Teacher (Arabic: ) .
His ethics, though always inuential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects
of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many
elegant treatises and dialogues Cicero described his literary style as a river of gold[7] it is thought that only
around a third of his original output has survived.[8]
1 Life
Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established
a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production
of many of his hundreds of books. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views
of Platonism, but, following Platos death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to empiricism.[6] He believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on
perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works.
2 THOUGHT
tises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics,
Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics.
Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible
at the time, but made signicant contributions to most of
them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology,
physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics,
psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek
knowledge.
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became
estranged over Alexanders relationship with Persia and
Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected
Aristotle of playing a role in Alexanders death, but there
is little evidence.[15]
By 335 BC, Artistotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. 2 Thought
Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next
twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died
and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, 2.1 Logic
who bore him a son whom he named after his father,
Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an Main article: Term logic
eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[14]
For more details on this topic, see Non-Aristotelian logic.
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is
when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his
works.[4] He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are
in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended
for widespread publication; they are generally thought to
be lecture aids for his students. His most important trea-
2.2
Aristotles epistemology
3
served to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotles work is
probably not in its original form, because it was most
likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical
works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about
the early 1st century CE:
1. Categories
2. On Interpretation
3. Prior Analytics
4. Posterior Analytics
5. Topics
6. On Sophistical Refutations
2.1.1
History
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they
are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived
from analysis of Aristotles writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the
analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in
On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms,
namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the
Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The rst three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the
grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of
reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotles concerning
logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book
of Metaphysics.[24]
2 THOUGHT
original research in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and
several other sciences.
Aristotles writings on science are largely qualitative, as
opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century,
scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotles work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but
no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly
due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like
clocks and thermometers.
His writings provide an account of many scientic observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious
errors. For example, in his History of Animals he claimed
that human males have more teeth than females.[27] In a
similar vein, John Philoponus, and later Galileo, showed
by simple experiments that Aristotles theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.[28]
On the other hand, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim
that the Milky Way was made up of those stars which
are shaded by the earth from the suns rays, pointing out
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be disAthens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, rep- missed for a long time) that, given current astronomical
resenting his belief in knowledge through empirical observation demonstrations that the size of the sun is greater than
and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the
in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his earth many times greater than that of the sun, then ... the
belief in The Forms, while holding a copy of Timaeus
sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of
them.[29]
natural world by means of the scientic method. In con- In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of
trast, Aristotles philosophical endeavors encompassed the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched
reason. Todays scientic method assumes that such
virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.
thinking without sucient facts is ineective, and that
In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosodiscerning the validity of ones hypothesis requires far
phy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would demore rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle
scribe as science. Note, however, that his use of the
used to support his laws.
term science carries a dierent meaning than that covered by the term scientic method. For Aristotle, all Aristotle also had some scientic blind spots. He posited
science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoret- a geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selections
ical (Metaphysics 1025b25). By practical science, he of the Metaphysics, which was widely accepted up until
means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the 16th century. From the 3rd century to the 16th centhe study of poetry and the other ne arts; by theoretical tury, the dominant view held that the Earth was the rotascience, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics. tional center of the universe.
If logic (or analytics) is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics;
(3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy.
In the period between his two stays in Athens, between
his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientic thinking and research for
which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotles life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotles metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original
contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform
2.4
2.3
Physics
Geology
5
Water, which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the
modern idea of a liquid.
Air, which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the
modern idea of a gas.
Fire, which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the
modern ideas of plasma and heat.
Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up
the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and
planets).
Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place. All
that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e.,
the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere
(in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved
out of their natural place, they naturally move back towards it. This is natural motionmotion requiring no
extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies
sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and ame
rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in the
perfection of circles.
2.4.2 Motion
Main article: potentiality and actuality
Aristotle dened motion as the actuality of a potentiality
as such.[32] Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as
the active fulllment of a potential, as a transition toward
a potentially possible state. Because actuality and potentiality are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come
down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the as
such to the denition is critical to understanding it.[33]
2.4.3 Causality, the four causes
2.4
Physics
Main article: Four causes
2.4.1
Five elements
2 THOUGHT
thing is determined by the denition, form, pattern,
essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces
the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known
as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal
cause is the idea existing in the rst place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second
place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in
the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the
formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows
an artist, architect, or engineer to create his drawings.
