OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY
Is the study of drugs, the changes it goes, and the
energy that accompanies these changes
MATTER
Anything that occupies space and has mass,
structure, changes that matters undergoes, and
involved in such changes or interactions
Classified as:
1. Physical
2. Chemical
ELEMENT
Simplest form of matter. Made up of 1 kind of material
or atom.
Classified as:
1. Metals: heat and electrical conductors, have luster,
ductile, malleable
2. Nonmetals: generally brittle and non-lustrous, poor
conductors of heat and electricity
3. Metalloids: border the line-2 sides Properties are
intermediate between metals and nonmetals
COMPOUNDS
A compound is a composed of two or more elements
united chemically in definite proportion
Classified as:
1. Based on chemical bond
2. Based on organic or inorganic
Based on chemical bond:
1. Ionic- compound that forms by transfer of electrons
2. Covalent- compound that forms by sharing of
electrons
Polar covalent
Non-polar covalent
3. Metallic- formed between atoms of metallic elements
Based on organic or inorganic:
1. Inorganic compound- compounds that contain other
elements and a few containing carbons and its salts.
2. Organic compound- compounds that contains carbon
atom in their molecules
MIXTURE
Composed of 2 or more substances that are not
chemically combined.
Classified according to:
1. Nature of particles
(heterogenous and homogenous)
2. Size of particles
(solution, coarse and colloid)
Process of separating component of mixtures:
1. Distillation- used if two liquids are mixed but have
different boiling points.
2. Filtration- use by means of filtration set-up
3. Centrifugation- process rely on densities. Speeding
up of settling process of a precipitate
4. Decantation- separation by means of the difference in
specific gravity or density of the components
5.

Fractional crystallization- separation by means of

lowering of temperature

6.

Chromatography- difference in solvent affinity

PROPERTIES OF MATTER:
1. Intrinsic- INDEPENDENT of mass or amount
(ex. Density, sp.gr and melting point)
2. Extrinsic- DEPENDENT on mass or amount
(ex. Weight, volume, pressure and heat content)
CHANGES THAT MATTER UNDERGOES:
1. Physical Change- change in the physical properties of
substances
without
changing
its
chemical
composition.
(Example: Evaporation, pounding of chalk)
2. Chemical change- change in the chemical
composition and constitution of substance.
3. Nuclear Change
change in the structure, properties, composition of the
nucleus of an atom resulting in the transmutation of
the element into another element.
Types:
a. Nuclear fission- splitting of heavy atom
b. Nuclear fusion- union of light atoms

CHEMICAL REACTION
Reaction that occurs when the outermost or valence
electrons around the nucleus interacts.
Entails the removal of valence electrons, adding
electrons to a partly filled valence shell, or sharing a
pair of electrons between two atoms.
REACTANTS
substances that enter into a chemical reaction
PRODUCTS
substances that are formed after chemical reaction
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

A law that states that chemical equation has to be

consistent. The same numbers of atoms of each
element must appear on both sides of the equation.

Fundamental law of balancing chemical equation.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION:
A. Direct union
(A+ B --AB)
Involves the reaction of two or more substances react
to form one compound
Example: 2Ca + O2--- 2CaO
B. Decomposition
(AB -- A+B)
one compound decomposes to form two or more
substances
Types :
a. Hydrates to water and anhydrous salt
b. Chlorates to chlorides plus oxygen
c. Metal oxides to metal and oxygen
d. Carbonates to oxides and CO2
e. Bicarbonates to oxide, water and CO2
C. Single replacement
(AX+B
A+BX) or (AX+Y AY+X)
Activity series of metals in descending order: Li, K,
Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb,
Cu, Bi, Sb, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au
Activity series of nonmetals in descending order: F,
Cl, Br, I
Example:
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq)
FeSO4(aq)+ Cu(s)
Cu + FeSO4
no reaction
Zn + 2HCl
ZnCl2 + H2
Cl2 + NaI
2NaCl + I2
D. Double displacement
(AX+BY AY+BX)
Example:
2HNO3+Ca(OH)2---Ca(NO3)2+2H2O
COLISSION THEORY
Collisions of particles provide the energy required to
break bonds.
Activation energy- minimum amount of energy
required for a successful collision.

