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DBMS & SQL queries

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Name of practical
Database, DBMS definition
Introduction to SQL
Components of SQL, Data types
SQL Queries create, insertion
Create a table
Describe the table
Insert the values
To view the table
Sorting the data
To rename the table
Delete a particular row
Lower case
Upper case
Drop the table
Maximum
Minimum
Average
Like
Between
Primary key
Unique key
Count
Sum
Alter
Update

index

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Remarks

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Database
A database is an organized collection of facts. In other words, we
can say that it is a collection of information arranged and
presented to serve an assigned purpose.
An example of a database is a dictionary

Database Management System

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Database management system, or DBMS, is a computer software

program that is designed as the means of managing all databases
that are currently installed on a system hard drive or network.
Different types of database management systems exist, with
some of them designed for the oversight and proper control of
databases that are configured for specific purposes. Here are
some examples of the various incarnations of DBMS technology
that are currently in use, and some of the basic elements that are
part of DBMS software applications.
As the tool that is employed in the broad practice of managing
databases, the DBMS is marketed in many forms. Some of the
more popular examples of DBMS solutions include Microsoft
Access, FileMaker, DB2, and Oracle. All these products provide for
the creation of a series of rights or privileges that can be
associated with a specific user. This means that it is possible to
designate one or more database administrators who may control
each function, as well as provide other users with various levels of
administration rights. This flexibility makes the task of using
DBMS methods to oversee a system something that can be
centrally controlled, or allocated to several different people.

Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)

Structured query language is a language that provides an
interface to relational database systems. SQL was developed by
IBM in the 1970s for use in system R, and is a de facto standard,
as well as an ISO and ANSI standard. SQL is often pronounced
SEQUEL.
SQL has been a command language for communication with the
oracle 9i server from any tool or application. Oracle SQL contains
many extensions. When an SQL statement is entered, it is stored
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in a part of memory called the SQL buffer and remains there until
a new SQL statement is entered.

Features of Structured query language (SQL)

SQL can be used by a range of users, including those with little or
no programming experience.
It is a nonprocedural language.
It reduces the amount of time required for creating and
maintaining systems.
It is English like language.

Components of SQL
1) DDL (Data Definition Language):- It is a set of SQL commands used
to create, modify and delete database structures but not data. They
are normally used by the DBA not by user to a limited extent, a
database designer or application developer. These statements are
immediate i.e. they are not susceptible to ROLLBACK commands. It
should also be noted that if several DML statements for example
UPDATES are executed then issuing any DDL command would COMMIT
all the updates as every DDL command implicitly issues a COMMIT
command to the database. Anybody using DDL must have the CREATE
object privilege and a table space area in which to create objects.
For example: - CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, COMMENT etc.

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2) DML (Data Manipulation Language):- It is the area of SQL that

allows changing data within the database.
Examples:-INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE etc.
3) DCL (Data Control Language):- It is the component of SQL statement
that control access to data and to the database. Occasionally DCL
statements are grouped with DML statements.
Examples: - COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, ROLLBACK etc.
4) DQL (Data Query Language):- It is the component of SQL statement
that allows getting data from the database and imposing ordering upon
it. It includes the SELECT statement. This command is the heart of SQL.
It allows getting the data out of the database perform operations with
it. When a SELECT is fired against a table or tables the results is
compiled into a further temporary table, which is displayed or perhaps
received by the program i.e. a front-end.
Examples: - SELECT retrieve data from the database.

Oracle data types

Data types come in several forms and sizes, allowing the programmer to
create tables suited to the scope of the project. The decisions made in
choosing proper data types greatly influence the performance of a database.
The information in the database is maintained in the form of tables and each
table consists of rows and columns, which store data and therefore this data
must have some data type i.e. the type of data, which is stored in the table.
The different types of data types in Oracle are:

CHAR
VARCHAR (size) or VARChAR2 (size)
NUMBER
DATE
LONG.
CHAR: - This data types is used to store character strings

