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Presented to the

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
LIBRARY
by the

ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE
LIBRARY
1980

ELECTRO.

ASTEOIfOMICAL

//

AtLAS,

DESIGNED FOR

SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES

AND LADIES' SEMINARIES,

WITH

EXPLANATOEY NOTES, QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.

BY REV. J. W. SPOOR,
ROCHESTER,

A. M.

N. Y.
j

MICROFORMED BY
PREStRVATlC^^

B^ULLY ILLrrSTR-A^TKD

AUG

6j92

DATE.

'THE HEAVENS DECLARE THE GLORY OF GOU, AND THE FIRMAMENT SHOWETH HIS HANDIWORK, DAY UNTO DAY TTTTERBTH
SPEECH,

AND NIGHT DNTO NIGHT SHOWETH KN0WLEDGE."-P8A.

ALBANY,

ITX: L

N. Y.

WEED, PARSONS AND COMPANY, PUBLISHERS,

1874.

Entered, accordinf; to act of Congress, in the year eighteen hundred and seventy -three,

Br THB AUTHOB,

JOSEPH W. SPOOR,

A. M.,

In the ofBce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PEEFACE.
The design of the author
meet a great want
AS

WELL

work

to the public

is

To

in giving instruction in the interesting science of Electrical

AS Physical Astronomy.

Hitherto, the knowledge of

sities,

in presenting this

Colleges and

Astronomy has only been taught

High Schools, and

in

our Univer-

them in a very limited manner, hence,

those in our public schools have been entirely deprived of

this useful

in

all

knowledge of

branch of education.

Teachers of public schools have heretofore

felt

great embarrassment on

introducing this branch of instruction in such schools, because of their incom-

petency to impart instruction to their pupils in the science, hence their objection to

its

work.

It

introduction.

This objection

is

entirely

removed

in presenting this

not only presents to the teachers an easy method of gaining instruc-

tion in the science, but an easy

and pleasing way of imparting the same

to

their pupils.
It is the

and to bring

purpose of the author to present to the public an elementary work,

this instruction within the

reach of children from twelve to sixteen

years of age, and so simplify and arrange

it,

that they can learn

it

as easily as

they can learn Geography.

He

has also adopted the catechetical form of instruction as a more popular

method than the topical, because

sion, and they can the more easily

Some years

since,

better adapted to their youthful comprehenretain the

knowledge sought.

he constructed and designed to publish a Diagram of the

Solar System, to aid in the instruction of this science, for which the highest

commendations were given by some of the most

the Universities and Colleges in this country.

Scientific

and Learned

in

PREFACE.

This Diagram

from the fact that

is

pronounced the best of any yet exhibited to the public,

it is

the only one that presents the whole Solar System to

the eye at one view, and represents the orbits according to the true scientific
angles by which they cross the plane of the Ecliptic.

The author
be found

is

happy

to announce that this

in the front portion of the Atlas,

accompanies

its

Diagram

is

published and

and a description of

it

and

its

may
uses

introduction.

The author, having for many years investigated the laws of Electricity, and
finding them intimately connected with Astronomy, in the evolutions of the
Planets, hopes to be able to

which

throw attractions around the study of Astronomy

will not fail to interest the lovers of science as

branch of education ever presented to the

He

claims for this

work a

set of

scientific

made

in this as in

any

world.

Diagrams and

the most recent discoveries and observations

much

Illustrations exhibiting

in this science

down

to the

present time.

The progress of Astronomy

is

so rapid that almost

all

Text-Books are

behind in this particular.

With

these intentions and observations the

work

is

published and pre-

sented to the public.

In preparing this

works

among

work the Author has

others:

"Mitchell,"

also freely consulted the following

"Guillemin,"

"Schellen,"

"Brewster,"

" Burritt."

AUTHOR.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in

2007 with funding from

IVIicrosoft

Corporation

http://www.archive.org/detkils/electroastronomiOOspoouoft

rJEW

..

^M.VJt.M.

