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The implementation of curriculum, media, materials, methods,
and evaluation in teaching-learning process

Name : Dini Shafa (222 3131 259)

Class : 3 A

a. The implementation of curriculum

http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/curriculu
m/implementation-of-the-new-zealand-curriculumsynthesis-of-research-and-evaluation/5.-the-process-ofimplementation

Implementation of the New Zealand

Curriculum: Synthesis of Research &
Evaluation
Publication Details
The revised New Zealand Curriculum was launched in November 2007,
with schools required to give full effect to the curriculum by February
2010. Progress towards this has been monitored using evidence reported
by the Education Review Office and research teams commissioned by the
Ministry of Education. This report synthesises this evidence.
Author(s): Dr Sandie Schagen
Date Published: March 2011
5. The process of implementation
What stages or phases are involved in curriculum implementation? One of
the SSS regions reported that, at the time of writing (December 2009),
most schools had:

created vision and values statements

reflected on the key competencies, establishing shared thinking
among staff, and sometimes also with students
discussed the NZC principles
begun to explore the learning areas, and linking the vision, values
and key competencies into each.

Other research and evaluation is consistent with this, affirming that

schools chose to unpack the front end of NZC, before moving on to the
learning areas. This was typical, according to both CIES and MECI.9 One
MECI focus group participant described, for example, how her school had
held a whole-school teacher-only day to deal with the front end, followed
by staff meetings focusing on the learning areas. According to an SSS
(2009) report, Professional learning opportunities have largely focused on

understanding the front of the NZC with departments translating this into
their context in their own professional learning time(p.101).
We summarise below reports on the work done by schools at different
stages of NZC implementation, though there is often insufficient evidence
to show how these are linked. Overlaps are inevitable, and we do not
mean to imply that all schools have worked through these stages in the
order listed. In the NZCER national survey of secondary schools (2009)
principals and teachers were asked which aspects of NZC had been
explored as a whole staff. Findings will be referred to below, but it is worth
noting here that in most cases principals were more likely than teachers to
say that an area had been covered.
Planning. In their first (January 2009) report ERO observed that between
a quarter and a third of secondary schools had prioritised such aspects as
establishing an action plan or timeline for curriculum implementation.
Those that had done this early in the preparation process had made good
progress.
Building on existing work. There are examples of schools deliberately
looking for matches between NZC and the work they were already doing.
It can be encouraging to realise that implementing NZC need not require
wholesale change, because schools are already moving in the direction
required. Schools involved in a curriculum conference mainly took the
view that implementation is an evolutionary process rather than a
revolution (Hipkins et al, 2009, p.45). They were capitalising on their
existing strengths to take them further. MECI points out, however, that
there is a danger that schools may convince themselves that they are
doing everything already, and ignore the opportunities for change,
improvement and deeper understanding of the NZC intent.
Vision and values. As noted above, most schools started here.
According to principals in the 2009 NZCER survey, 95 percent of
secondary schools had explored both the vision statement and values as a
whole staff. However, only three-quarters of the secondary teachers
surveyed said that they had been involved in such an exercise.
In their first readiness review (January 2009), ERO emphasised the
importance of preparatory work on vision, values and key competencies
being completed as a school-wide project, rather than (as in some cases)
being done at an individual departmental level. Effective consultation
usually resulted in a better shared understanding about the key elements
of a schools curriculum.
In the same report, ERO looked at how advanced 43 secondary schools
were (by the latter half of 2008) in the review and design of their school
curriculum in relation to the key components of NZC. They found that 18
of the schools were either initiating or well advanced in curriculum design
with reference to vision and values, compared with 14 for the key
competencies, nine for the learning areas and six for the principles. The
picture for the larger group of primary schools was very similar.
Later (in December 2009), SSS reports confirmed that Many schools [are]
using vision as starting point in NZC implementation (p.169). One report

observed that A number of catholic schools are using values as a key

entry point into NZC, and this is leading to some innovative curriculum
work focussed around both vision and values (SSS, 2009, p.114). The
same report noted however that much of the initial work on values,
principles and key competencies was surface (see Section 3.4); schools
were recognising this and were setting up processes to revisit these areas
and develop deeper understanding.
Key competencies. Development work on the key competencies was
also an early priority for schools. Hipkins et al. observed back in 2007
that Some [of the so-called early adopter] schools anticipated the
direction of change and have already begun experimenting with their own
version of the key competencies (pamphlet 2, p.1).
According to the NZCER 2009 survey, 91 percent of secondary school
principals (and 81 percent of secondary school teachers) said that the
competencies had been explored as a whole staff.
ERO found that, in the first half of 2009, the priority for most primary
schools was working on the key competencies: Many were aiming to
complete the process of aligning the competencies to the school vision
and values, and integrating them into plans for teaching and
learning. (ERO, 2009b, p.7). The principal and deputy principal of a full
primary case-study school expressed the view that key competencies
would drive curriculum implementation in their school (Hipkins et al.,
2009).
Nevertheless, an SSS report (December 2009) identified teachers
understanding of the key competencies in relation to learning areas and
pedagogical content knowledge as an area of need, stating that in some
cases their understanding remained quite shallow. This is consistent with
the view noted above, that much of the initial work on the key
competencies (as well as that on values and principles) was at a surface
level only. SSS reports also noted that there was ongoing confusion around
assessment of the key competencies, and that some teachers had
difficulty with the understanding that key competencies needed to be
monitored but not assessed.
By the second half of 2009, according to ERO, 46 percent of schools were
well underway, and 50 percent under way, in terms of integrating the key
competencies into teaching and learning programmes. ERO reported that
in many secondary schools, teachers had benefited from regular NZCrelated PD which was often focused on the key
competencies: understanding them, integrating them into teaching and
learning programmes and monitoring them (ERO, 2010, p.13).
Principles. According to the NZCER survey, 88 percent of secondary
school principals, and 73 percent of teachers, said that they had explored
the NZC principles as a whole staff. Just over a third of principals and
teachers said that they had explored the principles in teams, and a
smaller proportion (13 percent of principals, 15 percent of teachers) said
they explored them individually. Very few (two percent of principals, six
percent of teachers) said they were not yet a focus.