2.4.4 Optics
2.5 Metaphysics
Main article: Metaphysics (Aristotle)
Aristotle denes metaphysics as the knowledge of
immaterial being, or of being in the highest degree of
abstraction. He refers to metaphysics as rst philosophy, as well as the theologic science.
2.6
2.5.1
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and
See also: Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)
the form of the nal house are actualities, which is also a
nal cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes
Aristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time
(ousia) in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes and in substantiality.
that a particular substance is a combination of both matter With this denition of the particular substance (i.e., matand form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of ter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the
the substance as the substratum, or the stu of which it unity of the beings, for example, what is it that makes a
is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas:
bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, acpotential house, while the form of the substance is the cording to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the
actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels actual one (form) are one and the same thing.[38]
or any other dierentia (see also predicables) that let us
dene something as a house. The formula that gives the
components is the account of the matter, and the formula 2.5.2 Universals and particulars
that gives the dierentia is the account of the form.[36]
Main article: Aristotles theory of universals
With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as
he denes in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: Aristotles predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have
a universal form, which could be either a property, or a
relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for
1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form
of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple
2. locomotion, which is change in space; and
and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place
3. alteration, which is change in quality.
an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the
book and apple as being next to each other.
The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are
which the resultant is a property. In that particular change not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible
he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and that there is no particular good in existence, but good is
actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and still a proper universal form. Bertrand Russell is a 20ththe form.
century philosopher who agreed with Plato on the exisReferring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable
of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right
and it is not prevented by something else. For example,
the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei)
plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein)
or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate
or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality
of sight (innate being acted upon), while the capability
of playing the ute can be possessed by learning (exercise
acting).
In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the
forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on
which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather
than in the world of the forms.
2 THOUGHT
superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the
ideas on how the human body works have been almost catches of shermen. His observations on catsh, electric
entirely superseded.
sh (Torpedo) and angler-sh are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, Octopus, Sepia (cuttlesh)
and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His description
2.6.1 Empirical research program
of the hectocotyl arm, used in sexual reproduction, was
widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from sh, and
knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called
Selach (selachians).[39]
Another good example of his methods comes from
the Generation of Animals in which Aristotle describes
breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated.
He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' fourchambered fore-stomachs, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark Mustelus
mustelus.[40]
2.6.2 Classication of living things
Octopus swimming
Torpedo fuscomaculata
Leopard shark
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mammals and shes.[41][42] His classication of living things
contains some elements which still existed in the 19th
century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with
blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that
complex invertebrates do make use of hemoglobin, but of
a dierent kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood
were divided into live-bearing (mammals), and eggbearing (birds and sh). Invertebrates ('animals without
blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled
cephalopods and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In
some respects, this incomplete classication is better than
that of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together
into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).
For Charles Singer, Nothing is more remarkable than
[Aristotles] eorts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a scala naturae"[39] Aristotles History of
Animals classied organisms in relation to a hierarchical
"Ladder of Life" (scala naturae or Great Chain of Being), placing them according to complexity of structure
and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move.[43]
Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., nal
causes, guided all natural processes. Such a teleological
view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data
as an expression of formal design. Noting that no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns, and a
single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen,
Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both
horns and tusks, was staving o vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary.
Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weak
teeth, he supposed the rst was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.[44]
2.7
Psychology
2.6.3
Successor: Theophrastus
2.6.4
2.7 Psychology
10
2 THOUGHT
2.7.2 Dreams
Sleep Before understanding Aristotles take on dreams,
rst his idea of sleep must be examined. Aristotle gives
an account of his explanation of sleep in On Sleep and
Wakefulness.[64] Sleep takes place as a result of overuse
of the senses[65] or of digestion,[64] so it is vital to the
body, including the senses, so it can be revitalized.[65]
While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do
not function as they do during wakefulness.[65] Since a
person cannot sense during sleep they can also not have a
desire, which is the result of a sensation.[65] However, the
senses are able to work during sleep,[65] albeit dierently
than when a person is awake because during sleep a per-
2.8
Practical philosophy
11
son can still have sensory experiences.[64] Also, all of the Aristotle also includes in his theory of dreams what consenses are not inactive during sleep, only the ones that are stitutes a dream and what does not. He claimed that a
weary.[65]
dream is rst established by the fact that the person is
asleep when they experience it.[66] If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see
a dream beTheory of dreams Dreams do not involve actually something in the dark it is not considered[66]
cause
they
were
awake
when
it
occurred.