TAJ

COMPARATiV

DISTANCES Or THC flAfirS.

XaRx TwW'fed.Rfiriaiiji & Co.jUbtira'.X

Ai

-'

INTRODUCTION
Accompanying

tliis

work

is

a Diagram, which, at the time of recitation,

can be spread open before the pupils that they

tion imparted

the

by

it.

description of

its

may

more

clearly

design and use will

now be

the

when

necessary,

apprehend the instrucgiven

The object of this is to aid the teacher the more clearly to illustrate, and the scholar
more easily to apprehend the instruction to be received of this interesting science.

The Planetary System embraces the San, the Planets which move around him in their
respective orbits, the Satellites or Moons connected with their respective primaries, together
with the Asteroids and Comets. The Diagram exhibits at one view and in an oblique form
this entire structure of the Solar System.

Other Solar charts now in use present only parts of this System to the eye at the same
time,

and represent the

orbits as lying

on the same plane and

in true circles,

and give a very

imperfect view of the manner in which the Planets are enlightened by the Sun during the
different

months of the year.

The design of this Diagram more particularly is to exhibit and explain the true cause
and philosophy of equal Day and Night of the changes of the Seasons why we have a difference in the length of Day and Night the evident cause of the Eclipses, both Solar and Lunar
what produces the changes of the Moon, or, in other words, why we behold the Moon assuming so many different phases and gives a comprehensive view of the movements of the
;

heavenly bodies.

The Diagram also represents the Sun as the grand common center around which all the
move in their respective orbits, at different distances from the Sun, and the inclina-

Planets

It also represents the Moon and Secondaries in their orbits, as they are
moving around their respective primaries and represents all as having their enlightened sides
turned toward the Sun, their great central luminary. It represents, also, the relative magnitude of the planets, and their comparative distances from the Sun. It shows the elongated
orbits of the Comets
their respective nodes and longitudes.

tion of their axes.

There

is

also a tabular view

diameter of each planet and

its

time required to revolve around

orbits

make to the Ecliptic

showing the distance of each planet from the Sun

time around the Sun representing the length of

its axis,

showing the length of

the inclination of their axes to their

its

day

own

its

year

the
the

the inclination their

orbits

their density

and

the eccentricity of their orbits, and the difference in their Polar and Equatorial diameters.

Having given the design of the accompanying Diagram,

description of the several parts explanatory of the principles
suitable questions and answers.

will proceed to give a

it is

designed to teach, with

TESTIMONIALS.

University of Rochester, N. Y.
Jamiary

6th, 1861.

I have examined with much interest and pleasure

a Diagram of the Solar System, exhibited by Dr.

W. Spoor, of this city. It is one of the best 1

have ever seen, and when the modifications which
he pi'oposes to make are perfected it will be the
very best.
It will greatly aid the young student of
Astronomy in forming a just conception of the
order and arrangement of the bodies of our system,

J.

will give him a tolerably good idea of the

physical peculiarities of each body.

and

J.

F.

Frof. of Math,

We have been much

interested
the Diagram, and cannot
hesitate in expressing our judgment that its plan
and execution are, in several important respects,
greatly superior to those of any Diagrams of the
kind to which our attention has been called. It
cannot fail to facilitate, in a high degree, the study
of the very interesting branch of Knowledge for
whose illustration it is designed, materially aiding,
as it must, the teacher in communicating correct
notions, and the pupil in apprehending them, in
respect to the characteristic and leading facts
appertaining to our Solar System.

Ladies' Seminaries.
in the examination of

QUINBY,
and Nat.

Phil.

University of Rochestee,
January 1th, 1862.
As an improved means of communicating important knowledge and of diffusing it among the
people, the Diagram of the Solar System, by Dr.
I gladly
Spoor, deserves high commendation.
unite in the judicious statement of Prof. Quinby,
and cordially commend it to the schools and their
teachers and to the people in general.

C.

DEWEY,

Prof, of Chemistry.