Comments about the principles have been included in some of what has
already been said, since they relate also to the vision and values, and/or
the key competencies. However, an SSS report (2009, p.5) observed that
the principles were not generally being recognised as the foundation of
curriculum decision making because they were significantly
overshadowed by the key competencies. Schools therefore needed help
with understanding the intent of the principles, and how they should
underpin all curriculum decision making.
Pedagogy. Responding to the NZCER survey, 85 percent of secondary
principals, but only 65 percent of teachers, said that effective pedagogy
had been explored as a whole staff. CIES talked to school leaders about
the means used to encourage pedagogical change; they found that
effective leaders adopted very different strategies, according to the
perceived needs of their staff and the specificities of their school
context (Cowie et al, 2009, p.29). Some schools were considering, or
experimenting with, changes to the timetable and/or physical spaces to
better accommodate new pedagogical approaches.
CIES case-study school leaders said that, as they began to explore what
constitutes effective pedagogy, they needed to go back and review their
vision and goals, because their understanding of the scope of these had
evolved. (This is consistent with what was said above about the need to
revisit values, principles and key competencies for more in-depth
exploration.) Principals highlighted the centrality of the relationship
between the school vision for student learning and achievement and
teacher pedagogical practices in support of this (Cowie et al, 2009, p.18).
Teacher inquiry cycle. CIES found that, over the two years of fieldwork,
the use of teacher as inquirer models was starting to become more
common in schools. In contrast with the cycle presented in NZC, models
often included feedback from the school leadership team, professional
development advisers or teacher colleagues (based on mutual
observation). However, there was in many cases a lack of understanding
about the meaning of the teaching as inquiry process; some staff were
confusing this with the inquiry learning approaches they were using with
their students. In some schools, where the term teacher as inquirer came
to be more commonly used, the misunderstanding was addressed, but in
other schools the confusion was still evident. MECI also found a great deal
of variation in focus group participants understanding of teaching as
inquiry, and in particular a significant degree of confusion between
teaching as inquiry and inquiry learning approaches (Sinnema, 2010,
p.17).
An SSS report also talked about the confusion between teaching as
inquiry and inquiry learning. Another gave a more positive assessment,
but noted that individual support from an adviser had been necessary for
some teachers to fully engage with the process. Moreover, A few teachers
are still resistant and need collegial support (SSS, 2009, p.101). A third
report listed teaching as inquiry among the greatest strengths in current
(2009) school practice, although the full wording teachers focusing on
teaching as inquiry and learning alongside students in their inquiry

processes (p.4) could perhaps tend to foster the confusion already

described.
As a result of the confusion surrounding the term, ERO no longer refers to
teaching as inquiry in their third (2010) report. Instead, they talk
about using an evidence-based approach to teaching. By the second half
of 2009, ERO found that all or most teachers in 61 percent of the schools
reviewed were using an evidence-based approach, and in only seven
percent of the schools was it not being used by any teachers. There was
still a difference between sectors, with an evidence-based approach being
used by most or all teachers in nearly two-thirds of primary schools but
less than half of secondary schools.
Curriculum design and review. In the NZCER secondary school survey
(2009), just under half of the principals (48 percent) and just over a third
of the teachers (37 percent) said they had been involved in curriculum
design and review.
According to EROs first report:
School curriculum design and review involves making decisions about
how to give effect to the national curriculum in ways that best address the
particular needs, interests, and circumstances of the schools students
and community. (ERO, 2009a, p.4).
The second ERO report (August 2009) stressed the importance of
curriculum design and review being seen as a cyclic process. Therefore A
critical driver in successful curriculum design, implementation and
delivery is the effectiveness of the schools self review or inquiry
process. (ERO, 2009b, p.1). Curriculum design and implementation is
informed by ongoing inquiry into what is working and how well it is
working for diverse students. (p.2).
The second round of CIES data collection (end of 2008 or beginning of
2009) revealed a growing understanding from school leaders
that curriculum implementation involves an iterative adaptive cycle of
trialling, reflection and the generation of new possibilities (Cowie et al,
2009, p.19).
Experimentation was encouraged, because school leaders acknowledged
the importance of taking risks and trialling ideas in the classroom
(experimenting and risk-taking were described as strengths in one SSS
area at the end of 2009). They had come to realise that curriculum
implementation takes time and requires ongoing change (Cowie et al,
2009, p.32).
CIES found that the iterative process of engaging with NZC ideas was
common in primary schools but less firmly embedded in the intermediate
and secondary sectors.

b. the implementation of media

http://rafleckt.wordpress.com/2010/04/23/how-media-andtechnology-influence-learning/

How Media and Technology

Influence Learning
How Media and Technology Influence Learning
(Based on the Clark/Kozma Debate)
This position paper is based on Richard E. Clark and Robert Kozmas
famous debate that looks at whether media and technology influences
learning. I will be looking at the role media and technology play in
motivating and enhancing learning in schools of the 21st century. I will
also be examining the possible challenges within the use of technology
in school settings and conclude by suggesting some possible
recommendations that will analyze the possible directions of media and
technology in the future.
Summary of Debate
Clark, a professor of instructional technology at the University of
Southern California, insists that media does not influence learning
under any conditions. He felt that its only influence was cost and
distribution. He goes as far as to say, that different forms of media
are mere vehicles that delivers instruction but does not influence
student achievement any more more than the truck that delivers our
groceries causes changes in our nutrition (Clark, 1994, p. 22). In
addition, Clark mentions, Learning seems to result from factors such
as task differences, instructional methods, and learner traits(including
attitudes) but not the choice of media for instruction (1992, p.812). It
seems evident that Clarks (1983) focus is to separate the relationship
between media and instructional strategies (method) and to assert that
there are no learning advantages from the use of any particular
medium.
On the other hand, Kozma (1994), a principal scientist at the Center for
Technology in Learning,SRI International, challenges Clarks idea in the
debate about the impact of media andtechnology on learning. He
argues that learners will benefit most from the use of
aparticular medium when its capabilities are employed by the
instructional
method
to
providerepresentations and
cognitive
operations that are salient to the task and the situation (Nathan,&
Robinson, 2001, p.72). Kozma proposes that the combination of media

with methods ininstructional research might influence and benefit

learning for particular students, tasks, andsituations. He also
recommends that educators try to question the ways can we use the
capabilities of media and technology to influence learning for particular
students with specific tasks in distinct contexts (Reeves, 1998, p. 26) .
My position within the debate
Clark and Kozma both have important points of view. Teaching
learning environments certainly have changed a lot since Clark
Kozma wrote these two papers. Perhaps after observing all
changes, Clark and Kozma might agree that each argument has its
value and strength.