values of fixed length. The size in brackets determines the

number of characters the cell can hold. The maximum
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number of characters (i.e. the size) this data type can hold is
255 characters. The data held is right- padded with spaces to
whatever length specified.
VARCHAR or VARCHAR2:- This data type is used to store
variable length alphanumeric data. It is a more flexible form
of the CHAR data type. The maximum this data type can hold
up to 4000 characters. One difference between this data type
and char data type is oracle compares varchar values using
non padded comparison semantics i.e. the inserted values
will not be padded with spaces. VARCHAR can hold 1 to 255
characters. Varchar is usually a wiser choice than char due to
its variable length format characteristics but keep in mind
that char is much faster than varchar sometimes up to 50%.
NUMBER: - The number data type is used to store numbers
(fixed or floating point).The precision (P) determines the
length of the data while(s), the scale, determines the number
of places after the decimal. The NUMBER data type that is
used to store number data can be specified either to store
integers or decimals with the addition of a parenthetical
precision indicator. If we do not use then the default value is 0
and if we dont use precision then by default value stored can
be of 38 digits.
DATE:- The DATE data type stores date and time information.
Although date and time information can be represented in
both character and number data types, the DATE data type
has special associated properties. For each DATE value, Oracle
stores the following information: century, year, month, date,
hour, minute, and second.

LONG:- LONG columns store variable-length character strings

containing up to 2 gigabytes, or 231-1 bytes. LONG columns
have many of the characteristics of VARCHAR2 columns. You
can use LONG columns to store long text strings. The length of
LONG values may be limited by the memory available on your
computer

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The use of LONG values is subject to some restrictions:

A table can contain only one LONG column.

You cannot create an object type with a LONG attribute.

LONG columns cannot appear in WHERE clauses or in integrity constraints

(except that they can appear in NULL and NOT NULL constraints).

LONG columns cannot be indexed.

A stored function cannot return a LONG value.

You can declare a variable or argument of a PL/SQL program unit using the
LONG datatype. However, you cannot then call the program unit from SQL.

Within a single SQL statement, all LONG columns, updated tables, and locked
tables must be located on the same database.

QUERY
A query is a concise memo submitted to an editor by a writer seeking
publication. It is basically an in query to see whether the writers work is of
interest to a particular publication. A query briefly details a writers
experience and knowledge of the subject matter, and gives a summary or
synopsis of the article the writer hopes to have published. An approximate
word count for the proposed article or feature is also generally included.
1) THE CREATE TABLE COMMAND :- The CREATE TABLE command
defines each
Column of the table uniquely. Each
column has a minimum of three attributes, a name, data type and
size (i.e. column width).
Syntax: - CREATE TABLE<table name> (<column Name 1> <data type>
(<size>), <columnname2> <data type> (<size>));
Example:
SQL> create table student (name varchar (23),roll_no number(12),class
varchar2(12),address varchar(23));
Table created.

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2) THE INSERTION OF DATA INTO TABLE: - Once a table is created, the

most
natural thing to do is
load this with data to be manipulated later i.e. to insert the rows in
a table. The data in a table can be inserted in three ways.
Syntax:-INSERT INTO <table name > (<columnname1>, <columnname2>)
VALUES (<expression1>, <expression 2>);
OR
INSERT INTO <tablename>VALUES (<expression1 >,<expression2> );
OR
INSERT INTO <tablename> VALUES (<&columnname1>,<&columnname2>);
Example:SQL> insert
intostudent(name,roll_no,class,address)values('Prabhat',06,'BCA',Hat
limore');
1 row created.
Or
SQL> insert into student values('kishore',01,'BCA','Nagri');
1 row created.
Or
SQL> insert into student
values('&name','&roll_no','&class','&address');
Enter value for name: Amarjeet
Enter value for roll_no: 30
Enter value for class: BCA
Enter value for address: airwan
old
1: insert into student
values('&name','&roll_no','&class','&address')
new
1:
chack')

insert into studen values('Atinder','04','BCA','Sawan

1 row created.
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FOR inserting more values we use / slash after SQL> as below but after above syntax
used:
SQL> /
Enter value for name: Vinay
Enter value for roll_no: 08
Enter value for class: BCA
Enter value for address: Barnoti
old
1: insert into student
values('&name','&roll_no','&class','&address')
new

1:

insert into studen values('Vinay','08','BCA','Barnoti')

1 row created.
3) FOR VIEWING DATA IN THE TABLE: - Once data has been inserted into

a
table, the next most logical
operation would be to view what has been inserted. The SELECT
SQL verb is used to achieve this. The SELECT command is used to
retrieve rows selected from one or more tables.