Madison University,
Novemler Ibth, 1861.
Dr. J. "W. Spoor has exhibited to us, to-day, a
of the Solar System, which he is about to
publish for the use of institutions of learning,
especially of Common Schools, Academies and

GEO. W. EATON.
Pres. of Madison University.
[Signed by every member of the Faculty.]

Hamilton College,
Novcmher
Dr. J.

W. Spoor

18th, 1861.

Sir: I was pleased with your idea of

preparing a Diagram of our Solar System for the
There can be no doubt but a good
use of schools.
Diagram may be used with great advantage rn
acquiring elementary notions of Astronomy; it
It is
will assist both the teacher and the pupils.
also obvious that a very great amount of valuable
information can be brought within a very small
compass ; nearly the entire statistics of the Solar
Svstem may be presented on such a Diagram as you
propose to publish. * * *

Dear

Yours, respectfully,

Diagram

N. B.

0.

Prof, of Math,

Instruction to Teachers in the use of Diagram, pages 91-92.

ROOT,

and Nat.

Phil.

CONTENTS.
PAGE.

Circle Defined Circumference Diameter Arc Radius Degrees

13
LESSON n. Semi-Circles Quadrant Circles Eq uator Ecliptic Tropics
13
Lines Curved, Straight, Parallel Point Surface Ellipse Diameter
LESSON
14

LESSON IV. Angles Right, Acute, Obtuse Triangle

14
LESSON V. Astronomy Heavenly Bodies Solar System Sun Size Compared with the Earth Distance
from the Earth Terms Aphelion and Perihelion
Weight How Known Physical Nature Appearance,
15
LESSON VI. Hypothesis Element Electricity
Discovery By Whom Diversity of
Operation
16
LESSON VII. Sun Relation to the Solar System
Electrical Power Developed in Attraction and Repulsion
Position Confirmed by R. A. Proctor and Other Eminent Astronomers Pervading of things by Electricity, 16
LESSON VIII. Sun's Motion Time Revolution How Know
Axis Spots on
Revolves
Disc
Accounted For Drummond Light Compared with
Sun
17-20
LESSON IX. Solar Prominences Time of Appearance Production Duration Height Appearance of Jets
Scenes from Harvard College Spots Passage over Disc Appearance Uniform Time
21

X.
Dimensions
Compared
LESSON
to the Globe
Measurements of Schroeter
Of Sir W. Herschel Of Captain Davis Remark Physical Organization of the Sun Views of Sir W. Herschel Of Kerchoflf Of Sir
Jolin Herschel Why Vary in Appearance Way the Sun Turns on
Axis Do
the Planets and
lations Turn the Same Way? Evidence of their Revolution from West
East Time of Revolution of Sun
LESSON

I.

III.

Its

Its

Its

its

Its

all

Its

it

its

tlie

its

all

(Constel-

to

Inclination to Ecliptic

LESSON

XI.

23-33

Planets Why thus

Law

called

Attraction and Repulsion

LESSON

Division Primary Secondary Equilibrium

of Motion

Law

of

explained

28

XII. Distribution of Secondary Planets Interior Planets Exterior Their Conjunctions How shine

Distinguished

From

24

Stars

LESSON XIII. Apparent

Motions of the Sun,

What CalledHow Caused The Daily Phenomenon

Connected with

Changes in the Points of Rising and Setting Point of Culmination Soland Equinoxes Note Ecliptic Coincidence with the Plane of the Earth's Orbit Intersection of the

the Apparent Motions of the Sun

stices

Circle of the Celestial

Sphere and the Orbit of the Earth

Obliquity of the Ecliptic

24-26

of Motion Time of Revolution Indications Diameter Inclina Inclination of Axis Time of Revolution on Axis Uniformity of Appear-

LESSON XIV. Mercury Situation Rate

tion of Orbit to Plane of Ecliptic

its

ance

LESSON XV. Transit Primaries Making Transits When Occur Condition of Earth and Planets when it
Occurs Ecliptic Nodes Months in which Transits of Mercury Occur Wliy? Called What? First