and
and
the
own

Clark has a strong argument that people tend to encourage students

and teachers ) to begin with educational and instructional solutions and
search for problems that can be solved by those solutions (Clark,
1994, p.28). It is not uncommon tosee people working intensely on
developing new technologies (media) but then having difficulty
marketing the product line because it has limited use or value in real
life. If not careful the same thing could happen to instructional design if
we omit the underlying guidelines (methods) for the teaching/learning
model when exploring various possibilities of improving the use of
media.
On the other hand, I think Kozma is also right when he argues that the
combinationof media with methods in instructional research might
influence and benefit learning for learners who can engage in
technology-embedded instruction. Overall, I agree with the conclusion
that Kozma suggested in his article that we should stop debating the
issue of Do media influence learning? and instead we should begin to
think about In what ways can we use the capabilities of media to
influence learning for particular students, tasks, and situations?
(Kozma, 1994, p.18) By doing so, we will have more opportunities to
discover the potential relationship between media andlearning and
then use the available media to enhance teaching and learning
environments to facilitate our students.
Learning with and from media and technology
Thomas C. Reeves points out that media and technology have been
introduced into schools because it is believed that they can have
positive effects on teaching and learning (1998, p.1). In addition, there
is an important approach educational researchers have indicated which
argues that both media and technology can effectively be used in
schools as phenomena to learn both from and with (Jonassen, &
Reeves, 1996). In terms of learning from technology, it includes the
instructional television, computer-based instruction, or integrated
learning systems that have been implemented into classrooms
(Reeves, 1998, p.4). Learning with technology means to use the

technologies as cognitive tools to create constructivist learning

environments (Reeves, 1998). Moreover, many researchers such as
Jonassen (1996) have shown that the learning process might be
changed as an effect of predominant media being used, because
technology or media has been successfully evaluated as type of
cognitive mind tool (Kenny, 2001, p. 210). Therefore, the media and
technology can play a powerful role to improve instructions when
students can actively use them as cognitive tools rather than simply
perceive and interact with them as tutors or repositories of
information (Reeves, 1998, p.25). It seemsapparent that media does
play an important role in the design of an instructional method,
because technology can more readily provide a highly learner-oriented
and interactive environment in a less expensive way.
Furthermore, todays learners will need to enter the real-world with
capabilities such as the ability to communicate effectively, analyze,
synthesize information, utilize higher-order thinking skills and think
creatively. I suppose that new technologies could bring new
opportunities for teachers to connect with students who are already
spending large amounts of time in these activities in creating a more
collaborative learning environment. Many researchers agree that
computers can be used as tools to engage learners in higher order
thinking and provide a constructive learning environment to help the
learner actively build up their own knowledge and reflect on their
interpretations (Jonassen, & Carr, & Yueh, 1998). Jonassen et al. claim
that Mind tools function as formalisms for guiding learners in the
organization and representation of what they know (1998, p.30).
Consequently, educators or instructional designers should pay more
attention to the fundamental principles andmethods. In addition to the
fundamental principles of education, educators should use new
technologies in order to create a suited learning environment to
educate the students to be lifelong learners in the future.
The teachers role in the process of learning
Seymour Papert defines the process of learning as the making [of]
connections between mental entities that already exist and states that
new mental entities seem to come into existence in more subtle ways
that escape conscious control (1993, p.105). Learning is a process that
students should be encouraged to experience by themselves. Focusing
on the learning process will lead them to positive engagement in
learning, because they will not be afraid to make mistakes and will be
able to find the answers through a series of trials. From this
perspective, the teacher is controlling the learning most of the time,
and the child is responsible for following instructions. However,teachercentered teaching cannot provide a better open-ended learning
environment to encourage students to think independently and
critically than students-centered ways of teaching. I feel that if a
teacher can be a facilitator rather than the information deliverer in the
classroom during the process of interaction , then students can become

deeper thinkers, not just memorizers. In the meantime, a teacher

shouldfacilitate learning by improving the connectivity in the learning
environment (Papert, 1993, p.105), which means involving various
real-life or more realistic situations in the teaching and learning
materials. Many constructivists believe that hypermedia can be a type
of medium that allows learners to create their own schemata from the
pieces of information provided (Cates, 1995, p.4). Moreover, the
research shows that many students in the 21st century could be more
actively engaged in instructions through using technology-based
learning activities than traditional teacher-based learning environments
(Cates, 1995).
The impact of media and technology in school settings
If we look back at prior educational environments before the invention
of computers and multimedia technologies, we see there were other
types of technologies introduced as instructional tools such as radio,
film, and television into classrooms with a certain degree of success
(Nathan, & Robinson, 2001). Today, digital technologies have greatly
influenced children in the 21st century. Educational experiences have
remained consistent even while there have been some significant
changes in the modes and models of teaching and learning with the
advance of technology, mainly due to the invention of the Internet and
the popularity of personal computers. Thus, educators should
deliberately look differently on communicating and educating todays
media-centric youth (Kenny, 2001, p. 210) and use those technologies
to be the instructional supplementary materials that enable
pedagogies to be more diversified.
However, after reading the article Now More Than Ever: Will High-Tech
Kids Still Think Deeply?, I found that Tarlow and Spangler (2001)
mainly tried to argue that we, aseducators or educational instruction
designers, should be sure not to overlook technology tools, but instead,
use our critical capabilities to deliberate on the most essential learning
objectives that we seek to achieve, and we should apply and estimate
high-tech applications in order to achieve those objectives. I agree that
when we, as educators, over-extend new technologies, it does bring
with it drawbacks to the educational system. Kozma (1994) points out
that learning with media can be thought of as a complementary
process within which representations are constructed and procedures
performed, sometimes by the learner and sometimes by the medium
(p.11).
It is my goal for the future to be an instructional designer, in addition to
still being a teacher and educator, to be reminded that it is important
not to over-emphasize the capacity of media and technology tools, but
rather to closely look at the purpose of education and its educational
goals. Media and technology can be one type of channel ortoolbox to
enhance the learning environment, but I believe that they are not the
only solution for achieving our educational goals. McLuhan (1964)

proposed the idea thatmedium is the message and the four-tiered

questions to evaluate new technology when we think about applying it:
what does it extend?; what does it make obsolete?; what is
retrieved? and what does the technology revert into if it is overextended?. I believe that if we seriously rethink those questions before
we determine what kind of technology we will use to improveour
teaching, it will lead us to a more neutral decision.
The challenges of learning by media and technology
In school settings, how can we design instruction and implement
applications in the classroom? There are some concerns applying
technology in the real-world classroom. First, the virtual classroom is
not necessarily suitable for every learner, because it requires more
self-discipline from students themselves, and it might not be able to
provide a full-scale learning environment for students because of the
lack of social experiences and interactions among students. Secondly,
the technological implementation process will take time to integrate
with current school systems. In addition, it will involve a lot of money,
strength, and time. Will most of the schools have enough resources to
adapt new technology? Finally, many teachers realized that they are
not well-prepared for new technologies. Susan
Nelson mentions that educators can not sophisticatedly adopt
technological instructions, because the school setting and the
student-teacher learning paradigm have been largely ignored by most
major software designers (Nelson, 2000, p.46). It is important that
schools provide teachers with continuous professional development
training to enhance their teaching methods and gain confidence in
using new technology tools. For instructional designers, it is important
to incorporate teaching methods to create a more effective and
interactive learning environment. These are the challenges and real
problems that I foresee.
Recommendations for applications of technology
Modern technology offers an easier and even faster environment to
access and retrieve information. Children can retrieve information
much more rapidly using Internet service, but it doesnt necessarily
mean that children have the ability to evaluate the validity of
information, nor does it mean that the information they acquire from
the Internet will trigger them to think deeply. Nelson states that, true
learning is not so much about the gathering of information as it is
about using and analyzing information. The Internet does not promote
this level of thinking (2000, p. 47). Essentially, education should
prepare students to be creative thinkers and develop the needed
models and purpose for learning. Therefore, the goal of teaching and
learning should be focused on training students to think critically and
giving them opportunities to build up their own thinking experiences
they implement the future teaching model. I believe that educators