Successful collision requires:

Reaction rates can increase due to:

1. More collisions
2. Harder collisions-greater collision energy
3. Lower activation energy or Ea, which allows low
energy collisions to be more effective

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

REACTION KINETICS
The study of rates of chemical reactions and factors
which influence reaction velocities.
REACTION VELOCITY
change in concentration in unit time
IRREVERSIBLE REACTIONS
Chemical reactions that go only in one direction or are
said to completion.
Examples:
2H2+ O2
2H2O
H2CO3
H2O + CO2
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
Two opposing reactions, the forward and the
backward occur at the same rate. This system is said
to be in equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium- the state in which two
opposing reaction proceed at the same rate.
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
The equilibrium system:
wA + xB yC + zD
The equilibrium constant:
Keq=
[C]y [D]z

[A]w [B]x

The numerical value of Keq is calculated using the

concentrations of reactants and products that exist at
equilibrium.

LAW OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

The equation that shows that the concentrations of
reactant and product are raised to the power
corresponding to the coefficients in the balanced
equation is equal to a constant.
Examples:
Express the following system in equilibrium constant:
2

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g); Keq =

[NH3 ]
[N 2 ][H 2 ]3

PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g); Keq =

[PCl3 ][Cl 2 ]
[PCl5 ]

Steps in calculating the Keq:

1. Write the balance chemical equation
2. Express the chemical equation into equilibrium constant
3. Write the equilbrium concentrations in moles/liter
4. Finally, substitute the values in equilibrium constant
equation then compute for keq.
Example problem:
An equilibrium mixture of H2, I2 and HI gases at 425C consists
of
4.5647x10-3M,
7.7378x10-4M
and
1.354x10-2M
respectively. Calculate the Keq of the system H2 + I2 2HI
Solution:
Practice Problem:
An equilibrium mixture of H2, Br2 and HBr gases consists of 2
moles, 4 moles and 3 moles respectively in a 2 liter container.
Calculate the Keq of the system :
2HBr H2 + Br2
Interpreting Equilibrium Constant:
If Keq is greater than 1x102, mostly product is present
at equilibrium
If Keq is less than 1x10-2, mostly reactant is present
at equilibrium
If between, the equilibrium mixture contains both
reactants and products.

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIA:
1. Homogenous equilibria- substances are all in the
same state of matter.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g);
CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g)
2. Heterogenous equilibria-substances are in different states.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g);
2+
PbCl2(s) Pb (aq) + 2 Cl (aq)

FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM:

1. Concentration
Increase in reactant concentration favors forward
reaction
Increase in product concentration favors reverse
reaction
LAW OF MASS ACTION:
rate of chemical reaction is directly proportional to the
concentration of product and reactant each raised the
power corresponding to the coefficients in a balanced
equation.
2. Temperature
Increase in temp. favors endothermic reactions
Decrease in temp. favors exothermic
3. Catalyst
adding of catalyst will have an equal effect on the rate of
both forward and backward reactions.
4. Pressure
decrease in pressure favors side with more moles of gas
Example:
State the direction in which each of the following equilibrium
system will shift upon application of stress.
a. Increase pressure in N2 + 2O2 2NO2
b. Increase conc. of Cl2 in PCl5 PCl3 +Cl2
c. Increase temperature in
2H2 + O2 2H2O + heat
d. Addition of catalyst in 2H2S + 3O2 2H2O + 2SO2
LE CHATELIER PRINCIPLE
When stress is applied to a system in equilbrium, the
equilibrium will shift in such a manner as to relieve or
neutralize the stress.
OTHER EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS:
A. Ion product constant for water (Kw):
The product of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] and
the [OH-] ion concentration each in moles/liter.
Kw= [H+] [OH-]
Kw= 1.00 x 10E-14
Example:
1. Calculate the concentration of H+ and OH- in a 0.1
moles of 10 liters HCl solution.
Solution:
Kw= [H+] [OH-]
HCl= H (0.1 mol/10L) Cl (0.1 mol/10L)
[H+]= 0.1 moles/10L
= 0.01 M
[OH-]= 1.00 x 10E-14/0.01M
= 1.00 x 10E-12
Practice problem:
Calculate the concentration of H+ and OH- in a
0.001M of NaOH . What is the pH of 0.001M of NaOH
B. Ionization constant (ki)
(Ka) is the equilibrium constant for the ionization of a
weak acid in water.
(kb) is the equilibrium constant for the ionization of a
weak base in water.
C. Solubility product constant (ksp)
Is the equilibrium constant of a slightly soluble salt.
COMPUTATION OF PH AND POH:
The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is given by its pH.
pH represents the power of hydrogen ion or pOH the
power of hydronium ion.
The following formula is used:
pH= -log[H+] or pOH= -log[OH-]
pH+ pOH= 14
Example:
1. Calculate the pOH of the solution with a pH of 4.5
2. Calculate the pH of a solution with [H+]=3.8x10-3
3. Calculate the pOH of a solution with [H+]=5.9x10e-10
4. What is the pH of 0.02moles of 20 liters KOH
solution?