20-27

27-28
Time of Others
LESSON XVI. Mercury Density Heat Solar Light Velocity Why so Great Conj unctions Names
28-29
Distances from Earth in DiS'erent Conjunctions In what Months Most Favorably Seen
Transit

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Venus Situation Distance from Sun Time of Revolution Indication Inclination of Orbit
with Ecliptic Time of Revolution on Axis Indication Rate of Motion Inclination of Axis with Plane of
30
Orbit How Distinguislied
LESSON XVIII. Satellites Venus and Mercury Satellites of the Sun Evidence How Discovered What
30-31
Names Diameter Appearance Similarity to Moon Conj unctions Appearance in Each
LESSON XIX. Venus Different Changes Diameter Difference in Size Transit Time When Benefit
Derived Appearance in Transit Time of Transit Time of Last One Occur When Time of Last When
31-32
Next Peculiarity of Twentieth Century How far Recede from Sun
LESSON XX. Mountains of Venus Height Schroeter's Statement Volume Light Compared to that of the
Earth Distance from the Earth In Differeut Conjunctions Circumference of Orbit Phases Evidence of
33-33
What How Change Her Appearance
LESSON XXI. The Earth Situation Form Spherical Evidence Not Perfect Proved Difference of
33-35
Diameter Position Important
LESSON XXII. Revolution of the Earth Time Indication Changes of Seasons Axis Position Time of
Axis. Explanation Illustration Law
Revolution on
Revolution on Axis Production Cause of
Planets Problem Solved Distance from Sun Circumference of Orbit Rate of
Equally Essential in
35-30
Motion Inclination of Axis
LESSON XXIII. Time How Reckoned Uniformity Advantage Derived Remarks Plane of Ecliptic
86-37
trated Kepler's Law Location of Sun in Earth's Orbit- Shape of Orbit

Plane
Ecliptic
Time
of
of
LESSON XXrV. Causes of their Change How far the Axis of Rotation Inclined to
Year Equal Day and Night Why Then Why Day Why Night The Result of the Revolution of the
87
Axis Points Called Wav of the Revolution
Earth on
LESSON XXV. Difference of Time in the Days and Nights Explained Summer Solstice Why So Called Dis
tance the Sun Shines Beyond the North Pole Situation of South Pole Movements of the Sua Further
LESSON

XVII.

its

its

all

Illus-

is

its

38

Explained

LESSON XXVI. Length

Number of Seasons What Called Zodi.\cal

of the Days and Nights Considered
Form of the Light Compared with Milky Way
Light
Time of Appearance
In what Part of the Heavens
Not Seen at all Seasons
When Only In what Months Favorable Nights Zodiac What is it Description of Belt
How Occupied Location of Ecliptic Term "Constellation" By Whom Used Why Called
Zodiac
What Use is made of the Signs of the Zodiac Names Correspondents of these The Earth in Cap39-40
ricorn
Where then is the Sun Vertical ?

Sun Further Away

Difference
This Show Why Warmer on the 21st of June
Farthest Aphelion
Nearest the Sun Perihelion
Diameter Difference of Time in Equinoctial Points
Difference of Diameter
Discovery
Variation of Equinoctial Points
Motion Faster at Which
Density
Cause of This
Weight at the Poles and the Equator

LESSON XXVII. What Does

in

41

Orbit to
LESSON XXVIII. The Moon Form of Orbit Perigee Apogee Mean Distance Inclination of
Plane of Ecliptic Lunar Days in a Year How much of Moon Seeii Illustrated Evidence of any Life on
42
the Moon Result
there Were Any Seas, Lakes, Rivqrs Any Winds or Tornadoes
LESSON XXIX. Phases of the Moon Explanation of them First appearance where At what time Way of
Itevolution Degrees in twenty-four hours Her changes Explained Time of Full Moon Position now in
43-^
Respect to Sun Why in Opposition
LESSON XXX. Appearance in the First Half of her Orbit Appearance in the Last Half What Remarkable in
her History When called New Moon When Full Moon Relation to the Earth Satellite Time of Revo45-46
lutions What Called How Near the Earth Revolutions in a year Synodic and Sidereal Revolution
LESSON XXXI. Physical aspect of the Moon Appearance Variable Cause of this Appearance Through Telescope Rough Mountains Compared to those of the Earth Peculiar Formations Ring Mountains
46-48
Description Eclipses Cause of Eclipse Philosophical Cause Given
its

if

CONTENTS.