should pay more attention to how instructions are delivered to students

and how the learning objectives should be achieved. At the same time,
they should prepare children to have the life-longcapabilities and
decision-making skills to face a society that is changing rapidly.
Final remarks
In good designs, a mediums capabilities enable methods and the
methods that are used take advantage of these capabilities (Kozma,
1994, p.16). It is important to evaluate the following four questions that
Cates (1995, p.10) quoted in Whites article, Educators must ask
themselves some important questions, when they integrate
technology into instructions. First educators should ask, What is the
educational value of the technological advance?Secondly, instructors
must pose the question, What type of information is best presented
through which medium? Furthermore, they also need to think about
How can we get more tools for education that combine quality
technology with quality education? Lastly, itis important to ask What
are the critical tools for education? I believe for myself, going into
instructional design in the future, these questions are good reminders
that encourage me to analyze instructional methods before creating
new technology-embedded tools. Hyperlearning tools can definitely
change learning and provide a more dynamic learning environment
only if they are implemented effectively and efficiently for learners. Will
this in turn phase out the need for schools? Perelman (1993) argues
that public education and schools or colleges will be replaced by the
hyperlearning revolution in the future. It is very hard to think that
everything that needs to be learned can be learned only through
technology. Everyone is unique; thus, some of the learners might easily
absorb new knowledge through technology-incorporated materials, but
others might need more face-to-face.

c. The implementation of materials

http://www.materials.ac.uk/guides/casestudies.asp

Teaching Materials Using Case Studies

By Claire Davis and Elizabeth Wilcock

Why This Guide?

Teaching and learning styles are, by their very nature, changing and in
recent years there has been a noticeable move from lecture-based
activities towards more student-centred activities. Case studies are an
increasingly popular form of teaching and have an important role in
developing skills and knowledge in students. This guide explores the use
of the case-based approach to support engineering education and, more
specifically, their role in Materials Science related Higher Education
courses. This will include looking at the 'traditional' Materials Science and
Engineering courses as well as the more multidisciplinary courses (e.g.
Biomedical Materials Science, Sports and Materials Science etc.).
This guide highlights the good practice we have identified, and also
discusses our experiences (both good and bad) of the adoption and
implementation of this type of learning activity. We hope that by
explaining our rationale for the adoption of case studies, and by
discussing their development and structure, you will be encouraged to
consider your own teaching methods and whether this approach, or
aspects of it, is appropriate to you. At the end of the guide are 5 examples
of case studies that illustrate some of the different topics discussed below.
Perspective adopted
In this guide, we consider the topic of case studies in its entirety. We begin
by outlining our reasons for incorporating case studies into the teaching
syllabus and then look at different aspects of case studies, including
subject choice and content development, running and structuring of case
studies, and assessment methods. Good practice, and examples of ideas
that have been tried and found wanting, are discussed. Gaining feedback
on our case studies from both students and staff has been an important
aspect of our research and this is also reviewed.
What Is a Case Study?

It is now documented that students can learn more effectively when

actively involved in the learning process (Bonwell and Eison, 1991; Sivan
et al, 2001). The case study approach is one way in which such active
learning strategies can be implemented in our institutions. There are a
number of definitions for the term case study. For example, Fry et al
(1999) describe case studies as complex examples which give an insight
into the context of a problem as well as illustrating the main point. We
define our case studies as student centred activities based on topics that
demonstrate theoretical concepts in an applied setting. This definition of a
case study covers the variety of different teaching structures we use,
ranging from short individual case studies to longer group-based
activities. Examples of different styles of case studies are given at the end
of this guide.
It is at this point that it is important to make a distinction between this
type of learning and problem-based learning. The structure and format of
our case studies can be likened to project-based learning as described by
Savin-Baden (2003). Savin-Baden highlights the differences between
problem-based learning and project-based learning and these can be
summarised as follows:
Project-based Learning
Predominantly task orientated with
activity often set by tutor

Problem-Based Learning
Problems usually provided by staff
but what and how they learn defined
by students

Tutor supervises

Tutor facilitates

Students are required to produce a

solution or strategy to solve the
problem

Solving the problem may be part of

the process but the focus is on
problem-management, not on a
clear and bounded solution

May include supporting lectures

which equip students to undertake
activity, otherwise students
expected to draw upon knowledge
from previous lectures

Lectures not usually used on the

basis that students are expected to
define the required knowledge
needed to solve the problem

Table 1: Differences and similarities between project-based learning

(similar in structure to case study learning) and problem based learning.
In practice there is overlap between the two teaching modes and we
should not worry too much about clear distinctions. Many of the discussion

points in this guide will be relevant to both case studies and problembased learning topics.
Why Use Case Studies in Teaching?
The discipline of Materials Science and Engineering is ideal for using case
study teaching because of the wealth of practical, real life examples that
can be used to contextualise the theoretical concepts. Educational
research has shown case studies to be useful pedagogical tools. Grant
(1997) outlines the benefits of using case studies as an interactive
learning strategy, shifting the emphasis from teacher-centred to more
student-centred activities. Raju and Sanker (1999) demonstrate the
importance of using case studies in engineering education to expose
students to real-world issues with which they may be faced. Case studies
have also been linked with increased student motivation and interest in a
subject (Mustoe and Croft, 1999). In our experience of using case studies,
we have found that they can be used to:

Allow the application of theoretical concepts to be demonstrated,

thus bridging the gap between theory and practice.

Encourage active learning.

Provide an opportunity for the development of key skills such as

communication, group working and problem solving.

Increase the students' enjoyment of the topic and hence their desire
to learn.