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

Practice problem:
Calculate the pH of each of the following solutions:
1. Solution with [H+]= 4.5 x 10-4
2. Solution with [OH-]= 5.6 x 10-5
3. 0.02M of KOH
4. 0.5M of HCl
5. 4 moles of 10 liters NaOH solution
BUFFER EQUATION
BUFFERS- solutions that have the property of resisting
changes in pH when acids and bases are added to them
Two forms:
1. Buffer Equation for Weak acids
2. Buffer Equation for Weak bases
For weak acids:
pH= pka+ log [salt]
[WA]
For weak bases:
pOH= pkb + log [WB]
[salt]
Example problem:
You are provided with 0.035 moles of HCl and 0.065
moles of K2HPO4 solution (pka of HCl=4.74), identify
the pH of 1 liter buffer solution.
You are provided with 2M of HCl and 4.5M of
K2HPO4 solution (pka of HCl=4.74), identify the pH
and pOH of 1 liter buffer solution.
Calculate the Ph of a 100 ml buffer solution consisting
of 0.2M of formic acid (pka=3.77) added to 10M of
NaOH
THE PERIODIC TABLE
PERSONS INVOLVED IN THE DISCOVERY:
Antoine-Laurel Lavoisier
Introduce the first true periodic table
Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner
Introduce the law of triads
John Newlands
Introduce the law of octaves
Meyer and Mendeleev
(Germany, 1869)
Physical and chemical properties are periodic functions of
their atomic weight.
Henry Moseley (England,1887-1915)
Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers

THE PERIODIC TRENDS:

1. Atomic Radius
Right to left increases. Top to bottom increases

Groupings based on electronic configuration:

Group A
s block (Grp. IA and IIA)
p block (Grp. IIIA to VIIIA)
Group B
d block (Group IB to VIIIB)
f block (Lanthanides & Actinides)
A. REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS:
Elements in Groups 1A through 7A
Display wide range of properties
Some are metals, or nonmetals, or metalloids; some
are solid, others are gases or liquids
Their outer s and p electron configurations are NOT
filled
B. NOBLE GASES:
Previously called inert gases because they rarely
take part in a reaction
Noble gases have an electron configuration that has
the outer s and p sublevels completely full
C. TRANSITION METALS:
Electron configuration has the outer s sublevel full,
and is now filling the d sublevel
A transition between the metal area and the
nonmetal area
The compounds of transition metals are usually
brightly colored and are often used to color paints.
D. INNER TRANSITION METALS:
Electron configuration has the outer s sublevel full,
and is now filling the f sublevel
Formerly called rare-earth elements, but this is not
true because some are very abundant
GROUPINGS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE:
1. Periods- Horizontal rows (1-7)

2. Families- Vertical rows (1-18/1-8 A,B)

2. Electronegativity
Left to right increases
Going up increases
3. Ionization Potential
Left to right increases
Going up increases
4. Electron affinity
Right to left increases
Top to bottom increases
Examples:
Cl(g) + e Cl (g)
Ar(g) + e Ar (g)
TERMINOLOGIES:
Ion- charged atom
Atomic number- Protons= Electrons
Mass number- Protons + Neutrons

Isotopes- same number of Protons but different

number of Neutrons.
Allotropes- atoms of same element can link together
in different ways to form substances with different
properties

THE ALKALI METALS (GROUP IA)

Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium
(Rb), Cesium (Cs), Francium (Fr)

HYDROGEN (H)
The lightest element
Element common to all acids
Not a member of the family.
3 isotopes of Hydrogen:
1. Protium
2. Deuterium
3. Tritium
LITHIUM (Li)
The lightest metal
One of the bridge element
Used in batteries
Depressant and DOC for Mania
SODIUM (Na)
Major extracellular cation