LESSON XXXII. Eclipse When

PAGE.

Explained When they cannot occur Result, the Orbits of the

Earth and Moon were on the same Plane Cause of an Eclipse of Sun When only occur Tides How produced Time of Spring Tides Why Effect of Sun That of Sun less than Moon Why
48-50
LESSON XXXIII. Planet Mars Location Appearance To the Naked Eye Distance from Sun Time around
Indication Time of Kevolution on Axis Indication Diameter Inclination Exterior Why Resemblance to Earth Changes of Climate Divisions of Land and Water Geography Similar Mars Probably
Uninhabited Circumference of Orbit Distance from Earth Opposition Where looked for Position of
the Earth Appearance of Mars
61-53
LESSON XXXrV. When take place Cause of brilliancy Distance one side of Orbit Inclination Rate of
Motion Light, compared with that of Earth Difference of Diameters Density, compared with the Earth
Difference of Weight Ratio from Sun of the Orbits of Planets described Rapid Changes White Spots
occur

if

it

Snow Zones

58-53

LESSON XXXV. The

witnessed in his Day

Kepler's impression Not

Ceres, Pallas, Jono and

Minor Planets
What are they ? Number Space occupied
Two Hundred Years after Discovery Made Four Found

Vesta

53

LESSON XXXVI. Ceres Time

Diameter
Distance
and by whom discovered
Estimate by Sir W. Herschel
Pallas
Time and by whom Disaround it
Inclination
Appearance in Size and Color
Appearance as to Size and
Inclination
covered
By whom Measured
Distance from Sun
Time around it
Appearance as to Size and Color
DisColor
Juno
Time and by whom Discovered By whom Estimated
tance from Sun
Time around it
Inclination of Orbit
Vesta
Time when and by whom discovered
ComTime of Revolution
Inclination of
parison with the other Minor Planets
Distance from Sun
Diameter

from Sun

Time

Description of all nearly the same

LESSON XXXVII. Planet Jupiter Situation Why
Indication Diameter Time of Revolution on

Orbit

54-56

Distance from the Sun Time around

Indication Circumference of Orbit Rate of
Motion Effect of Motion on the Weight of Bodies on his Surface Weight of Bodies on his Surface compared with their Weight on the Earth Cause of Difference Satellites Variable Appearance Observations

of Mr.

Distinguished

its

it

Axis

Dawes

57

Satellites of Jupiter Number Names Diameters Distances and Revolutions

Number per Month Eclipse of Sun effected by them Inclination of the Axis of Jupiter to Plane of
his Orbit Plane of Orbit to Plane of Ecliptic Eccentricity of Orbit Solar heat compared with Earth
58-59
LESSON XXXIX. Observations of Astronomers Appearance of Belts What known Situation How esteemed
by Astronomers Uniformity considered Other peculiarity of appearance Accounted for Difference of JupiLESSON XXXVIII.
Eclipses

