains 40.92% carbon by mass, 4.58% hydrogen and 54.50% oxygen.
Determine the empirical formula of vitamin C.
Solution:
Given:
Analysis of vitamin C shows,
Percentage mass of carbon = 40.92%
Percentage mass of hydrogen = 4.58%
Percentage mass of oxygen = 54.50%
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54.50
% of oxygen
=
= 3.406 3.41
16
Atomic mass of oxygen
3.41
4.58
3.41
=1:
= 1.34 :
=1
3.41
3.41
3.41
Ratio = 1 : 1.34 : 1
Multiply by 3 to get whole number
Ratio = 3 : 4.02 : 3 3 : 4 : 3
Ratio = 1 : 1.50
Multiply by 2 to get whole number
Ratio = 2 : 3
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#Example 21
An inorganic compound contained 24.75% (w/w) potassium and 34.75% (w/w) manganese and some other
common elements. Give the empirical formula of the compound (K = 39 u, Mn = 59 u, O = 16 u)
Solution:
Given:
Atomic mass of K = 39 u, Mn = 59 u, and O = 16 u.
Percentage of potassium and manganese = 24.75 % and 34.75 % respectively.
To find:
The empirical formula of the given inorganic compound
Calculation: Percentage of potassium
= 24.75 %
Percentage of manganese
= 34.75 %
Total percentage
= 59.50 %
Remaining must be that of oxygen
Percentage of oxygen = 100 59.50 = 40.50 %
% of potassium
Moles of potassium =
Atomic mass of potassium
24.75
= 0.635
39
34.75
% of manganese
=
= 0.589
Moles of manganese =
59
Atomic mass of manganese
40.50
% of oxygen
=
= 2.53
Moles of oxygen
=
16
Atomic mass of oxygen
0.635 0.589
2.53
:
:
= 1.08 : 1 : 4.29 1 : 1 : 4
Ratio of K : Mn : O =
0.589 0.589 0.589
=
Total percentage
= 34.696 %
Remaining amount is oxygen
Percentage of oxygen = 100 34.696 = 65.304 %
3.086
% mass of hydrogen
Moles of hydrogen
=
=
= 3.05
1.01
Atomic mass of hydrogen
31.61
% mass of phosphorous
=
= 1.019
Moles of phosphorous =
31
Atomic mass of phosphorous
65.304
% mass of oxygen
=
= 4.08
Moles of Oxygen =
16
Atomic mass of oxygen
Ratio of H: P: O =
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= r Empirical formula
= 1 H3PO4
= H3PO4
Ans: The molecular formula of phosphoric acid is H3PO4.
Molecular formula
BaSO4 +
2NaCl
[(2 23) + 32 + (4 16)]
[137 + 32 + (4 16)]
[46 + 32 + 64]
[137 + 32 + 64]
[142 g]
[233 g]
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2AuCl3
[2 196.97 g]
+
[3 35.45 2]
[2(196.97 + 3 35.45)]
[393.94 g]
+
[212.7 g]
[606.64]
[606.64 g]
[606.64 g]
2
Theoretical ratio of moles of gold to chlorine =
= 0.667
3
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= 4.6 g
2 moles of Au give 2 moles of AuCl3
Q.1. Define:
i.
physical chemistry. Refer Q.4.i.
ii.
inorganic chemistry. Refer Q.4.ii.
iii. organic chemistry. Refer Q.4.iii.
iv. analytical chemistry. Refer Q.4.iv.
v.
biochemistry. Refer Q.4.v.
Q.2. Explain the following:
i.
Pure substance. Refer Q.8.i.
ii.
Mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.
Q.3. Define the following with suitable examples:
i.
Homogeneous mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.a.
ii.
Heterogeneous mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.b.
*Q.4. State and explain the law of conservation of mass. Refer Q.22.i.
Q.5. State and explain the law of definite composition / proportions. Refer Q.22.ii.
Q.6. State and explain the law of multiple proportions. Refer Q.22.iii.
*Q.7. State and explain Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases. Refer Q.22.iv.
*Q.8. Define elements, compounds and molecules. Refer Q.13.i.a, Q.13.ii.a. and Q.30.ii.a.
Q.9. Show that molar gas volume at STP is 22.414 L or 0.022414 m3.
OR
Prove that 1 mole of any gas at STP always has a volume of 22.414 L. Refer Q.37.(iii to vi)
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13.
Type I
1.
Type II
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Type III
10.
11.
12.
Type IV
14.
Type V
15.
1.0
Prominent scientists
1.
1.1
Introduction
2.
1.2
3.
1.3
4.
5.
35
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6.
7.
8.
1.5
13.
1.6
14.
1.7
15.
16.
1.8
Avogadros law
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
1.4
9.
10.
11.
12.
STP,
Tar
23.
24.
25.
26.
1.9
Percentage
formula
27.
28.
29.
composition
and
molecular
30.
31.
32.
1.
28.11 u.
2.
3.
4.
7.55 moles
5.
2.68 1010
6.
i.
iii.
5 moles
0.25 moles
ii.
iv.
4.0 moles
2 moles
7.
i.
iii.
6 moles
4.6 104 mole
ii.
iv.
23.08 moles
0.5 mole
8.
i.
iii.
3.6 103 kg
0.192 kg
ii.
3.65 103 kg
9.
i.
3.82 1020
ii.
7.52 1021
10.
i.
% of carbon = 20%
% of oxygen = 26.67%
% of nitrogen = 46.67%
% of hydrogen = 6.67%
ii.
% of Cu = 25.45%
% of S = 12.83%
% of O = 57.72%
% of H = 4.00
11.
12.
13.
Na2S2O3
14.
15.
i.
ii.
56.67 kg
Hydrogen
1. (B)
5. (C)
9. (C)
13. (D)
17. (B)
21. (A)
25. (C)
29. (B)
2.
6.
10.
14.
18.
22.
26.
30.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(B)
(D)
(C)
(B)
(C)
3.
7.
11.
15.
19.
23.
27.
31.
(A)
(D)
(B)
(B)
(A)
(D)
(A)
(D)
4.
8.
12.
16.
20.
24.
28.
32.
(D)
(A)
(D)
(A)
(A)
(D)
(A)
(D)
37