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

Cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical

utilities of organic medicaments
Pcol action: fluid retention
POTASSIUM (K)
Aka: Kalium
Predominat intracellular cation
K salts are more soluble in non-polar solvents and are
less deliquescent than sodium salts.
Pcol action: diuretic, muscle contraction
Deficiency: Hypokalemia
RUBIDIUM (Rb) and CESIUM (Cs)
Similar in behavior to K
No pharmacological significance
Cesium- is the most active metal of Group IA
FRANCIUM (Fr)
Exists only as an unstable radioactive species.
AMMONIA (NH3)
Hypothetical alkali metal
Pcol action:
1. Diuretic
2. Buffer
3. Expectorant
4. Anti-cariogenic
5. Respiratory stimulant

COINAGE METALS (GROUP IB)

Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), and Gold (Au)

COPPER (Cu)
Only reddish metal
Essential trace element
Occurs in the respiratory pigment hemocyanin and
cytochrome oxidase
Important alloys: Brass and Bronze
Toxicity: Willsons disease
Important Compounds:
1. Cu(AsO3)2.Cu(C2H3O2)2- Insecticide
2. CuSO4.5H2O- algaecide (ingredient in Bordeaux
mixture)
3. 64Cu isotope
SILVER (Ag)
Silver (Ag)
AKA: Argentum
Pcol action: Oligodynamic property
Toxicity: Argyria
Important Compounds:
1. AgNO3- treatment of warts and eye antiseptic
2. Ag(NH3)2NO3- Howes solution, dental protective
Ag proteinate:
1. Mild Ag proteinate- antiseptic for eye
2. Strong Ag proteinate- germicide for ear and throat
3. Colloidal Ag proteinate- general germicide
GOLD (Au)
AKA: Aurum, shining dawn
Most malleable and ductile of all metals
Best conductor of electricity
This metal can be dissolve using Aqua Regia and
Selenic acid
Important compounds:
1. Aurothioglucose IM
2. Gold Na Thiomalate (IM)
3. Auranofin (PO)
Antidote: Dimercaprol (BAL)

THE ALKALINE EARTH METALS (GROUP IIA)

Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca),
Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Radium (Ra)
BERRYLIUM (Be)
One of the bridge element
Least metallic of the group
Never employed in medicine
Metal used in fluorescent lamps

MAGENSIUM (Mg)
nd
2 most abundant intercellular cation
Metal component of chrolophyll
Important compounds:
1. Antacids & laxative (Oxides, carbonates)

2.
3.
4.

Anticonvulsant (SO4)
Lubricants (stearates)
Clarifying and filtering (silicates)

CALCIUM (Ca)
nd
2 most abundant cation in extracellular fluid
Cation of hydroxyapatite
Pcol action:
1. Blood coagulation factor
2. Important in muscle contraction
3. Release of neurotransmitters
4. Def state: osteoporosis, osteomalacia, ricketts
Important compounds:
1. CaCO3- antacids
2. CaCl2- calcium replenisher
3. Ca(OH)2- antacid & saponifying agent
4. CaO- component of Bordeaux mixture
5. Plaster of Paris and Gypsum
STRONTIUM (Sr)
Important compound:
SrCl2- temperature desensitizing agent
BARIUM (Ba)
The most active element of Group IIA
Toxicity: Baritosis
Important compound: BaSO4
RADIUM (Ra)
Only radioactive element of the group
Use for:
1. Cancer radiotherapy
2. Diagnostic purposes

THE VOLATILE METALS (GROUP IIB)

Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd) and Mercury (Hg)

ZINC (Zn)
Metal present in insulin
Essential component of carbonic anhydrase and other
enzymes
Deficiency: Parakeratosis
CADMIUM (Cd)
Pcol action: astringent
Other use: manufacture of stink bomb, found in street
lights
Poisoning: Itai- itai dx
MERCURY (Hg)
AKA: Quicksilver
Pcol action: Antiseptic, Treatment of syphilis,
Paraciticidal and fungicidal
Industrial use: thermometer and amalgams (alloy of
Hg)
Toxicity: Minamata

THE BORON FAMILY (GROUP IIIA)

Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium
(In) and Thallium (Tl)

Boron (B)
A metalloid element of the group
Bonding of this element tends to be more covalent
than ionic
Use to inc. coefficient of expansion of glass
ALUMINUM (Al)
Most abundant metal
rd
3 most abundant element in the earths crust (in the
form of bauxite)
This metal is capable of forming covalent and ionic
bond
Pcol actions: astringent, antiperspirant, deodorant and
used for burn patients
GALLIUM (Ga)
Has the lowest melting point of all the metals
Pcol action: appers in transferring an iron transport
CHON useful in treating cancer related hypercalcemia
Industrial use: substitute for Hg in manufacture of arc
lamps

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

INDIUM (In)
no pharmacological importance

Toxicity: PLUMBISM

METALS IN METALLURGY:
THALLIUM (Tl)
toxic metal. Similar to arsenics

A.