Most courses already have some case study teaching in them and we
have introduced a greater extent of case-based approach in all of our
courses for the above reasons. We have found the use of case studies to
be very beneficial, not only to the students but also to our lecturers who
have found the learning/teaching experience enjoyable and challenging.
Students' comments include:
'Well, it's real stuff isn't it? Otherwise you can feel like you're just doing
something for the sake of it. When you do a case study you go out and
find information that is being used in real life.'
'It's something different where you actually apply what you're learning.'
Did We Find It Hard to Introduce Case Studies Into Our Teaching?

In our experience, an important factor in the introduction of case studies

into a course is the style or structure of the course itself. We offer a
number of separate courses in our department and have recognised that
they fall into two distinct types (defined here as Type I and Type II). Type I
courses are the traditional Materials Science and Engineering degrees
which are accredited by the Engineering Council and can lead onto
Chartered Engineer status. We also offer multidisciplinary courses (Type II
courses) such as Bio-Medical Materials and Sports and Materials Science.
These courses are not accredited and take students with a wider range of
background skills, varied academic qualifications and different career
aspirations. Overall, we have found it easier to introduce case studies into
our Type II courses and therefore these courses contain a greater
proportion of this type of learning. A summary of the differences between
these courses is given in Table 2.
Type I courses

Type II courses

Content mostly specified by

accreditation

Non-accredited courses

Well established courses with

existing lecture content

New lecture content often required

(for at least part of the course)

Students more likely to have a

Students likely to have a mixed
physical science background (maths, subject (arts + sciences/ vocational)
chemistry, physics)
background
Tends to be more theory-based

Tends to be more applicationfocussed

Table 2. Differences between traditional, established Materials Science

and Engineering degree courses (Type I courses) and the newer (often
multidisciplinary) Materials related courses (Type II courses).
Other issues that relate to introducing case studies in our courses (other
than due to syllabus/accreditation constraints) are as follows:

Some lecturers had been teaching their modules for a long time and
were reluctant to change the tried and tested formula. Others,
however, were keen to experiment with different types of learning
as opposed to the traditional 'talk and chalk' method. Those who
were open to new types of teaching were generally more involved in
the planning and teaching of the newer courses.

Where case studies have been included in the place of lectures and
practicals covering similar topic areas in our traditional courses, we
initially did not replace sufficient existing time-tabled teaching to
allow for students to carry out background reading and additional
research. We have now rectified this.

We have found it easier to increase the number of cases running in

our courses in a gradual manner as we identify the resources, time
and support that is needed.

How Do You Develop a Case Study?

There are a number of ways to develop case studies, some more
successful than others. The following list covers the main methods and
also discusses other options and experiences external to our institution.

Developing a case study based on the research interests of

staff. For example, the research area of one of our lecturers is
polymeric foams; he is now responsible for a sports and materials
science case study analysing running shoe performance including
the behaviour of the polymeric foams in the soles. We have found
this to be a good method of case study development, as it is easier
to locate resources for the case study and the lecturer's in-depth
knowledge and interest in the topic add to the case study.

Requesting students to develop case studies based on

personal interests.This is a method we have not tried, but is an
interesting way to develop case studies and one promoted by Smith
(1992). However, problems may arise when trying to involve
students. For example, the University of Bath are currently
producing a portfolio of case studies to support recruitment and
teaching of their undergraduate courses in Materials Science and
Engineering and initially approached the students for ideas. They
ran a competition where undergraduates and postgraduates were
invited to submit proposals and a prize of 250 was offered.
Unfortunately, this was not as successful as anticipated and
students did not take part in the competition. This may be because
the students did not have enough confidence in their abilities to
develop a case study or felt they did not have the spare time to
work on the topic, particularly as many students take part time jobs
to help finance their studies. A more focussed approach of asking
postgraduate students, and graduates from the department, to
develop case studies based on their experiences/projects is now
being pursued.

Develop from scratch, maybe following interests/ideas

picked up from elsewhere. This approach may involve contacting

or visiting other institutions to find out what methods and topics

they are using.

Invite external lecturers, for example from industry, to

develop, or contribute to, a case study. Involving external
sources can add new dimensions to the learning activity. One of our
case studies looks at materials used in tennis equipment and we
invite a tennis coach to brief the students on the topic at the start of
the case study. This has been well received by the students who felt
it added further insights into the topic. Another approach is to use
real-life examples from industry such as described by Raju and
Sanker (1999), for example by inviting practising engineers to
present examples in the form of a case study. Care is needed if an
external lecturer is asked to develop the entire case study to ensure
they understand what is being requested of them.

Developing a case study to replace more traditional teaching

on the same topic. For example, we now run a case study on
joining processes, which contributes to a third of a module in level 2
(see case study example 5). The topics covered in this case study
were previously taught through lectures. We decided to adapt this
part of the module to a team case study approach that is
continuously assessed with no examination question.

Use of Case Studies to Develop Key Skills

We have found the case-based approach to be a useful method to develop
transferable skills. Key skills we have embedded into our case studies
include:

Group working. The benefits of group working are well

documented, and we have found that a team case study approach
can add to the learning experience. In our Sports and Materials
Science course group work has the added benefit of allowing
students to share their personal knowledge and experiences of sport
(many students on this course play sport to a high level). Care is
needed with group working activities e.g. selecting group
membership to ensure smooth group operation/training of students
in group working skills. This is particularly important for longer case
studies.

Individual study skills. Case studies are a good vehicle for

encouraging students to carry out independent research outside of
the lecture/tutorial environment.

Information gathering and analysis. Many case studies require

resource investigation and encourage students to utilise a number

of different sources, i.e. Internet, library, laboratory results and

contacting experts in industry.

Time management. Longer case studies require students to really

consider how best to carry out the work so that it is completed to
the set deadline. Interim meetings with academic staff ensure
progress is made during the case study rather than all the work
being left to the last week.

Presentation skills. Most of our case studies require students to

present their work in a variety of formats, these include oral
presentations, articles, posters and reports.

Practical skills. Some of our case studies involve practical work on

the components that are being studied. Feedback has shown that
many students enjoy the hands-on approach.

Assessment Types for Case Studies

Our case studies encourage learning of both course content and key skills,
and careful consideration needs to be made as to how to assess these
different aspects. The two main modes of assessment are formative
(assessment for the purpose of improving learning and student
performance) and summative (evaluation of student performance against
a set of predetermined standards). We use summative assessment to
assess the students' understanding of course content, yet realise that a
more formative approach is necessary for evaluating key skills
development and giving feedback to encourage students to reflect upon
their learning experience. Booklet 7 of the LTSN Generic Centre
Assessment Booklet Series provides informative and detailed discussions
of these modes of assessment.
Group assessment is another area we have had to consider, as many of
our case studies are group-based. Learning to collaborate is a useful skill
and the ability to produce a group output is an important part of this. In
terms of summative assessment, these case studies require students to
produce one or more outputs between them (generally a report and/or
presentation/poster) and we have used group meetings with supervisors
and feedback sessions to provide the formative assessment. In order to
produce an individual student mark, we use confidential peer assessment
forms and/or an individual executive summary to go with the group
output. There is much literature on this subject and our suggestion of
some good reads are booklets 9 and 12 of the LTSN Generic Centre
Assessment Booklet Series and the SEDA paper 102 'Peer Assessment in
Practice'.

