ChE 310 Industrial Chemistry

Industrial Acids and Bases

Fabregar, Noel Christian

Guinhawa, Nadinne Adriene
Reyes, Marjorie

ChE 310 Industrial Chemistry

Industrial Acids and Bases

Introduction
Acids and bases can be found everywhere in the world around us.
Lactic acid is found in sour milk, citric acid in citrus fruits, oxalic acid in
rhubarb, malic acid in apples, and tartaric acid in wine. Baking soda,
antacids, and lye all contain bases. Acids and bases are two broad classes of
compounds that have a great deal of importance in both chemistry and
biochemistry. In industry, acids and bases are used in various reactions.
Sulfuric acid, one of the most important industrial chemicals, is used to
manufacture fertilizers for agriculture, to make man-made fibers, paints and
dyes, and to purify petroleum products. The base sodium hydroxide is used
for the production of fabrics, paper, and cleaning agents. Bases are also used
for various other purposes, including cleaning surfaces, refining oil and
sugar, electroplating metals, and treating food products.
About 40 billion kilograms (or about 90 billion pounds) of sulfuric
acid are manufactured in the United States each year, making it the number
one chemical in the chemical industry. In addition, approximately 12 billion
kilograms (about 26 billion pounds) of sodium hydroxide and 11 billion
kilograms (about 25 billion pounds) of phosphoric acid are produced each
year.
Acids have a sour taste, and many of the sour-tasting foods with
which we are familiar are acidic. Vinegar, for example, is diluted acetic acid
(normal household vinegar is a 3% solution of acetic acid), and gives salad
dressings and pickled vegetables their tart tastes. While the tart taste of
some acids can be a pleasant addition to many kinds of foods, bases have a
bitter flavor, and therefore are not typically preferred for human
consumption. However, many people have acquired tastes for caffeine and
nicotine, both of which are alkaloids, a class of nitrogen-containing bases.
o Strong Acid - Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid, also known as oil of vitriol or hydrogen sulphate, is a
colorless oily liquid. It is soluble in water with release of heat. It is
corrosive to metals and tissue. It will char wood and most other organic
matter on contact, but is unlikely to cause a fire. Long term exposure to low
concentrations or short term exposure to high concentrations can result in
adverse health effects from inhalation.
Sulfuric acid has many practical uses. It is perhaps best known as
battery acid, though it is also used extensively in the production of
fertilizers, particularly ammonium sulfate. Sulfuric acid also plays a role in
the processing of iron and steel. Sulfuric acid is used to make detergents and
polymers, and it's also a dehydrating agent that chemists use to remove
water from substances during manufacturing. Finally, sulfuric acid is used in
the production of nitroglycerine, which is both an explosive and a treatment
for certain kinds of heart disease.
Production of Sulfuric Acid:
The process for producing sulfuric acid has four stages:
a) extraction of sulfur

b) conversion of sulfur to sulfur dioxide

c) conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
d) conversion of sulfur trioxide to sulfuric acid
A) Extraction of sulfur
Easily the most important source of sulfur is its recovery from
natural gas and oil. These contain sulfur compounds, both organic and
hydrogen sulfide both of which must be removed before they are used as
fuels or chemical feedstock.
Another important source of sulfur is as sulfur dioxide from metal
refining. Many metal ores occur as sulfides and are roasted to form an oxide
and sulfur dioxide, for example, in the manufacture of lead:
B) Conversion of sulfur to sulfur dioxide
If sulfur is the feedstock, it must first be converted to sulfur dioxide.
Molten sulfur is sprayed into a furnace and burnt in a blast of dry air at about
1300 K. The sulfur burns with a characteristic blue flame:
As excess air is used the emerging gas contains about 10-12% sulfur
dioxide and 10% oxygen, by volume. The gases are very hot and so are
passed through heat exchangers (waste heat boilers). The gases are cooled
to about 700 K and the water in the surrounding boiler pipes is converted
into steam. In manufacturing one tonne of sulfuric acid, one tonne of high
pressure steam is also produced.
C) Conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide (The Contact
Process)
A typical plant contains one cylindrical vessel which acts as a fixed bed
reactor with four separate beds of catalyst, known as a converter, heated to
700 K, through which the sulfur dioxide and air pass:

D) Conversion of sulfur trioxide to sulfuric acid

The sulfur trioxide formed from the third bed (and the small amount
from the fourth bed) are now converted to sulfuric acid.
Sulfur trioxide reacts with water and the reaction can be expressed as:

However, water itself cannot be used for absorption as there is a large

temperature rise, and a sulfuric acid mist is formed, which is difficult to
handle. Instead, sulfuric acid of about 98% concentration is used. This is
kept at this concentration by addition of water and removal of acid at that
concentration.
o Strong Base - Sodium hydroxide

Caustic Soda is also known as sodium hydroxide. Whitish solid,

highly corrosive and alkali salt, sold in pellets, flakes, and granular form, as
well as in solution. It is highly soluble in water, with a lower solubility in
ethanol and methanol, but is insoluble in ether and other non-polar solvents.
Caustic soda, as a 50% solution, is an odorless and colorless liquid. It reacts
readily with metals such as aluminum, magnesium, zinc, tin, chromium,
bronze, brass, copper, and tantalum. It reacts with most animal tissue,
including leather, human skin, and eyes. The compound is a strong, highly
caustic metallic base that can cause severe chemical burns if it comes in
contact with the skin.
Occidental Chemical Corporation or OxyChem, (leading North American
manufacturer of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resins, chlorine and caustic soda)
The DOW Chemical Company and AkzoNobel Industrial Chemicals have the
same process in manufacturing Caustic Soda. It is obtained on the
electrolysis of brine. In the electrolytic cell, the sodium chloride solution is
decomposed to chlorine at the anode and to a sodium hydroxide solution and
hydrogen at the cathode.

There are two electrolytic processes to produce caustic soda:

1.

Diaphragm Cell

Using
diaphragm
cell
technology,
chlorine,
caustic soda and hydrogen
are
produced
simultaneously.
Saturated
brine enters the anode
compartment of the cell,
where
chlorine
gas
is
liberated. The function of
the
diaphragm
is
to
separate the brine from the
caustic solution (called cell
effluent) at the cathode
side, which is also where
hydrogen gas is released.
2.

Membrane Cell

Membrane cell technology is a relatively recent development. It differs

from diaphragm cell technology in that a membrane rather than a diaphragm
separates the solutions surrounding each electrode. The membrane is very
selective and primarily allows the migration of sodium ions from the anode
chamber to the cathode chamber. Saturated brine enters the anode
compartment of the cell where chlorine gas is liberated. Since only sodium
ions can pass through the membrane to the cathode (brine cannot pass
through the membrane), the caustic soda (cell effluent) contains
substantially less sodium chloride. No salt removal capabilities are required
as in the diaphragm cell process.
Sodium hydroxides domestic uses are various and many. It is
used in drain cleaning products, since its causticity can dissolve clogs and
blockages; also decomposing complex molecules such as protein of hair.
Beginning in the early 1900s, lye has been used to relax or straighten the
hair of persons of African ethnicity. Among men, this treatment was often
called a process. However, because of the high incidence and intensity of
chemical burns, chemical relaxer manufacturers began switching to other
alkaline chemicals (most commonly guanidine hydroxide) during the latter
quarter of the twentieth century, although lye relaxers are still available,
usually under use by professionals.
The chemical industry utilizes over 50% of the compound produced
annually, with the paper industry alone using 25% of that to process
wood pulp. Sodium hydroxide is also used in the Bayer process, which is
used to manufacture aluminum. Lye is also used during the road
construction process, as an underlying layer that absorbs moisture and
keeps the oil from asphalt from impinging into groundwater.
Safety:
Sodium hydroxide in any form is dangerous if it comes into prolonged
contact with the skin. Solid lye in pellet or powder form is inert, but if it gets
damp it rapidly becomes corrosive, and can cause debilitating chemical
burns to the skin and permanent blindness if the vapor comes in contact with
the eyes. Never use lye-based drain cleaner to open clogs in a toilet or
plumbing linked to a septic tank, as the reaction between the gases in the