B.

THE SCANDIUM GROUP (GROUP IIIB)

Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthanum (La), Actinium
(Ac) and the two inner transition series (Lanthanides
and Actinides)
LANTHANIDES (58-71) (from lanthanum to
luthenium) occurs in mixture which are hard to
separate
ACTINIDES (90-103) (Ac through Lr) prepared
synthetically and only exist as radioactive isotopes

THE CARBON FAMILY (GROUP IVA)

Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn)
and Lead (Pb)
CARBON (C)
Central element to life and natural intelligences
Basic building unit of all organic compounds
Inorganic compounds: carbonates, acetates,
tartrates and oxalates
An abundant non-metallic, tetravalent element.
Neither donate or receive electrons.
Allotropes of Carbon:
A. Crystalline: Diamond & Graphite
B. Amorphous form: Anthracite

Important compounds:
1. CO2- Resp. stimulant, treatment of acne, warts and
eczema
2. CO3- antacid, pharmaceutical aid
3. CO- toxic form of carbon, has 210x greater affinity to
hemoglobin than O2
4. Activate charcoal
SILICON (Si)
nd
2 most abundant element in the earths crust.
A tetravalent metalloid. It is less reactive than its
analog carbon.
Toxicity: Silicosis
Forms of Silicon:
1. Talc
Softest mineral known
2. Glass
Generic term used to identify vitreous silicate
material prepared by fusing base (Na2CO3 and
CaCO3) with pure silica.
Substances added to glass: MnO2, Borates, K ion, Pb

Types of Glasses (USP)

a) Type I- highly resistant borosilicate glass
b) Type II- treated soda lime glass
c) Type III- soda lime glass
d) Type IV or NP- general soda lime glass
3. Clays
Kaolin- adsorbent
Bentonite- suspending agent
Pumice- dental abrasives
TIN (Sn)
AKA: stannum
Occurs mainly as cassiterite, where it occurs as an
oxide.
it is the classic alloying metal to make bronze.
It is use in preparation of tin cans.
Important compounds:
1. SnF2- anticariogenic solution
2. SnO2- germicide for Staph infection
LEAD (Pb)
AKA: Plumbum
A soft heavy, toxic (neurotoxic) and malleable poor
metal.
A bluish white color metal when freshly cut but
tarnishes to dull gray when exposed to air.
Occurs mainly as PbS in nature.

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Misch metal:
Pewter metal:
Solder metal:
Rose metal:
Litophone:

70%Cs + 30%Fe
80%Sn + 20%Pb
50%Sb + 50%Sn
25%Sn + 25%Pb + 50%Bi
30%ZnS + 70%BaS

THE TITANIUM FAMILY (GROUP IVB)