Syntax: - SELECT * FROM <table name>;

If we want to see all the tables that are already exist in the database .we use
SELECT * FROM TAB;
Example:SQL> select * from student;
NAME
ROLL_NO CLASS
----------------------- ---------- -----------Prabhat
06 BCA
Kishore
01 BCA
Amarjeet
30 BCA
Vinay
08 BCA

ADDRESS
---------Hatlimore
Nagri
airwan
barnoti

1 row created.
When we use the command SELECT* FRM TAB; the output is displayed as:SQL> select * from tab;
TNAME
-----------------------------ABC
ANKU
BONUS

TABTYPE CLUSTERID
------- ---------TABLE
TABLE
TABLE

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DBMS & SQL queries
DEPARTMENTS
DEPT
EMP
EMPLOYEE
EMPLOYEES
STUDENT

TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE

9 rows selected.

4) ELIMINATION OF DUPLICATE ROWS :- A table could hold duplicate rows

in
such a case, only
unique rows the distinct clause can be used.

Syntax: - SELECT DISTINCT <column name 1>,<column name2> FROM

<table name> ;
This syntax will give the unique values of column 1 and column 2.
Example:SQL> select distinct name,roll_no from student;
NAME
-------------------Prabhat

ROLL_NO
---------06

Syntax:- SELECT DISTINCT * from <tablename>;

Example:SQL> Select DISTINCT * from student;
NAME
ROLL_NO CLASS
ADDRESS
------------------------- ------------ ---------Prabhat
06 BCA
Hatlimore
5) SORTING DATA IN A TABLE: - Oracle allows data from a table to be

viewed in
sorted order. The rows retrieve from
the table will be sorted either in ascending or descending order
depending on the condition specified in the select sentence.
Syntax: - SELECT * FROM <tablename>ORDER BY<column
name1>,<column name 2> <[sort order]>;
Example:SQL> SELECT * FROM STUDENT ORDER BY name;
NAME
ROLL_NO CLASS
----------------------- ---------- -----Amarjeet
30
BCA
Atinder
04
BCA
Dushyant
34
BCA
Kishore
01
BCA
Prabhat
06
BCA
Vinay
08
BCA
6 rows selected
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ADDRESS
--------------airwan
sawanchak
jagatpur
Nagri
Hatlimore
barnoti

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SQL> SELECT*FROM STUDENT ORDER BY name desc;

NAME
ROLL_NO CLASS
ADDRESS
----------------------- ---------- ------------ -------------Vinay
Prabhat
Kishore
Dushyant
Atinder
Amarjeet

08
06
01
34
04
30

BCA
BCA
BCA
BCA
BCA
BCA

barnoti
Hatlimore
Nagri
jagatpur
sawanchak
airwan

6 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT * FROM STUDEN ORDER BY roll_no desc;
NAME
ROLL_NO CLASS
ADDRESS
----------------------- ---------- ------------ --------------Kishore
Atinder
Prabhat
Vinay
Amarjeet
Dushyant

01
04
06
08
30
34

BCA
BCA
BCA
BCA
BCA
BCA

Nagri
sawanchak
Hatlimore
barnoti
airwan
jagatpur

6 rows selected.

6) MODIFYING THE STRUCTURE OF TABLES: - The structure of a table can

be
modified by using the ALTER TABLE
command. ALTER TABLE allows changing the structure of an existing
table. With ALTER TABLE it is possible to add or delete columns, create
or destroy indexes, changes the data type of existing columns, or
rename columns or the table itself.
(a) ADDING NEW COLUMNS
Syntax: - ALTER TABLE <Table name> ADD(<New column Name> <data
type> (<size>),<new column name><data type>(<size>).);
Example:(b) DROPPING A COLUMN FROM A TABLE
Syntax: - ALTER TABLE<TABLE NAME>DROP COLUMN<COLUMNNAME>;
Example:- alter table prabhu drop column name;

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(c) MODIFYING EXISTING COLUMNS
Syntax: - ALTER TABLE<Table name>MODIFY(<COLUMN NAME> <NEW
DATATYPE>(<NEW SIZE>));
Example:- alter table prabhat modify(name varchar(22));

7) RENAMING TABLES: - Oracle allows renaming of tables. The rename

operation
is done atomically, which means
that no other thread can access any of the tables while the rename
process is running.
Syntax: - RENAME <Table name> to <New Tablename>
Example:SQL> rename student to candidates;
Table renamed.
8) DESTROYING TABLES: DROP COMMAND: - By using the DROP TABLE statement with the table
name we can destroy
a specific table .
Syntax: - DROP TABLE <table name>;
Example:-SQL> Drop table student;
Table dropped.