tank and the sodium hydroxide can cause a major explosion. Always use
gloves and protective eyewear with sodium hydroxide approved for home
usage.

o Weak Acid - Acetic Acid

It is a colourless liquid that when undiluted is also called glacial
acetic acid. Glacial acetic acid is a name for water-free (anhydrous) acetic
acid. Acetic acid has a distinctive sour taste and pungent smell. Although it is
classified as a weak acid, concentrated acetic acid is corrosive and can
attack the skin.
Acetic acid is produced from oxidizing ethanol or destructively
distilling wood, and is also known as acetate, Acetasol and vinegar acid. It
is used in the manufacture of ink and dyes, of pesticides and food
preservatives and of rubber and plastic. It is used as a pharmaceutical agent
to treat ear infections, and it's also the main ingredient in vinegar. Acetic
acid is released into the environment from industrial emissions as well as
automotive emissions. However, when acetic acid is released into the air -- or
evaporates after being released into water or soil -- sunlight breaks it down
naturally.

Production of acetic acid:

A) Methanol carbonylation
Most acetic acid is produced by methanol carbonylation. In this
process, methanol and carbon monoxide react to produce acetic acid
according to the
equation:
+

The process involves iodomethane as an intermediate, and occurs in

three steps. A catalyst, metal carbonyl, is needed for the carbonylation (step
2).
1. CH3OH + HI CH3I + H2O
2. CH3I + CO CH3COI
3. CH3COI + H2O CH3COOH + HI
Two related processes for the carbonylation of methanol: the rhodiumcatalyzed Monsanto process, and the iridium-catalyzed Cativa process. The
latter process is greener and more efficient and has largely supplanted the
former process, often in the same production plants. Catalytic amounts of
water are used in both processes, but the Cativa process requires less, so the
water-gas shift reaction is suppressed, and fewer by-products are formed.
By altering the process conditions, acetic anhydride may also be
produced on the same plant using the rhodium catalysts.

B) Acetaldehyde oxidation
Prior to the commercialization of the Monsanto process, most acetic
acid was produced by oxidation of acetaldehyde. This remains the secondmost-important
manufacturing
method,
although
it
is
usually
uncompetitive with the carbonylation of methanol.
The acetaldehyde may be produced via oxidation of butane or light
naphtha, or by hydration of ethylene. When butane or light naphtha is
heated with air in the presence of various metal ions, including those of
manganese, cobalt, and chromium, peroxides form and then decompose to
produce acetic acid according to the chemical equation:
2 C4H10 + 5 O2 4 CH3COOH + 2 H2O

The typical reaction is conducted at temperatures and pressures

designed to be as hot as possible while still keeping the butane a liquid.
Typical reaction conditions are 150 C (302 F) and 55 atm. Side-products
may also form, including butanone, ethyl acetate, formic acid, and propionic
acid. These side-products are also commercially valuable, and the reaction
conditions may be altered to produce more of them where needed. However,
the separation of acetic acid from these by-products adds to the cost of the
process.
Under similar conditions and using similar catalysts as are used for
butane oxidation, the oxygen in air to produce acetic acid can oxidize
acetaldehyde.
2 CH3CHO + O2 2 CH3COOH