TITANIUM (Ti)
aka: Titan, sons of the earth
Use: a powerful reducing agent
Silvery metal with high strength and resistant to
corrosion.
Important compound:
Titanium dioxide- opacifying agent and UV ray
protectant
ZIRCONIUM (Zr)
Use: same as Aluminum but it is banned
Official compounds:
Oxides- antiperspirant for athletes foot
Carbonates- antiperspirant for athletes foot
ZrSiO4- use as diamond like gem
GROUP VA (THE NITROGEN FAMILY)
Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony
(Sb) and Bismuth (Bi)
NITROGEN (N)
Aka: mephitic air
It is the most abundant gas in air.
Prepared mainly by fractional distillation of liquid air.
Poisoning: Azotemia
Important compounds:
1. Liquid nitrogen- used as refrigerant
Container: Black
2. Nitrous oxide- inhalational anesthetic
Container: Blue
3. Nitrite- vasodilator use for cyanide poisoning
4. Nitrate- meat preservative
5. Ammonia- respiratory stimulant
PHOSPHOROUS (P)
Aka: Light carrier, St. Elmos Fire
It has 2 allotropes:
1. Yellow phosphorous- volatile, flammable, toxic and
very reactive
2. Red phosphorous- non-volatile, flammable, non-toxic
and non reactive
Important compound:
PO4: antacid, cathartic & buffer
ARSENIC (As)
Aka: Lewisite metal
It is used as a poison in Roman Empire through the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance
Discovered by Albertus Magnus in 1250 and the first
preparation of this metal is founded by Paracelsus.
As2O3 (white arsenic)- the arsenic of choice of
chronic poisoning
Antidote: BAL, Mg(OH)2 po and DMSA IM
Arsenic is a component of Salvarsan (discovered by
Paul Elrich)
Important compounds:
1. As2O3- insecticide and anti-leukemic
2. Paris green- insecticide
3. Fowlers solution- insecticide
ANTIMONY (Sb)
Pcol actions:
1. Emetic and expectorant
2. Anti-helminthic (leishmaniasis)
3. Anti-schistosomiasis (blood fluke- tx: tartar emetic)
BISMUTH (Bi)
Aka: Beautiful Meadow
A stable element because of its long half life
Industrial use: silvering of mirrors

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

Internal protective for ulcer induced by H.pylori

infection (Bismuth subnitrate+ Bismuth Hydroxide)

THE VANDANIUM FAMILY

(GROUP VB)
TANTALUM (Ta)
Metal that is not affected by any body fluid.
Sheet form use in repair of bones, nerves and tissues
Use as pins, wires and plates to strengthen a broken
bone.
SUMMARY OF FLAME TESTS

is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard and brittle metal

Pcol: It serves as a glucose tolerance factor inside the
body
Deficiency: Hyperglycemia
Important compound: K2Cr2O7
MOLYBDENUM (Mo)
Comes from the Greek word molybdos meaning
lead
Pcol action: cofactor of flavin dependent enzymes
It is also involved in bacterial fixing of atmospheric
nitrogen
TUNGSTEN (W)
Come from the Swedish language tung sten
meaning heavy stone
It is a hard, rare metal with a very high melting point
Alloys of these metals are used in incandescent light
bulb filaments and X-ray tubes
URANIUM (U)
Element discovered by Becquerel
A radioactive element used for manufacture of atomic
bombs
It has no pharmaceutical use

CHALCOGENS (GROUP VIA)

Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Selenium (Se), Tellurium (Te) and
Polonium (Po)

THE HALOGENS (GROUP VIIA)

Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine and Astatine
(At)

OXYGEN (O)
Aka: empyreal air
The most abundant element in the earths crust
Discovered by Joseph Priestly
Pcol use: tx of hypoxia/asphyxia
It is a component of Artificial air
Container: Green

FLUORINE (F)
Exists as a pale yellow gas
The most electronegative element of the periodic
table
Fluoride compounds are use as anti-cariogenic
agents
Excessive amount in drinking water results to
fluorosis
Important compounds:
1. Fluorides- anti-cariogenic
2. Freons- refrigerant, aerosol propelant

SULFUR (S)
Aka: brimstone, shubari and enemy of Copper
It occurs on the earths crust as a free element or in
combined form as metal sulfides and sulfates.
Most sulfur compounds have a strong odor
Forms of Sulfur:
1. Monoclinic- rhombic sulfur that is heated to a temperature
of 96C.
2. Mobile sulfur- monoclinic that is melted at a temperature of
113C
3. Viscous sulfur- result of continued heating of mobile sulfur
4. Amorphous sulfur- viscous that is cooled rapidly by
immersion in cold water.
5. Rhombic sulfur
Important Compounds:
1. Elemental sulfur- fungicidal
2. Sublimed sulfur- cathartic
3. Precipitated sulfur- scabicide
4. Sulfurated potash- tx for psoriasis
5. White Lotion USP- scabicidal
6. Sodium metabisulfite- antioxidant, preservative
SELENIUM (Se)
Aka: Selene, Moon
An essential trace element
Promotes absorption of Vitamin E
Important compounds:
1. Selenomethionine
2. SeS2- tx of sebborheic dermatitis
TELLURIUM (Te)
Occur much less abundant than sulfur. It is found
along with sulfur in metal sulfides and are recovered
in some quantity from Pb and Cu refining process.
POLONIUM (Po)
Occurs only in the form of radioisotopes as a result of
decay of the actinide elements.
CHROMIUM GROUP (GROUP VIB )
Chromium (Cr), Molybdenum (Mo), Tungsten (W), and
Uranium (U)
CHROMIUM (Cr)
Comes from the Greek word chroma