Are Case Studies a Good Learning Approach for All Students?

It should be acknowledged that styles and modes of learning vary from
student to student. Our case studies are predominantly courseworkbased; however, this style of work may not be suited to everyone. Some
students may work more efficiently in a formal and time-constrained
setting, such as an examination, and although this may not be the better
mode of learning, it is one to which they have become thoroughly
accustomed to at school. One way in which we have tackled this, in some
of our case studies, is to have both coursework and exam assessment on
the case study content. Provided that a balance in learning styles is
maintained in the overall course then the students are able to develop a
range of skills and no student should be unfairly disadvantaged compared
to another. Group working may also not be suited to all students. Our
feedback on group work has shown that this presented a particular
problem for some students. Most students recognise its importance for
developing key skills, but many commented on the uneven workload
within their groups. Comments included;
'It's not fair when other members of the group do not provide any input or
aid the group effort yet still get marks...'
'I don't like working as part of a team because there are always lazy
people who don't do any work and if you don't want that to affect your
own mark you end up doing everything. I work well in a team and am
quite a good organiser, but tend to do too much of the work.'
In response to this feedback, we developed a way of tackling the issue of
uneven workload. We piloted formal group sessions with the lecturer in
one of our case studies (see case study example 3 for details). Student
feedback was positive and we feel that this has gone part way to helping
the students. Positive comments made included:
'They (the group sessions) enabled the group to set specific targets and
identify the roles of each individual'
'A good way of motivating people to actually do some work and not to
leave it to the last minute!'
Evaluating Your Teaching
It is all very well to promote case studies as a good form of teaching, but
how do you evaluate whether they are meeting the objectives set for
them in terms of increasing student enjoyment/motivation, content

coverage and depth of learning? Evaluating students' learning can be

problematic but essential to ensure good teaching. Some suggestions for
evaluation are as follows:
Questionnaire (closed questions): These ask for a specific answer - a
circle round an option, items to be ranked etc; there are many standard
university versions of this type of questionnaire. This approach can be
cost-effective for pro-cessing the data and interpreting the results.
However, they limit the responses from the students to predetermined
answers.
Questionnaire (open-ended questions): These allow students to fully
explain their views and justify their answers. However, it can take time to
analyse and interpret the results. We tend to use this approach,
particularly with the introduction of new case studies, as we feel the
questions evoke more personal and informative answers from students.
Interviews and discussion: Tutorials and staff/student liaison
committees offer a good opportunity to discuss the learning experience
with students. If assessing a specific case study, it is often better to use a
member of staff who is not directly involved in the case study so that
students do not worry that negative feedback may affect their
assessment.
Independent Evaluator: An extension to the above point is to use an
independent assessor who meets with the students. For example, we have
a research assistant who is responsible for assessing, developing and
evaluating our case studies. Our assistant has gained feedback using
questionnaires and one-to-one and small group interviews. We have found
that having an evaluator who is not a lecturer (and not responsible for
marking their work) has allowed students to be more direct and honest in
their comments on the case studies.
Common Pitfalls
Feedback from both staff and lecturers has highlighted areas for
improvement in our case study teaching. Some of these will equally apply
to other forms of teaching, for example problem-based learning, small
group tutorials, project work etc.
Group working.The subject of group working comes up time and time
again in student feedback. We originally provided no formal training for
group work and soon recognised that this was an area we needed to
address. We have developed a case study for some level1 students that

incorporates group training including discussion of group dynamics, group

functioning and group meetings. As outlined earlier, we also feel that
formal group sessions are helpful for the students, particularly for longer
case studies.
Explanation of case study requirements. Feedback has shown that
students would like more details on what is expected from them in the
case studies e.g. level of independent research and, more specifically,
sufficient information on how to write reports, give presentations and
design and present posters. This is particularly important at the start of
the course as for many students this may be a very different form of
learning to what they were used to at school. For example, one student
commented after a case study, 'A better brief for the poster would have
limited the text content, and a clear aim for what needs to be included
would have been helpful'. We have now compiled tips and suggestions for
students in these areas, which will form part of our case studies support
web-site.
Depth of learning. When examining student use of resources, we found
that many of the research-based case studies led students to derive all
their information from the Internet. Whilst this is a valuable resource we
feel that it can often result in only surface learning. We have found that
one way of addressing this is to specify to students that we are expecting
critical analysis in their work. Including a practical component is also a
useful way of achieving more in-depth study (see case study example 3).
Ensuring that there is progression of learning skills development (e.g.
analysis to synthesis etc.) when using a series of case studies is
important, rather than repetition of the same skills.
Case study mark allocation. We have had to consider how many
credits/marks should be allocated to our case studies. We have found that
some students have spent quite a lot of time carrying out independent
research yet felt that they have not received enough credit. Greater
guidance was required as to how the marks were allocated.
Added workload i.e. not replacing sufficient other teaching. In
some cases, where we have replaced existing teaching with case studies
we have found that students were actually spending more time working
towards the case study than they would have spent in the original mode
of learning. Whilst it is encouraging to see such dedication to the topic, we
realise that it is important not to overload students with case study work
that could compromise being able to complete assignments in parallel
modules.

Appendix - Case Study Examples

1 Chocolate - a Materials Approach:
Length:
3 hours (one lab session)
Level:

1st year Materials Science and Engineering Course

Aim:

To demonstrate the relevance of, and application of,

scientific theories developed in lectures to a single
material. To encourage students to use knowledge from a
number of lecture courses in another setting

Key skills:

Group work, presentational skills, time management

Assessment:

Question sheet and group presentation

Students are assigned to groups of 4-6 for the session. Each group is
presented with a pack of information about chocolate (raw materials,
manufacture, properties, marketing data, heat treatments, compositions,
structures etc.) and a set of questions to answer. There is too much
information for everyone to read everything, hence the students need to
set priorities and allocate tasks to ensure that all the research is
completed in time. The groups are also required to give a 5 minutes
presentation to the class (they are provided with OHP's and pens) on a
given topic, different for each group (e.g. control of taste through
composition, structure and processing). The students therefore have to
share their findings from the reading and relate the information to their
knowledge from other lectures (e.g. what is shell casting, tempering etc.).
A final component to the case study is taste testing of a range of different
chocolate samples to illustrate the role of composition (sugar, milk, cocoa
levels), particle size etc. This element is designed to be both fun and
informative, the students particularly like to try the American chocolate,
which is almost universally disliked, and determine what the differences
are that change the taste compared to the different English chocolate
types.

d. The implementation of methods

http://teach.com/what/teachers-teach/teaching-methods

Teaching Methods
The term Teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy
and management strategies used for classroom instruction. Your choice of
teaching method depends on what fits you your educational
philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area(s) and school mission
statement. Teaching theories primarily fall into two categories or
approaches teacher-centered and student-centered:

Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning

Teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed
as empty vessels whose primary role is to passively receive information
(via lectures and direct instruction) with an end goal of testing and
assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and
information onto their students. In this model, teaching and assessment
are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured through
objectively scored tests and assessments.