Using modern catalysts, this reaction can have an acetic acid yield
greater than 95%. The major side-products are ethyl acetate, formic acid,
and formaldehyde, all of which have lower boiling points than acetic acid and
are readily separated by distillation.[35]
C) Ethylene oxidation
Acetaldehyde may be prepared from ethylene via the Wacker
process, and then oxidised as above. In more recent times, chemical
company Showa Denko, which opened an ethylene oxidation plant in ita,
Japan, in 1997, commercialised a cheaper single-stage conversion of
ethylene to acetic acid. The process is catalyzed by a palladium metal
catalyst supported on a heteropoly acid such as tungstosilicic acid. It is
thought to be competitive with methanol carbonylation for smaller plants
depending on the local price of ethylene. The approach will be based on
utilizing a novel selective photocatalytic oxidation technology for the
selective oxidation of ethylene and ethane to acetic acid. Unlike traditional
oxidation catalysts, the selective oxidation process will use UV light to
produce acetic acid at ambient temperatures and pressure.
D) Oxidative fermentation
For most of human history, acetic acid bacteria of the genus
Acetobacter have made acetic acid, in the form of vinegar. Given sufficient
oxygen, these bacteria can produce vinegar from a variety of alcoholic
foodstuffs. Commonly used feeds include apple cider, wine, and fermented

grain, malt, rice, or potato mashes. The overall chemical reaction facilitated
by these bacteria is:
C2H5OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O

A dilute alcohol solution inoculated with Acetobacter and kept in a

warm, airy place will become vinegar over the course of a few months.
Industrial vinegar-making methods accelerate this process by improving the
supply of oxygen to the bacteria.
Nowadays, most vinegar is made in submerged tank culture, first
described in 1949 by Otto Hromatka and Heinrich Ebner. In this method,
alcohol is fermented to vinegar in a continuously stirred tank, and oxygen is
supplied by bubbling air through the solution. Using modern applications of
this method, vinegar of 15% acetic acid can be prepared in only 24 hours in
batch process, even 20% in 60-hour fed-batch process.
E) Anaerobic fermentation
Species of anaerobic bacteria, including members of the genus
Clostridium or Acetobacterium can convert sugars to acetic acid directly,
without using ethanol as an intermediate. The overall chemical reaction
conducted by these bacteria may be represented as:
C6H12O6 3 CH3COOH
These acetogenic bacteria produce acetic acid from one-carbon
compounds, including methanol, carbon monoxide, or a mixture of carbon
dioxide and hydrogen:
2 CO2 + 4 H2 CH3COOH + 2 H2O

This ability of Clostridium to utilize sugars directly, or to produce acetic

acid from less costly inputs, means that these bacteria could potentially
produce acetic acid more efficiently than ethanol-oxidizers like Acetobacter.
However, Clostridium bacteria are less acid-tolerant than Acetobacter. Even
the most acid-tolerant Clostridium strains can produce vinegar of only a few
per cent acetic acid, compared to Acetobacter strains that can produce
vinegar of up to 20% acetic acid. At present, it remains more cost-effective
to produce vinegar using Acetobacter than to produce it using Clostridium
and then concentrate it. As a result, although acetogenic bacteria have been
known since 1940, their industrial use remains confined to a few niche
applications.
Acetic acid is a chemical reagent for the production of chemical
compounds. The largest single use of acetic acid is in the production of vinyl
acetate monomer, closely followed by acetic anhydride and ester production.
The volume of acetic acid used in vinegar is comparatively small.

o Weak Base - Ammonia

Ammonia or azane is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the
formula NH3. It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. When
mixed with oxygen, it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame.
Natural occurrence:

Ammonia is found in trace quantities in the atmosphere, being

produced from the putrefaction (decay process) of nitrogenous animal and
vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small
quantities in rainwater, whereas ammonium chloride and ammonium sulfate
are found in volcanic districts; crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have
been found in Patagonian guano. The kidneys secrete ammonia to
neutralize excess acid. Ammonium salts are found distributed through
fertile soil and in seawater.
Ammonia is also found throughout the Solar System on Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Substances containing ammonia, or
those that are similar to it, are called ammoniacal.
Ammonia and chemicals formed from ammonia have a remarkable
number of real-world applications, many of which are as cleaners. It removes
tarnish from metals, and grease, soap scum and stains from clothing. It will
even strip stubborn wax from your floors. Ammonia is used in the
manufacturing of fertilizers and latex products. Ammonia is also a bug and
animal repellent that can be used to ward off moths or keep unwanted pests
from your trash. You can even use it to absorb other odors. For example, if
you place dishes of dilute ammonia in a freshly painted room, the ammonia
will absorb the smell of the paint.

The pH scale
Sorensen was born on January 9, 1868, at Havrebjerg, Slagelse,
Denmark and belonged to a peasant family. He was working at the Carlsberg
Laboratory in 1909 when he studied the effect of ion concentration on
proteins. He realized that the concentration of hydrogen ions was particularly
important and hence he introduced the pH-scale. According to him, pH scale
was a simple way of expressing it. A pH scale helps in measuring how
acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale is logarithmic. The meaning
of the "p" in "pH" is unknown. Some references indicate that it stands for
"power" while some others refer to the German potenz which means
"power". Some others refer to the French puissance which again means
"power". This meaning is based on the fact that the Carlsberg Laboratory
was French-speaking. There are still others that refer to "potential".
According to the Carlsberg Foundation pH stands for "power of hydrogen".
The scale was later revised to the modern pH in the year 1924 and later it
became apparent that electromotive force in cells depends on activity rather
than concentration of hydrogen ions. Till date, the pH scale has found an
indispensable place in almost every chemistry laboratory and is the most
important aspect of any chemical procedure.

The pH meter
On October 1934, Arnold Beckman had registered patent application
U.S. Patent No. 2,058,761 for his "acidimeter", later renamed the pH meter.
The Arthur H. Thomas Company, a nationally known scientific instrument
dealer based in Philadelphia, was willing to try selling it. Although it was
priced expensively at $195, roughly the starting monthly wage for a
chemistry professor at that time, it was significantly cheaper than the
estimated cost of building a comparable instrument from individual

components, about $500. The original pH meter weighed in at nearly 7 kg,

but was a substantial improvement over a benchful of delicate equipment.
The earliest meter had a design glitch, in that the pH readings changed with
the depth of immersion of the electrodes, but Beckman fixed the problem by
sealing the glass bulb of the electrode.
Applications:

Aqua Regia
Aqua Regia (translates
substance. It is made by
parts hydrochloric acid. It is
dissolve gold and platinum,
metals. Tantalum, iridium and a

to Royal water in Latin) is a chemical

mixing one part nitric acid and three
one of the few substances that can
and
other noble
few other metals are not dissolved by it.

History:
Aqua
regia
was
discovered
around
800
AD,
by
the
Muslim alchemist Geber,
when
he
mixed
common salt with vitriol (sulphuric acid). In the Middle Ages it was one
of the ways that alchemists tried to find the philosopher's stone.
When Germany invaded Denmark in World
War
II,
the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy took the Nobel Prize medals
of Max von Laue and James Franck to keep them safe. De Hevesy dissolved
the medals, which were made of gold, into aqua regia. He did this so
the Nazis would not steal them. He placed the jar that held the solution of
aqua regia and gold on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute.
The jar looked the same as hundreds of other jars in the laboratory. The Nazis
thought that all the jars had normal chemicals in them. After the war, de
Hevesy returned to the lab. He found the jar with the solution and removed
the gold from it. He returned the gold to the Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences. The Nobel Foundation used the gold to make new medals for Laue
and Franck.
Uses:
Aqua Regia is used in metal etching and scientific analysis. It is
also used to clean certain lab machines from tiny metal particles. It is
particularly used in the purification and extraction of gold and platinum.
Applications:
Aqua regia is primarily used to produce chloroauric acid, the
electrolyte in the Wohlwill process. This process is used for refining highest
quality (99.999%) gold. This method is preferred over the "traditional"
chromic acid bath for cleaning NMR tubes, because no traces of
paramagnetic chromium can remain to later spoil acquired spectra.
Furthermore, chromic acid baths are discouraged because of the high toxicity
of chromium and the potential for explosions. Aqua regia is itself very
corrosive and has been implicated in several explosions due to mishandling.
Due to the reaction between its components resulting in its decomposition,
aqua regia quickly loses its effectiveness. As such, its components should
only be mixed immediately before use. While local regulations may vary,
aqua regia may be disposed of by carefully neutralizing with an appropriate