TRUNCATE COMMAND:- The truncate command is much faster in

comparison to delete
statement but similar to the drop command as to
destroy a specific table.
Syntax:- TRUNCATE table <tablename>
Example:SQL> truncate table employees;
Table truncated.
9) DISPLAYING THE TABLE STRUCTURE:- To display information about the
columns defined in a table use
the following syntax.
Syntax: - DESCRIBE <table name>
This command displays the columns names, the data types and
the special attributes connected to the table.
Example: SQL> describe employees;
Name
Null?
Type
---------------------------------- -------- ----------EMP_ID
NUMBER(5)
EMP_NAME
VARCHAR2(20)
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DEPT_ID
DEPT_NAME
SALARY

NUMBER(10)
NAME(12)
NUMBER(21)

10) UPDATING THE CONTENTS OF A TABLE: - The update command is used

to
change or modify
data values in a table. The verb UPDATE in SQL is used to either all the
rows from a table or a select set of rows from a table.
UPDATING ALL ROWS:- The update statement updates columns in the
existing tables rows
with new values .The SET clause indicates which
column data should be modifying and the new values that they should
hold. The WHERE CLAUSE specifies which rows should be updated.
Otherwise all table rows are updated.
Syntax: - UPDATE < Table name> SET <column name1>=<expression1>
, <column name2>=<expression2>;
UPDATES RECORDS CONDITIONALLY:Syntax :- UPDATE <table name> SET <columnname1> =
<expression1>, <columnname2> = <expression2> WHERE <condition>;

CONSTRAINTS
11) NOT NULL:- The NOT NULL column constraint ensures that a table
column cannot be left
empty. When a column is defined as not null, then that
column becomes a mandatory column. It implies that a value must be
entered into the column if the record is to be accepted for storage in the
table.
Syntax:- <Column Name> <data type>(<size>) NOT NULL ;
Example:-name varchar(22) not null;

THE PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT: - A primary is one or more column in a

table
used to identify each row in a table. None of the
fields that are part of the primary key can contain a null value. A table can
have only one primary
Syntax:- <Column name> <data type>(<size>) PRIMARY KEY
Example:-

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SQL> create table student name varchar2(12), roll_no
number(12) primary key, class varchar2(21) NOT NULL, dob
date);
or
SQL> create table student(name varchar2(12), roll_no
number(12) constraint pk_roll primary key ,class varchar2(21)
not null, dob date);
12) THE FOREIGN KEY (SELF REFERENCE) CONSTRAINT:-Foreign key
represent
relationships between tables. A foreign key is a column (or a group of
columns) whose values are derived from the primary key or unique key of
some other table. The table in which the foreign key is defined is called a
FOREIGN TABLE or DETAIL TABLE. The table that defines the primary or
unique key and is referenced by the foreign key is called the PRIMARY KEY
or MASTER KEY.
Syntax: - Foreign key (<column name>) REFERENCES <table
name>(column name);
Example:SQL> create table department(dept_no number(10) primary
key,dept_name varchar2(25),dept_loc char(5,e_no number(11),
foreign key(e_no) references employee (e_no);
Table created
SQL> describe department;
Name
-------------------------DEPT_NO
DEPT_NAME
DEPT_LOC
E_NO

Null?
-------NOT NULL

Type
------NUMBER(10)
VARCHAR2(25)
CHAR(5)
NUMBER(11).

13) THE UNIQUE KEY CONSTRAINT:- The unique key constraint permits
multiple
entries of NULL into the column. These NULL values
are clubbed at the top of the column in the order in which they were
entered into the table. This is the essential difference between the
primary key and the unique constraints when applied to table column(s).
Key point about UNIQUE constraint:
Unique key will not allow duplicate values.
Unique index is created automatically.
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A table can have more than one unique key which is not possible in
primary key.

Syntax:- CREATE TABLE Table name (<columnName1>

<datatype>(<size>), <columnName2> <data
type>(<size>),UNIQUE(<columnName1>, <columnName2>));
Example:SQL> create table student1(roll_no number(12)primary key,dob
date,name varchar2(20),class varchar2(2),e_mail varchar2(20)
constraint un_st unique);
Table created.
To see the description of the table.
SQL> Describe student1;
Name
Null?
Type
--------------------------------- -------- ---------ROLL_NO
NOT NULL
NUMBER(12)
DOB
DATE
NAME
VARCHAR2(20)
CLASS
VARCHAR2(20)
E_MAIL
VARCHAR2(20)

ORACLE FUNCTIONS

Oracle functions serve the purpose of manipulating data items and

returning a result. Functions are the programs that take zero or more
arguments and return a single value. Oracle has built a no. of functions
into SQL. These functions can be called from SQL statements.
14) COUNT (expr) function: - Returns the number of rows where expression
is not null.
Syntax: - COUNT ([<distinct>[<all>] <expr>)
Example:EMP_ID
--------1
2
3
5
3