Student-Centered Approach to Learning

While teachers are an authority figure in this model, teachers and
students play an equally active role in the learning process. The teachers
primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall
comprehension of material. Student learning is measured through both
formal and informal

forms of assessment, including group projects, student portfolios, and

class participation. Teaching and assessment are connected; student
learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction.
To better understand these approaches, it is important to discuss what is
generally understood as the three main teaching styles in educational
pedagogy: direct instruction, inquiry-based learning and cooperative
learning. Through these three teaching methods, teachers can gain a
better understanding of how to govern their classroom, implement
instruction and connect with their students. Within each of these three
main teaching styles are teaching roles or models. Theorist A.F. Grasha
explains the five main teaching models in her publication Teaching with
Style (1996): Expert, Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator and
Delegator. To gain a better understanding of the fundamentals of each
teaching style, its best to view them through the lens of direct instruction,
inquiry-based learning, and cooperative teaching.
DIRECT INSTRUCTION
Direct instruction is the general term that refers to the traditional teaching
strategy that relies on explicit teaching through lectures and teacher-led
demonstrations. Direct instruction is the primary teaching strategy under
theteacher-centered approach, in that teachers and professors are the
sole supplier of knowledge and information. Direct instruction is effective
in teaching basic and fundamental skills across all content areas.

INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING

Inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that focuses on student

investigation and hands-on learning. In this method, the teachers primary
role is that of a facilitator, providing guidance and support for students
through the learning process. Inquiry-based learning falls under
the student-centered approach, in that students play an active and
participatory role in their own learning process.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative Learning refers to a method of teaching and classroom
management that emphasizes group work and a strong sense of
community. This model fosters students academic and social growth and
includes teaching techniques such as Think-Pair-Share and reciprocal
teaching. Cooperative learning falls under the student-centered
approach because learners are placed in responsibility of their learning
and development. This method focuses on the belief that students learn
best when working with and learning from their peers.

In order to identify your personal teaching style, it is important to

acknowledge your personal values toward education and how your
students learn. Understanding your teaching style early on will prove
effective for both you and your students, creating and maintaining a
balance between your teaching preferences and your students learning
preferences.

e. The implementation of evaluation

http://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledgehub/education/what-is-the-importance-of-evaluation.html

What is the Importance of Evaluation?

SENTHIL KUMAR
EDUCATION

Importance of Evaluation
Evaluation is not just a testing programme or an administrative technique.
It is not something to be resorted to at the close of the school term as a
culminating activity, nor should it be viewed as an end activity to be done
by the district and division supervisors of the Bureaus of Public and Private
Schools.
In the modern school, increasing emphasis on the personal and social
development of the child, as well as his academic achievement, has called
for the corresponding development of a variety of techniques fur
appraising all phases of child growth and development, of pupil
achievement, of behaviour and of the teaching-learning processes.
Due to the large number of factors that enter into teaching and learning
including such instructional variables as objectives, methods and
techniques, and subject-matter on the one hand; and such human
variables as pupils, teachers, and supervisors on the other, it has been
difficult to appraise the validity of the pupil's achievement.
There is, therefore, a comparatively large subjective factor in the
evaluation of teaching and learning that needs to be taken into account
together with its objective features.
It cannot be denied that the evaluation of teaching and learning is an
exceedingly complex activity. However, the efficiency of the teacher and
the growth and achievement of the pupil can be evaluated through the
use of such devices as check lists, rating scales, and tests of different
aspects of teaching ability, interview, and questionnaires.
Through the use of such devices much valuable data may be gathered
relative to many of the important aspects of teaching and learning.
The importance of evaluation in teaching can be summarized as follows:

1. Evaluation is Important to the Class-room Teachers,

Supervisors, and Administrators in Directing as well as Guiding
Teaching and Learning
Evaluation, to be of importance to teachers and supervisors, should be
diagnostic, i.e., it should reveal the specific points of strength and
weakness in teaching and learning.
2. Evaluation also helps to Measure the Validity and Reliability of
Instruction
The effectiveness and success of any phase of teaching technique can be
demonstrated through the nature of the results obtained.
From a purely methodical point of view, the measurement of effective
teaching finds its great value in the possibilities it offers for the
improvement of teaching and learning.
All activities of the teacher should be evaluated in the light of their
adequacy to promote the democratic way of life and on how nearly do the
students realize the objectives of education.
3. Evaluation Aids in Devising more Effective Instructional
Materials and Procedures of Instruction
Current educational literature is filled with enthusiastic advocacy of
various cooperative researches, and if worked along this line, will
determine the degree of success and effectiveness of evaluation.
4. Evaluation Helps Teachers to Discover the Needs of the Pupils
The purpose of any program of evaluation is to discover the needs of the
pupils being evaluated and then to design learning experiences that will
satisfy these needs.
Traditionally, the results of evaluation have been used to compare one
individual with another. It is an accepted fact that growth is a continuous
process and that each individual grows at a rate that is unique for him.
5. Evaluation Stimulates Students to Study
A questioning teacher creates incentives for students to learn more. He
sets up effective and definite goals for learning giving oral or written
examination is a good incentive for the students to study harder or to do
better work.