agentsuch as sodium bicarbonatebefore pouring down the sink. If there is

a large amount of metal in solution with the acid, it may be preferable to
carefully neutralize it, and absorb the solution with a solid material such as
vermiculite before discarding it with solid waste.

Natural Substances as Chemical Indicators

A visual acid-base indicator is just a weak acid with differently colored
acid and conjugate base forms. Flower and leaf pigments often fit this
description. For example, take rose petals and crush them with alcohol; you
have an acid/base indicator solution. Stew some red cabbage and pour off
the juice; you have an acid/base indicator solution.
Many indicators can be extracted from plants. Here are a few 'natural'
acid/base indicators.

Alizarin is an orange dye present in the root of the madder plant; it

was used to dye wool in ancient Egypt, Persia, and India.
Cochineal is an acid-base indicator made from the bodies of dried
female cochineal insects, found in Mexico and Central America.
You'll have to grind about 70,000 insects to make one pound of dry
indicator. The powder is about 10% carminic acid, which is yellow in
acidic solution, and deep violet in alkaline solution.
Curcumin, or tumeric yellow, is a natural dye found in curry powder.
It turns from yellow at pH 7.4 to red at pH 8.6.
Esculin is a fluorescent dye that can be extracted from the leaves
and bark of the horse chestnut tree. You'll need to shine a black
(ultraviolet) light on the indicator to get the full effect. Esculin changes
from colorless at pH 1.5 to fluorescent blue at pH 2.
Anthocyanin is probably the most readily available acid/base
indicator; it is the plant pigment that makes red cabbage purple,
cornflowers blue, and poppies red. It changes color from red in acid
solution to purplish to green in mildly alkaline solution to yellow in very
alkaline solution. The color changes for red cabbage juice are shown to
the right.
Litmus is a blue dye extracted from various species of lichens.
Although these lichens grow in many parts of the world, almost all
litmus is extracted and packaged in Holland. Litmus is red at pH 4.5
and blue around pH 8.3. While most litmus is used to make litmus
papers, some is used as a coloring for beverages.
Logwood is a dye obtained from the heartwood of a tree that grows
in Central America and the West Indies. The extract contains
hematoxylin and hematein, which turn bright red in alkaline solution.

Rust Remover
Use white vinegar. The vinegar reacts with the rust to dissolve it off of
the metal. To use, soak the metal in white vinegar for a few hours and then
scrub the rusty paste off.
Try a lime and salt. Sprinkle salt over the rusted area so that it is
thoroughly coated and then juice a lime over the top. Use as much juice as
you can get, and allow the mixture to set for 2-3 hours before scrubbing off.

Make a paste using baking soda. Mix baking soda with water until it is
thick enough to spread on the metal. Allow time for it to set and then scrub
off.
Use oxalic acid. Take protective precautions with this methoduse
rubber gloves, goggles and protective clothing. Do not smoke or directly
inhale the fumes of the acid. Mix about 25ml (a teaspoon is 5ml) of oxalic
acid with 250ml of warm water. Soak the item for approximately 20 minutes
or clean down the item with a cloth or brass brush. Wash fully and dry the
item when rust removal is finished.