ter's

Diameters

59-60

LESSON XL. Saturn Situation Distance

Indication Diameter Revolution on

from Sun Time round
Indication Inclination of Axis to Orbit Inclination of Orbit to the Ecliptic Eccentricity of
Orbit Difference of Diameters Solar Light compared with that of Earth Rate of Motion Density Difference of Weight Why one of the most magnificent Planets Rings and Moons
60
LESSON XLI. Rings of Saturn Situation of them Revolution Detached How known to be Separate
Distance from Planet to Interior Ring Breadth of Width between Rings Thickness of Rings Consists
61-63
of what How determined Importance of them to the planet
LESSON XLII. Circles not True Centers coincide with the Center of Planet Gravity of These Rings Importance to the Stability of the System of Rings Moons of Saturn Number Seldom Seen Revolve with the
Rings Respective Distances from Saturn Inclination of their respective Orbits to the Plane of Saturn
Seldom Suffer Respective Sizes
63
Eclipses of these
LESSON XLIII. Uranus Situation Distance from Sun Time of Revolution round the Sun DiameterTime of Revolution on Axis not known Inclination of Orbit Rate of Motion Light compared with that
of the Earth Density Eccentricity of Orbit Difference of the Weight of Bodies on the Earth and the Surface of Uranus Satellites of Uranus Number Respective Distances and Periodic Times Their Variation
62-63
in Revolution Size of them Seldom suffer Eclipse
Axis

it

its

its

it

satellites

CONTENTS.

10

LESSON XLIV. Neptune Situation Orbit Distance

LESSON XLV. Comets Where found Appearance Why called Comets Appearance Varied Distinguished

Motion
Inclination of Orbit to the Ecliptic
Primary
Indication

PAGE.

from Sun
Revolution round it
Diameter
Rate of
Time on Axis unknown.
One Satellite Situation
Time around

tlie

63-65

Form of Orbits How are they distinguished

65-7
LESSON XLVL Elements of Comets Orbits Number computed Classes Elliptic Long Periods Shorter
Periods Number Reappeared They are generally named after their discoverers Size of Orbits Comparative inclination of them Way of Revolution
67-68
LESSON XLVII. Comparative Periods of Comets Course of Revolution of Comets whose Orbits have been ascertained One- half of them in opposite directions Inclinations very diverse Velocity compared with Planets
in general Far Greater Number Discovered
68
LESSON XLVIII. Celebrated Comets Comet of 1811 Dimensions Aphelion distance Halley's Comet
How distinguished Appeared many previous years Comet of 1843 How distinguished Encke's Comet
Period of Return Wliat peculiar in return Donati's Comet appeared in 1858
produced
Wonder of Many For what distinguished Law by which they are Governed Description of
Operation Longitude of the Parhelion of
Node 4jongitude of the Parhelion of
Comet 1858 Longitude of
69-71
the Comet 1863 Longitude of
Node Rapidity of Comets Cause for
LESSON XLIX. What supposed to be How produced What called Why so called How many seen in
an Hour Sliowers of Stars When exhibited At what Intervals Hombold and Bompland's Observations
Arago's Observations Regular Periods of Showers Intersection of the Earth and the Orbit of the Comet
Brilliant display accounted for Light produced by their rapid
through the Atmosphere Annual Exhibition of Meteors in August Regularity accounted for Schiaparrelli's discovery
78-74
LESSON L. Remarks Constellations Design in presenting an Elementary yVork Not Extensive or Critical
from Planets In
In considering the Stellar Universe The Object
Presenting Constellations How
Twinkling and Scintillating Description of a few Exhibited in the Northern Sky The best time of
observing them What Called Why Called Northern Circumpolar North Pole point of Revolution Consideration of Maps MAPI. Constellation Great Bear, Ursa Major Time of appearance Number of Stars
contained in the Group Figure formed Large Dipper Two Northern Stars Pointers Why called thus
Polaris the object to which they point Revolution 2d Constellation Little Bear How Distinguished
Contains Polaris North Pole Star A
Star Why called Fixed Stars They revolve in the Universe
Great Velocity Time
Light travels down to us 3d Constellation Casdopia Location Form of Figure
Sprawling W " Cepheus and Draco Where lx)cated Nothing Striking Perceus elsewhere
74-76
LESSON LI. Constellation Orion Time of favorable appearance Names of the Constellations Distinguished
The most beautiful Constellation
the Sky Whale better seen elsewhere Stars of Belt of Orion The Bull
or Taurus Situation How Marked Cluster called Hyades Another cluster called Pleiades Another Constellation called Gemini, or the Twins Where Situated Names of the most important Stars Castor and
Pollux Little Dog Location How Distinguished Procyon and Gomelza Great Dog ^ Situation Name
of the largest Sirius Brightest Star Rate of Motion Time
takes to reach the Earth Distance estimated
Diameter Constellation The Whale Situation
76-77
Constellation Virgo Favorable time for Inspection When seen in the Heavens
LESSON LII. MAP
name Leo, or the Lion Where
Magnitude Spica
How known Large Constellation One Star of
a Sickle An inverted figure 5 Regulus the largest On the
situated How easily known Shaped
Ecliptic Gamma Where situated 3d Constellation Hydra Situation Form of Serpent Swimming from
from Planets