It makes the learner familiar with his own results. Likewise, he needs to
understand his own high and low potential for learning, but even more, he
needs help in understanding the personal problems of human relations.
6. Evaluation Helps Parents to Understand Pupil-Growth,
Interests, and Potentialities
The major responsibility of the school and teacher is to help the parents
understand their children. Understanding a youth means understanding
his progress in the various areas of the curriculum, his desires and
motives and behavior they lead to, his potentialities for learning, as well
as his achievement.
7. Evaluation can be used to Enforce External Standards upon the
Individual Class or School
This method should be such as to encourage a flexible curriculum which is
ever responsive to the changing needs of modern life and to the variations
in local conditions. Local schools should be free to select and develop
instruments for evaluation which are appropriate for their curricula
8. Evaluation, Likewise, Helps to Provide Objective Evidences for
Effective Cooperation between Parents and Teachers
The increasing complexity of our present society has emphasized the
importance of the cooperation of the school, the home, and the
community in making significant educational progress
9. Evaluation is Helpful in Securing Support for the School from
the Government, Local or National
The people frequently complain that public schools in this country are
inadequately supported.
10. Evaluation is Helpful to the Teacher
It enables him to see how he can make his contribution to the
accomplishment of the total goals or aims of the school system. It helps
the teacher to coordinate his efforts with the efforts of others who
contribute to the general educational goals.
Types of tests useful in teaching
Modern tests are so numerous that it is extremely difficult to classify them
closely. Tests can be classified on the basis of their ' forms, their functions,

and their content. The types given by the writer are classified as: function,
educational intelligence, and personality tests.
1. Educational Tests
Educational tests have as their primary function the measurement of the
results or effects of instruction and learning. They are intended to test
primarily class-room learning. Educational test may be either standardized
or non-standardized.
A non-standardized test has no fixed norm and it is free from prescribed
rules. The teacher-made test is a good example of the non-standardized
test. Examples of educational tests are the following:
(b) Standard Survey Test, which .aims to measure the attainment,
progress or status of the pupils or the schools. It refers also to a test which
measures the general achievement of the pupils in a certain subject or
field.
(c) Informal or Teacher-made Test, which aims to measure the
achievement, progress, weakness or defects of the individual pupils or
class, or the effectiveness of the method used by the teacher. This may be
either an essay or an informal objective test.
(d) Standard Achievement Test, which aims to measure the pupil's
accomplishment as a result of instruction in a given subject or subjects.
(e) Standard Diagnostic Test, which aims to locate the weaknesses, and if
possible, the cause of disability in performance.
(f) Aptitude Test, which aims to measure the specific intelligence as it
operates in a certain field or area of performance. It may be used for
prognostic purposes.
(g) Inventory Test, which aims to measure the degree of mastery existing
before the teaching or the learning of the subject or subjects.
2. Intelligence Tests
The intelligence tests have as their purpose the measurement of the
pupil's intelligence or mental ability in a large degree without reference to
what the pupil learned in or out of school. The two types of Intelligence
Tests are:
(a) Individual Intelligence Test

This type of intelligence test can be administered only to one pupil at a

time, like the Binet and Simon Intelligence Test (1904).
(b) Group Intelligence Test
This type of Intelligence test can be administered to a number of pupils at
the same time, like the Alpha and Beta Intelligence Tests, or the Philippine
Mental Tests.
Values of the Educational Test
Some values of the educational test worth considering are as follows:
1. The Educational Test Measures the Accomplishment and
Progress of the Pupils
Any attempt to measure the achievement of the children would result in
the discovery of the progress being made from week to week, or from
month to month or from year to year.
It would be advantageous to note the progress and deficiency at all
periods if comparison is to be made with the work three weeks or a month
later. Some tests are designed to serve this end these results of
achievement tests are widely used for classification and promotion.
2. An Educational Test Diagnoses the Strength and Weakness of
the Pupils in a Subject or Subjects
The test will serve both as a guide to teaching and as an enlightenment to
the learner. When a pupil makes an error, the teacher needs to apply a
diagnostic test to discover why the pupil made the error and to determine
how the thinking of the pupil may be directed in order to build up a correct
reaction in place of the incorrect one.
Asking questions, the use of drill material, and the review are all forms of
diagnostic tests. It is, therefore, a sound educational practice to use both
oral and written tests for diagnosing what goes on in the pupil's mind.
3. The Educational Test Stimulates the Pupils to Study
Testing serves as a stimulus to daily preparation. The teacher, by giving
an unannounced or announced test of some sort will, no doubt, stimulate
the pupils to study the lesson assigned or the work covered. Giving a
written examination is a good incentive for the pupils to study harder or to
do better work. It makes the learner familiar with his own results.

The final Examination given in the high school and in college at the end of
the course or term furnishes a very powerful stimulus to review.
4. The Educational Test Measures the Validity and Reliability of
Instruction
The effectiveness and success of any phase of teaching technique can be
demonstrated through the character of the results obtained.
The teacher should know how to measure the results of his work in order
to adapt his procedure to the needs of the varying situations from a purely
methodical point of view the measurement of teaching effectiveness finds
its greatest value in the possibilities if offers for the improvement of
teaching.
5. The Educational Test Sets-up Standards of Performance for the
Pupils
It increases the effectiveness of education by setting up standards of
achievement in terms of varying capacities. A standard test can be used
in comparing the merits of different schools, different class-room methods,
different organisations of materials, and the different lengths and methods
of assignment
6. The Educational Test opens the way to Remedial Work
Test results afford a basis for diagnosing the pupil's needs. Difficulties are
prevented by the early discovery of the strength and weakness of the
pupil. Knowing the defect of the individual or the general weakness "of the
class, the teacher will be able to select the right course or procedure to
follow
7. The Educational Test can be Used for Educational and
Vocational Guidance
Test results afford a basis for the guidance of pupils. The test first came
into use in a general way. It can be used to guide the pupil in school in the
selection of courses or of the vocation for which he is best qualified. It can
be used to discover the unusual aptitude of pupils.
The guidance function of education assumes a prominent place in the
modern concepts of the aims of education. It is generally accepted that
intelligence tests are necessary to supplement indices of achievement as
a basis for guidance.

The use of intelligence tests for guidance purposes has become so

thoroughly accepted that no guidance can be considered effective which
does not involve the use of these means.
8. Educational Test Results are a Valuable Part of the Pupil's
Records
The meaning of the test data is widely understood, and when they are
entered in the pupil's permanent record they can help other teachers
understand him better. The test data should be used only as background
information, not as a measure of present status.
9. Educational Tests can be used in the Classification and
Sectioning of Pupils
It has been proved that pupils learn most effectively when they are placed
with other pupils having approximately the same abilities.
This means that pupils of approximately the same intelligence and
achievement levels should be grouped together for instructional purposes.
For the accomplishment of this purpose intelligence and achievement
tests can be utilized.
10. The Educational Test can be used by Supervisors to Direct and
Guide the Teachers
The supervisor who appreciates the value and limitations of tests can use
the data to suggest changes and improvement in teaching procedures.
However, tests should not be used as the sole criterion for evaluating
teacher-effectiveness.
The training of the teacher, the ability of the class, the materials and
resources available to the teacher, are other factors that should be taken
into consideration. The test data should be used as supplementary
evidence.