Acetic Anhydride
Acetic anhydride, or ethanoic anhydride, is the chemical
compound with the formula (CH3CO)2O. Commonly abbreviated Ac2O, it is
the simplest isolable anhydride of a carboxylic acid and is widely used as
a reagent in organic synthesis. It is a colorless liquid that smells strongly of
acetic acid, which is formed by its reaction with moisture in the air.
Production:
Acetic anhydride was first synthesized in 1852 by the French
chemist Charles Frdric Gerhardt (1816-1856) by heating potassium
acetate
with
benzoyl
chloride.
Acetic
anhydride
is
produced
by carbonylation of methyl acetate:
CH3CO2CH3 + CO (CH3CO)2O
The Tennessee Eastman acetic anhydride process involves the
conversion of methyl acetate to methyl iodide and an acetate salt.
Carbonylation of the methyl iodide in turn affords acetyl iodide, which reacts
with acetate salts or acetic acid to give the product. Rhodium chloride in the
presence of lithium iodide is employed as catalysts. Because acetic
anhydride is not stable in water, the conversion is conducted under
anhydrous conditions.
To a decreasing extent, acetic anhydride is also prepared by the reaction
of ketene (ethenone) with acetic acid at 4555 C and low pressure
(0.050.2 bar).
H2C=C=O + CH3COOH (CH3CO)2O (H = 63 kJ/mol)
Ketene is generated by dehydrating acetic acid at 700750 C in the
presence of triethyl phosphate as a catalyst or (in Switzerland and the CIS)
by the thermolysis of acetone at 600700 C in the presence of carbon
disulfide as a catalyst.
CH3COOH
H2C=C=O + H2O (H = +147 kJ/mol)
CH3COCH3 H2C=C=O + CH4
The route from acetic acid to acetic anhydride via ketene was
developed by Wacker Chemie in 1922, when the demand for acetic
anhydride increased due to the production of cellulose acetate. Due to its low
cost, acetic anhydride is purchased, not prepared, for use in research
laboratories.
Applications:

As indicated by its organic chemistry, Ac2O is mainly used for

acetylations leading to commercially significant materials. Its largest
application is for the conversion of cellulose-to-cellulose acetate, which
is a component of photographic film and other coated materials. Similarly it
is used in the production of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), which is
prepared by the acetylation of salicylic acid. It is also used as a wood
preservative via autoclave impregnation to make a longer lasting timber. In
starch industry, acetic anhydride is a common acetylation compound, used
for the production of modified starches (E1414, E1420, E1422) Because of its
use for the synthesis of heroin by the diacetylation of morphine, acetic
anhydride is listed as a U.S. DEA List II precursor, and restricted in many
other countries.

Demineralization of Teeth

Demineralization is a process to reduce the content of mineral

substances in tissue or organism. It can lead to serious diseases such as
osteoporosis or tooth decay. Demineralization" is another term for "dissolving
the enamel."
Dental enamel is mineral, a "living stone." In your mouth, as in the
rest of nature, acids dissolve minerals, transforming them from solid mineral
molecules into mineral ions that exist only in solution. Strong stable acids do
not break down easily, so very small quantities can keep on dissolving the
minerals in your enamel. In the presence of these acids, millions, even
billions, of calcium and other mineral ions are removed from the
hydroxyapatite latticework. Eventually, the enamel loses its structural
integrity.
Enamel demineralization represents a superficial dissolving of the
surface enamelthe glassy outer shell of the tooth. It is caused by a
regular exposure of the tooth enamel to acids, such as those produced within
accumulations of bacterial. Commonly, the white spots will darken as their
roughened surface easily accumulates stains.
The acids that caused the demineralization of teeth are as follows:

Bacteria (primarily lactobacilli) that lives within dental plaque

Frequent ingestion of acidic beverages (e.g. phosphoric acid is a
common ingredient in soda, sports drinks and flavored waterit's even
found in diet soda)
Frequent exposure of the teeth to citrus fruits, which contain citric
acid (particularly lemons)
Stomach acids (as in the eating disorder and patients with reflux
disorders. Cells in the stomach produce hydrochloric acid to help digest
food.)
Certain drugs (such as "meth", or methamphetamine), whether

from the drug itself, poor nutrition, chronic dry mouth caused by the
drug, or poor dental hygiene common in drug abusers.
Acids by oral bacteria that feed on starches and sugars in
mouth, especially refines sugars, secreting acids as by-products.