Secondly,
sensing a stimulus because, as discussed, the senses do
[65]
any
sensory
experience
that
actually
occurs
while
a pernot work as they normally do during sleep. In dreams,
son
is
asleep
and
is
perceived
by
the
person
while
asleep
sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner than
[66]
For example, if,
when awake.[65] Aristotle explains the phenomenon that does not qualify as part of a dream.
while
a
person
is
sleeping,
a
door
shuts
and
in their dream
occurs when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as
[64]
they
hear
a
door
is
shut,
Aristotle
argues
that
this sensory
the waves in a body of water.
When they look away
[66]
experience
is
not
part
of
the
dream.
The
actual senfrom that stimulus, the next thing they look at appears to
sory
experience
is
perceived
by
the
senses,
the
fact that
be moving in a wave like motion. When a person perit
occurred
while
the
person
was
asleep
does
not
make it
ceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus
[66]
[64]
Lastly,
the
images
of
dreams
must
part
of
the
dream.
of their attention, it leaves an impression.
When the
be
a
result
of
lasting
impressions
of
sensory
experiences
body is awake and the senses are functioning properly,
[66]
a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and had when awake.
so the impressions left from previously perceived stimuli
become irrelevant.[65] However, during sleep the impressions stimuli made throughout the day become noticed
because there are not new sensory experiences to distract
from these impressions that were made.[64] So, dreams 2.8 Practical philosophy
result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions
are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams will
2.8.1 Ethics
not resemble the actual experience that occurred when
awake.[66]
During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind.[64] Main article: Aristotelian ethics
Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is
overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus.[64] For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere
because they are so overtaken by their feelings.[64] When
a person is asleep, their senses are not acting as they do
when they are awake and this results in them thinking like
a person who is inuenced by strong feelings.[64] Since a
person sleeping is in this suggestible state, they become
easily deceived by what appears in their dreams.[64]
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so
much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye
is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specic to humans, and that this function must be an
activity of the psuch (normally translated as soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identied such an
optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as happiness or sometimes well being. To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires
a good character (thik aret), often translated as moral
(or ethical) virtue (or excellence).[68]
One component of Aristotles theory of dreams introduces ideas that are contradictory to previously held
beliefs.[67] He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and
that they are not sent by a divine being.[67] Aristotle reasoned that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are happenstances not divinations.[67] These
ideas were contradictory to what had been believed about
dreams, but at the time in which he introduced these ideas
more thinkers were beginning to give naturalistic as opposed to supernatural explanations to phenomena.[67]
12
2.8.2
2 THOUGHT
Politics
13
focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to eect the catharsis of
those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a
discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic
mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all
the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unied, and
achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be
considered superior to epic.[78]
Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest
in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables
of Aesop.[79]
2.9
Views on women
Some of the individual works within the corpus, including the Constitution of Athens, are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotles school, perhaps compiled
under his direction or supervision. Others, such as On
Colors, may have been produced by Aristotles successors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Still
others acquired Aristotles name through similarities in
doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly by
Nicolaus of Damascus. Other works in the corpus include medieval palmistries and astrological and magical
Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant that all of Aristotles extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of
what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and
dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (Fragments of some of Aristotles dialogues
have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that Cicero refers
when he characterized Aristotles writing style as a river
of gold";[89] it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those
14
works currently available to us.[87] However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Ciceros praise was reserved specically for the
exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotles extant
works.[90]
One major question in the history of Aristotles works,
then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how
did the ones we now possess come to us[91] The story of
the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by Strabo in his Geography and Plutarch in his
Parallel Lives.[92] The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them
to Neleus of Scepsis. Neleus supposedly took the writings
from Athens to Scepsis, where his heirs let them languish
in a cellar until the 1st century BC, when Apellicon of
Teos discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing
them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon
tried to repair some of the damage that was done during
the manuscripts stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla
occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried o the library of
Apellicon to Rome, where they were rst published in 60
BC by the grammarian Tyrannion of Amisus and then by
the philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes.[93][94]
LEGACY
4 Legacy
4.2
existence, and he was the founder of many new elds. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, it is doubtful
whether any human being has ever known as much as he
did.[97] Among countless other achievements, Aristotle
was the founder of formal logic,[98] pioneered the study
of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientic
method.[99][100]
15
16
4.3
6 EPONYMS
4.4
5 List of works
Main article: Corpus Aristotelicum
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotles lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotles school. Reference to
them is made according to the organization of Immanuel
Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis
Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831
1870), which in turn is based on ancient classications
of these works.