NAME
DEPT_ID
SALARY
-------------------- ---------- ---------sourabh
21
55000
sonu
22
55000
anku
4
55000
anku
21
55000
panku
22
75000

SQL> select count(distinct name) from employees;

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DBMS & SQL queries
COUNT(DISTINCTNAME)
------------------4
SQL> select count(salary) from employees;
COUNT(SALARY)
---------5

15) COUNT (*) function: - Returns the number of rows in the table, including
duplicates
and those with nulls.
Syntax: - COUNT(*)
Example:SQL> select count(*) from employees;
COUNT(*)
---------5
SQL>

select count(*)"salary" from employees;

salary
---------5

16) THE SUM FUNCTION: - Returns the sum of the values of n.

Syntax: - SUM ([<distinct>][<all>] <expr>)
Example:SQL> select sum (salary) from employees;
SUM(SALARY)
----------295000

17) THE MAX FUNCTION: - Returns the maximum value of expression.

Syntax: - MAX([<distinct>][<all>] <expr>)
Example:SQL> select max(salary) from employees;
MAX(SALARY)
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75000
18) THE MIN FUNCTION: - Returns the minimum value of expression.
Syntax: - MIN ([<distinct>][<all>] <expression>)
Example:SQL> select min (salary) from employees;
MIN(SALARY)
----------55000

19) THE AVG FUNCTION: - Returns an average value of n, ignoring null

values in a
column.
Syntax: - AVG ([<distinct>][<all>] <n>);
Example:SQL> select avg(salary) from employees;
AVG(SALARY)
----------59000

20) LIKE OPREATOR :- The LIKE predicate allows comparison of one string
value with
another string value, which is not identical. This is
achieved by using wildcard characters. Two wildcard characters that are
available are:
% allows to match any string of any length(including zero length)
_allows to match on a single character.
Example:SQL> select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where
name like 'a%';
EMP_ID
NAME
-----------3
anku
5
anku
NOT LIKE OPERATOR:-

DEPT_ID
----------4
21

Example:-

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SALARY
--------55000
55000

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DBMS & SQL queries
SQL>select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where
name not like 'a%';
EMP_ID
--------1
2
3

NAME
--------------sourabh
sonu
panku

DEPT_ID
---------21
22
22

SALARY
---------55000
55000
75000

SQL>select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where

name like '_n_u';
EMP_ID
---------3
5

NAME
---------------anku
anku

DEPT_ID
SALARY
---------- ---------4
55000
21
55000

21) IN OPERATOR:- In case a value needs to be compared to a list of values

then the IN
predicate is used. The IN predicates helps reduce the
need to use multiple OR conditions.
Example:SQL> select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where
dept_id in(20,22);
EMP_ID
---------2
3

NAME
DEPT_ID
-------------------- ---------sonu
22
panku
22

SALARY
---------55000
75000

NOT IN OPERATOR:Example :SQL>select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where

dept_id not in(20,22);
EMP_ID

NAME

DEPT_ID

SALARY

--------

--------------------

----------

----------

21
4
21

55000
55000
55000

1
3
5
22)

sourabh
anku
anku

BETWEEN OPERATOR:-

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SQL> select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where
dept_id between 22 and 30;
EMP_ID
--------2
3

NAME
-------------------sonu
panku

DEPT_ID
---------22
22

SALARY
---------55000
75000

SQL>select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where

dept_id between 11 and 21;
EMP_ID
--------1
5

NAME
-------------------sourabh
anku

DEPT_ID
---------21
21

SALARY
---------55000
55000

STRING FUNCTIONS

23) UPPER function :- Returns char, with all letters forced to uppercase.
Syntax: - UPPER(char)
Example: SQL> select upper(name) from employees;
UPPER(NAME)
-------------------SOURABH
SONU
ANKU
ANKU
PANKU

24) LOWER function: - Returns char, with all letters in lowercase.

Syntax: - LOWER(char)
Example:SQL> select lower(name) from employees;
LOWER(NAME)
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-------------------sourabh
sonu
anku
anku
panku

25) INITCAP function: - Returns a string with the first letter of each word
in upper case.
Syntax:- INITCAP(char)
Example:SQL> select initcap(name) from employees;
INITCAP(NAME)
-------------------Sourabh
Sonu
Anku
Anku
Panku

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