in

EfiTect

its

its

its

tlie

its

it

flight

differ

in

Fibred

its

"

in

it

III

first

its

lilce

East to

West Stars

small

77-78

Constellation Bootes Time of Appearance In June Situation in the Heavens

Where found On Meridian Shape Parallelogram Four bright Stars Form
Coffin Another group East Like a boy's cap Northern Crown Large Constellation further East Hercules Size ^What figure Two Quadrilaterals Opinion respecting the course of the Solar System Drift-

LESSON
The

LIII.

MAP

IV

Brightest Star Arcturus

ing toward Hercules

78

CONTENTS.

11

PAGE.

Time favorable Where found

Overhead
LIV.
MAP
Constellation The Swan
Figure fonned
Multiple Star
The Eagle
Large Cross
Principal Star at foot
Albireo
Where situated
South of
Swan
How distinguished A Large Star Atair Pegasus Where located North-east of Eagle Figure
of these Stars
Perfect Square
The most Western found Head of Androraedia The Lyra Where situated
Vega
What completes the group
West of Swan and North-west of Eagle What Star Prominent

LESSON

Four

70

faint Stars .....

LESSON LV. MAP VI Constellation Perseus When favorably seen December Where found Meridian
Well North in Milky Way Figure of chief Star Turkish Sword Bent at the point What near the
point

Mass of Telescopic

Where
Seasons

One marked Called Algol Constellation Aries or Mam

Figure formed of Principal Star Kight Angled Triangle Point in the
marked Vernal Equinox What Constellation South of the Ram Whale Figure easily traced

seen

South

Stars, very beautiful

of Perseus

Pentigon of Stars

80

LESSON LVL Contrast

Sun and that of the Fixed Stars from the Earth

Remarks.
Rate
Time taken to reach the Sun
Time for the sound of the Explosion
Armstrong gun
The infant burns its finger by touching the Sun
to reach the Sun
Prof. Mendenhall on nervous sensation
Earth on disc of Sun
Require a large telescope to discover it
Time necessary to realizing the sensation
The Fixed Stars, Suns
Distance of Sun from Earth compared to that of the Fixed Stars
Do not remain
Principal Suns named
Why appear small Disunmoved
Revolve in the Universe like other Planets
Miles per second
Number in 24 hours
Velocity of light considered
tance cannot be computed by miles
61 Cygni
Vega
Sirius
Ursm Majoris
Arcturus
At this rate how long to reach the nearest Fixed Star
81-82
Suns in other Systems
These do not shine by reflection
Polaris and Cappella
of the Distance of the

of motion of ball from an

Light What Vie ws of Sir Isaac Newton Flowing out from the " Orb of Day " RecupSolar System Rapidity of light At this rate how long will
Waste Away Space embraced
Polarity
take
the Space Does not remain Stationary Moves on in Circle Light changes
the Sun How does the Sun remain undiminished and brilliant as ever By recuperation in
received back
83-84
the Sun No indication of a continued work of creation Principle illustrated by
the return of
LESSON LVIII. Attraction of Gravitation Attraction of Gravitation defined Seen in the power the Sun exerts
over the Planets All under the magnetic influence of the Sun Planets rendered Magnets by the
power of the Sun This inherent magnetism controls the Satellites ^This magnetism called Terrestrial MagEarth This magnetism accounted for Sun a
netism Subject Terrestrial Magnetism or the Magnetism of
great Galvanic Reservoir Heat of Torrid Zone Compared with Temperate and Frigid Zone Intensity of the
heat of the Sun Three hundred times greater than any point on the Earth's surface Sir John Herschel's
LESSON