6 Eponyms
The Aristotle Mountains along the Oscar II Coast of
Graham Land, Antarctica, are named after Aristotle. He
was the rst person known to conjecture, in his book
Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern
high-latitude region and call it Antarctica.[116]
Aristoteles (crater) is a crater on the Moon bearing the
classical form of Aristotles name.
17
[7] Cicero, Marcus Tullius (10643 BC). Academica Priora. Book II, chapter XXXVIII, 119. Retrieved 25 January 2007. veniet umen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles Check date values in: |date= (help)
[8] Jonathan Barnes, Life and Work in The Cambridge
Companion to Aristotle (1995), p. 9.
[9] Campbell, Michael. Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Aristotle"". Behind the
Name: The Etymology and History of First Names. www.
behindthename.com. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
[10] McLeisch, Kenneth Cole (1999). Aristotle: The Great
Philosophers. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 0-415-92392-1.
ARISTOTLE near the ceiling of the Great Hall in the Library
of Congress.
See also
Aristotelian physics
Aristotelian society
Aristotelian theology
Conimbricenses
List of writers inuenced by Aristotle
Otium
Philia
Pseudo-Aristotle
18
[55] Bloch, David (2007). Aristotle on Memory and Recollection. p. 12. ISBN 9004160469.
[28] Stanford
Encyclopedia
of
Philosophy.
Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 26 April 2009.
[33] Sachs, Joe (2005), Aristotle: Motion and its Place in Nature, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[34] Michael Lahanas. Optics and ancient Greeks. Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009.
Retrieved 26 April 2009.
[35] Aristotle, Physics 2.6
[36] Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1043a 1030
[66] Modrak, Deborah (2009). Dreams and Method in Aristotle. Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research 20: 169181.
[67] Webb, Wilse (1990). Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night. New consciousness reader series. Los Angeles, CA, England: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc.
pp. 174184. ISBN 0-87477-594-9.
[68] Nicomachean Ethics Book I. See for example chapter 7
1098a.
[69] Nicomachean Ethics Book VI.
[70] Politics 1253a1924
[73] D. S. Hutchinson and Monte Ransome Johnson (25 January 2015). New Reconstruction, includes Greek text.
[52] Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp. 9094; quotation from p 91
of
Philosophy,
article
19
[95] Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to the Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press. p. 11.
[81] Morsink, Johannes (Spring 1979). Was Aristotles Biology Sexist?". Journal of the History of Biology 12 (1):
83112. doi:10.1007/bf00128136.
[83] Terence Irwin and Gail Fine, Cornell University, Aristotle: Introductory Readings. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett
Publishing Company, Inc. (1996), Introduction, pp. xi [100] Durant, Will (2006) [1926]. The Story of Philosophy.
xii.
United States: Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 92. ISBN 9780-671-73916-4.
[84] Lynn Thorndike, Chiromancy in Medieval Latin
Manuscripts, Speculum 40 (1965), pp.
674706; [101] Plutarch, Life of Alexander
Roger A. Pack, Pseudo-Arisoteles: Chiromantia,
Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littraire du Moyen ge [102] Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed London, 1990,
20, 28, 3536.
39 (1972), pp. 289320; Pack, A Pseudo-Aristotelian
Chiromancy, Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littraire du [103] Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed (London,
Moyen ge 36 (1969), pp. 189241.
1990) 233274.
[85] Jonathan Barnes, Life and Work in The Cambridge
Companion to Aristotle (1995), p. 12; Aristotle himself:
Nicomachean Ethics 1102a2627. Aristotle himself never
uses the term esoteric or acroamatic. For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exterikoi logoi, see W.