CHLORINE (Cl)
Aka: dephlogesticated muriatic acid air
Element with greenish yellow gas with a very
suffocating odor
Discovered by a swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm
Scheele
Important compounds:
1. Chlorides- electrolyte replenisher
2. Hypochlorites- bleaching agent
3. HCl- treatment of achlorhydria
BROMINE (Br)
A fuming reddish brown liquid in room temperature,
corrosive and toxic
Bromine comes from the Greek word bromos
meaning strong smelling
Bromide compounds have sedative and CNS
depressant action
Poisoning: Brominism (NaCl and Ammonia)
IODINE (I)
Exists as a brown solid at room temperature
Elemental Iodine is known as one of the oldest known
germicides in use today.
Pcol action: component of thyroxine and
triiodothyroxine
Iodide compounds have an expectorant action.
Important compounds:
1. Povidone-Iodine
2. Strong Iodine solution
3. Iodine tincture
ASTATINE (At)
The only metallic halogen
The only synthetic
The only radioactive halogen
(MANGANESE GROUP (GROUP VIIB)
Manganese (Mn), Technetium (Tc), and Rhenium (Re)
General Properties:

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

The only metal of pharmaceutical importance in this

group is Mn. Tc is a product of radioactive decay.
Rhenium is extremely rare.

MANGANESE (Mn)
A silvery gray metal that resembles iron.
This element occurs mainly as the oxide (MnO2) in
nature.
Compounds with 2+ oxidation state is a good
reducing agent and MnO4 (permanganates) are good
oxidizing agent.
Pcol action: cofactor in protein synthesis, and
important in activation of pyruvate carboxylase (vital
role in human metabolic function)
Industrial use: production of metal alloys
Poisoning: Parkinson-like symptoms
Important compound of Mn:
1) KMnO4- oxidizing agent and antiseptic (0.02%) and
as a gastric lavage for various alkaloidal poisoning.
Identification tests for Mn:
1) H2S: salmon or flesh colored ppt. of MnS
2) NaBiO3: purple solution of HMnO4
TECHNETIUM (Tc)
Came from the greek word technetos
st
It was the 1 element produced artificially
Use: preparation of radiopharmaceuticals
NOBLE GASES (GROUP VIIIA)
Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon
(Xe) and Radon (Rn)
General Properties:
This element are inactive. It maybe explained on the
basis of their atomic structure. Helium (2e) and the
rest have (8e) in outermost shell.

Group VIIIA (Noble Gases)

Helium (He)
Come from the name of an Ancient Greek God
Helios
It was first discovered by scientists as a bright yellow
line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the sun.
Uses of Helium:
1) Carrier / diluent of medically important gases
2) Component of artificial gas
3) Use as an alternative for nitrogen in gas tanks and
alternative for H in balloons
Container: Brown
Toxicity: Donald-duck like sound
NEON (Ne)
Use in advertising. It produces an unmistakable bright
reddish-orange light.
Other lights are just referred to as neon lights
ARGON (Ag)
It is the most abundant noble gas. It is a byproduct of
the fractionation of liquid air.
KRYPTON (Kr)
came from the Greek word, kryptos meaning the
hidden one. It has an inhalational anesthetic activity.
XENON (Xe)
With investigational anesthetic activity
RADON (Rn)
The synthetic noble gas
Used for treatment of cervical cancer

st

The 1 triad are the only elements in the periodic

table that exhibits magnetic properties at room
temperature.
nd
rd
The 2 and 3 triad along with Au, Ag and Hg are
sometimes called the noble metals because they
show low reactivity.

IRON (Fe)
Fe meaning ferrum
The first production of this metal started from the
middle bronze age.
It is not found free in nature, the chief source in
industry is hematite.
The sulfide form, Fe2S3 looks similar to gold.