Car Batteries
Lead-acid batteries are made up of plates of lead and separate plates
of lead dioxide, which are submerged into an electrolyte solution of about
38%sulfuric acid and 62% water.This causes a chemical reaction that
releases electrons, allowing them to flow through conductors
to
produce electricity. As the battery discharges, the acid of the electrolyte
reacts with the materials of the plates, changing their surface to lead sulfate.
When the battery is recharged, the chemical reaction is reversed: the lead
sulfate reforms into lead dioxide and lead with the sulfate returning to the
electrolyte solution restoring the electrolyte specific gravity. With the plates
restored to their original condition, the process may now be repeated.

Acidic or Basic Fertilizer

Types
Fertilizers can be found in most garden centers that have a high
proportion of acids, such as cottonseed, or a high proportion of
nitrogen, or of bases, such as lime. Such fertilizers provide a convenient
way to amend an undesirable soil pH. Whether soil needs to be amended to
correct its prevailing pH depends on a variety of factors, including the plants
to be grown.

Plant Needs
Whether to use an acid, basic, or more neutral fertilizer depends on
what the plants being fed need. Some plants require a highly or slightly
acidic soil to thrive; these so-called "acid-loving plants" include
blueberries, azaleas, camellias, and most evergreens. In circumstances
where the existing soil pH is too high, using a fertilizer that acidifies the soil
is important. Other plants do best in alkaline soil. This group includes lilacs,
barberry, and mock orange. Such plants may require a fertilizer rich in bases
if the existing soil is too acidic. Most plants thrive in neutral soil. To
accommodate most garden shrubs, annuals, and perennials, either acids or
bases must be added to soil to amend an alkaline or acidic soil.
Use of Acidic or Basic Fertilizer
Use of acidic and basic fertilizers should not be indiscriminate. Initial
application should be followed up with additional soil testing after a
couple of weeks to see if the pH has been successfully amended. If not, more
of the acidic or basic fertilizer should be applied, provided it's not an
inappropriate time to fertilize, such as early fall. If the soil has the desired
pH, gardeners should switch to a normal fertilizer.

Acid-Containing or Acid-Free
Acid-containing paper is paper that is slightly acidic, with a pH
below 7. It is made of wood pulp that has a high acid content. Acid-free

paper is paper that contains no acids. It is paper that has a neutral pH of

7. It is "rag" paper made from cotton fibers or buffered paper made from
wood pulp with alkaline solution. It is also lignin- and sulfur-free. The
difference between acid-free and acid-containing paper is the presence of
acid. If you look at the two papers, you cannot see the difference between
them. You will notice it only if you keep the paper for a long period since
acids cause damage.
Acid containing-paper is used for every day life because it is
cheaper. There are different qualities of paper made from wood pulp, the
cheapest being "newsprint" the paper used for newspapers. Paper made
from wood pulp is not so strong as traditionally made papers because it is
made from a mush of short fibers and does not have the long strands of
(say) linen paper. Acid-free paper is used for high quality paper, photos or
documents.
Advantages:

Acid-containing paper: It is easy to make and cheaper.

Acid-free paper: Resistant and can be stored for 200 years.

Disadvantages:

Acid-containing paper: it rapidly breaks down owing to the action of

the acid content on the fibers, which begin to rot; Paper turns yellow,
brittle, smells and disintegrates; Cannot be stored for a very long time.
Acid-free paper: Costly; Hard to make