D. Ross, Aristotles Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408
410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which
the phrase, at least in Aristotles own works, usually refers
generally to discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic
school", rather than to specic works of Aristotles own.
[88] Ammonius (1991). On Aristotles Categories. Ithaca, NY: [110] Inuence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin
West entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2688-X. p. 15
[89] Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106 BC 43 BC). "umen oratio- [111] Aristotelianism in the Renaissance entry in the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
nis aureum fundens Aristoteles". Academica Priora. Retrieved 25 January 2007. Check date values in: |date= [112] Georey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, Prologue, lines
(help)
295295
[90] Barnes, Roman Aristotle, in Gregory Nagy, Greek Lit- [113] vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra losoca
erature, Routledge 2001, vol. 8, p. 174 n. 240.
famiglia.
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
[91] .The denitive, English study of these questions is Barnes,
quivi vid'o Socrate e Platone
Roman Aristotle.
che 'nnanzi a li altri pi presso li stanno;
Dante, L'Inferno (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131135
[92] Sulla.
[114] Durant, p. 86
[93] Ancient Rome: from the early Republic to the assassination of Julius Caesar Page 513, Matthew Dillon, Lynda [115] Kelvin Knight, Aristotelian Philosophy, Polity Press, 2007,
Garland
passim.
[94] The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 22 Page 131, [116] Aristotle Mountains.
Grolier Incorporated Juvenile Nonction
Gazetteer.
20
9 FURTHER READING
Further reading
Frede, Michael. (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.
Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotles De Anima, Volume 1: Books I &
II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York:
The Focusing Institute. Available online in PDF.
Ackrill, J. L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody.
New York: Macmillan. A popular exposition for the
general reader.
Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews,
Gareth B, eds. On Aristotles Categories. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2688-X.
Aristotle (19081952). The Works of Aristotle
Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.
D. Ross, 12 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press. These
translations are available in several places online; see
External links.
Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek
Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis
and Fragments, Traord Publishing ISBN 1-41204843-5
Barnes J. (1995). The Cambridge Companion to
Aristotle, Cambridge University Press.
Bocheski, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic.
Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotles
Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His
Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotles scientic works.
Burnyeat, M. F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta
of Aristotles Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of
Philosophy.
Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969).
Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments
of Western Thought 1. Waltham, Mass: Blaisdell
Publishing Co.
Chappell, V. (1973). Aristotles Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679696.
Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotles Science and Metaphysics, Pacic Philosophical Quarterly 76.
Ferguson, John (1972).
Twayne Publishers.
Aristotle.
New York:
De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotles Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-83-4
21
McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle
(2d ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). The Platonism of Aristotle. Proceedings of the British Academy 50: 125
150. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schoeld, and R.
R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol
1. Science. London: Duckworth 1434.]
Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). Aristotle and the
Philosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Aristotles conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.
Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James
B, eds. The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Bualo:
Prometheus Books.
Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge:
Aristotles Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.
Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotles Syllogistic. Springeld: Charles C Thomas Publisher.
Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). London: Routledge. A classic overview by one of Aristotles most prominent English translators, in print
since 1923.
Aristotle at PlanetMath.org..
Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). Chapter 3: Aristotles Biology. Greek Biology and Medicine.
Archived from the original on 11 February 2006.
Collections of works
Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary
Appreciation. Bloomington: Indiana U. Press. For
the general reader.
Woods, M. J. (1991b). Universals and Particular
Forms in Aristotles Metaphysics. Aristotle and the
Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Suppl. pp. 4156.
10
External links
Aristotle at DMOZ
Aristotle at PhilPapers.
22
10
EXTERNAL LINKS
23
11
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Ptbotgourou, Senator Palpatine, Kingkong77, Legobot II, Rsquire3, Cow turdy, PMLawrence, Pitchneed, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?,
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Allen234, Paulatim, ArthurBot, CABlankenship, Xqbot, Timir2, Drilnoth, Sakaa, Br77rino, Koyos, GrouchoBot, Indeedous, Ute in
DC, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, PawtucketFacts, Amaury, Sabrebd, Aurola, Brayan Jaimes, White whirlwind,
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, Sol1, Prokaryotes, Bronx
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