(IRON) In the body it is present in:

a) Hemoglobin
b) Transferrin
c) Ferritin
d) Cytochrome oxidase
It enhances the absorption of ascorbic acid and
copper
Main use: Hematinic
Deficiency: IDA
Group VIIIB (The Triads)
Toxicity: GIT distress and cardiac collapse
Antidote: Deferoxamine
Important compounds:
1) FeSO4
2) Ferrous gluconate- less irritating Fe salt
3) Ferrous fumarate- high elemental Fe content
4) Iron Dextran & Iron Sorbitex Inj.

COBALT (Co)
In nature, cobalt is usually found associated with
arsenical ores.
Most ores of this element contains water of hydration
and are red in color.
Elemental component of Vit. B12
Pcol action: essential in development of erythrocyte
and hemoglobin
Deficiency of cobalt: Megaloblastic anemia
Identification tests:
1) NH4OH: pink ppt. of Co(OH)2 which dissolves upon
addition of an excess reagent forming
2) KNO2, HAc: yellow ppt. of K3Co(NO2)6
NICKEL (Ni)
Aka: old nicks copper
Metal use in fake/fancy jewelries
Important compound: Nickel pectinate- tx of diarrhea
Identification tests:
1) NH4OH: green ppt. of Ni(OH)2 which dissolves in
excess reagent
2) Dimethylglyoxime, NH3: red ppt.
OSMIUM (Os)
Heaviest/ densest metal
Important compounds:
1) Osmic acid
2) Osmium tetroxide- used in microorganism staining

THE TRIADS (GROUP VIIIB)

st

1 Triad (The Iron Triad)

Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni)
nd
2 triad
Ruthenium (Re), Rhodium (Ro) and Palladium
rd
3 triad
Osmium (Os), Iridium (Ir) &Platinum (Pt)

All Group VIIIA elements are grayish-white metals

with high melting and boiling points.

PLATINUM (Pt)
Industrial use: catalyst in finely divided steel
Pharmaceutical products available:
1) Cisplatin
2) Carboplatin

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL IONS
ESSENTIAL IONS:
1)
2)
3)

Iron- constituent of hemoglobin.

Iodine- constituent of thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
Zinc- constituent of insulin, carbonic anhydrase &
lactic dehydrogenase
4) Sulfur- constituent of proteins, mucopolysaccharides,
biotin, thiamine & lipoic acid
5) Cobalt- constituent of Vitamin B12
6) Manganese- cofactor for a number of enzymes like
arginase, carboxylase and kinases
7) Copper- essential for the formation of hemoglobin &
constituent of oxides enzymes
8) Chromium- involved in carbohydrate utilization
9) Molybdenum- constituent of xanthine oxidase &
aldehyde oxidase
10) Selenium- constituent of factor 3 acts with Vit E
B. NON-ESSENTIAL IONS:
1)
2)
3)

Fluoride- anticariogenic
Bromide- sedative, CNS depressant and hypnotic
Arsenic- depressant for epilepsy and used to treat
leukemia
4) Lithium- diuretic and used in manic-depressive
disorder
5) Gold- used in rheumatism and SLE
6) Aluminum- astringent, antiseptic and deodorant
7) Silver- antiseptic, astringent (irritant to corrosive)
8) Mercury- diuretic, antiseptic, parasiticide and
fungicide
9) Strontium- sedative, treatment of osteoporosis,
dentrifice and tooth temperature desensitizing agent
10) Chromium- play some role in glucose tolerance of
some diabetics, old people and malnourished people

INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR ELECTROLYTES

A. Intracellular ions:
1) Potassium- major intracellular cation
nd
2) Magnesium- The 2 abundant intracellular cation
3) Calcium- 1% found in intracellular fluid
4) Phosphate- major intracellular anion
B. Extracellular ions:
1) Sodium- major extracellular cation
2) Chloride- major extracellular anion

1)
2)
3)

PHYSIOLOGICAL BUFFERS
Carbonic acid & Bicarbonate- Primary buffer of ECF
Phosphate & Dihydrogen Phosphate- Urinary buffer/
also a buffer of ICF
Hemoglobin & Proteins- Primary buffer of ICF

Official Combination Electrolyte Infusions:

1) Ringers Injection USP:
(NaCl, KCl and CaCl2)
2) Lactated Ringers Injection USP:
(NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 and Na lactate)
3) Oral electrolytes- intended as soon as intake of usual
foods and fluids is discontinued and before serious
fluid looses or deficit occurs.

PREPARED BY:
DAN LESTER P. BACALZO, RPH
Instructor-College of Pharmacy