LVII.

is it

to

it

in

eration, or

Is

its

fill

to

it

to

electrical

the

estimate Note

"4

Result
They
Torrid 'regions
More deeply electrified
Continued
Terrestrial Magnetism
LIX.
Earth filled with elecEffect produced upon the Earth
Reasons for this
Polar negative
ara positive
Points of
This Terrestrial Magnetism seeks and flows out of the Magnetic Poles
tricity becomes a magnet
Consequence of the combined action of these forces
Result
Both North and South
the greatest cold
At the
Magnetic Poles and Geographic not the same
Effect of these currents on the Needle
Explanation
85-86
Note
Reasons why
Geographic no effect on the needle

LESSON

Currents within the Earth

How produced Caloric and Electricity the same
Aurora Borealis
This
Called Aurora
naturally seek the point of the greatest cold, flow out and form a lambent waving light
The ultimate conclusion This
Their testimony
Captains Parry and Ross
Historic evidence
illustrated
On the principle of Attraction and
Power of Terrestrial Magnetism controls the Moon
clearlv explained
Repulsion The same law by which the Sun governs the Planets and they their Secondaries in the Solar System, 86-87

LESSON LX.

Ultimate particles have opposite

By this rule only can Attraction and
only in
Repulsion be accounted for Magnetism and Electricity considered the same agent Galvanism
the mode of exhibition Experiment Result from passing a current of Galvanism through Soft Iron change
the poles of Battery Change the polarity of the Iron This explained Distinction of polarity manifest in

the direction of the current This explained Positive and negative end to every thing Running electricity
87-88
The inward current always negative The outward current positive Remark

LESSON LXI. Attraction

polarities

Law

and Repulsion

manifest

Subject

defined

Law

Laws of the whole are the laws of

governing

its

parts

differs
;

CONTENTS.

12

LESSON LXn.

PAGE.

Continued
Another mode of illustration
and Repulsion
Current of Galvanism
passed around Steel
Result
A magnet Cut the Steel in pieces Each arranged with the same polarity
How illustrated By the atmosphere and ocean. 88-89
Conclusively evident
of the whole
Logical inference
Attraction

LESSON LXin. Attraction and Repulsion Continued This theory explained Two magnets Effect when
Positive and Negative are presented to each other They attract Result when like polarities are presented
Entirely opposite they now Repel each other Two Positives repel A Positive and Negative attract each other
.

clear explanation on any other principle

A body charged with electricity
Clearly shown by the magnets
has an outward current, and will attract a negative with an inward current
How accomplished
89-90
These laws applied in the Attraction and Repulsion
Scientific

World challenged to give a

Elements of the Solar System

94

Elements of the Minor Planets

94-96

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

DEFINITIONS.
LESSON
Akaltbis.

I.

Circle Defined Circumference Diameter

A.

Arc

Radius Degrees.

line passing

through the center of a

cir-

and terminated by the circumference.

Q. What is any part of the circumference

cle,

called?

A.

An

Q.

What

A.

A straight line drawn from the center to the

Arc.

the Radius

is

circumference.
Fig.

Q.

What

A.

is

a Circle

figure

point of which
Q.

What is

What is

[see rig.

vided

i.i

the circumference of a circle

bounds

the diameter

Q. Into

Q.

What is

a Semi-circle

What is

a Quadrant

A.

A quarter of

Q.

How many

Semi-Circles Quadrant
?

or 90 degrees.

circles are there

Q.

A.

A circle whose plane divides the sphere into

parts.

a degree

II.

Circles

Equator Kcleptic Tropics.

Q.

What is

A.

A circle whose plane divides the sphere into

a small Circle ?

A. Equator and

Ecliptic.

Q. Mention the principal small Circles?

two equal

is

two unequal parts.

Q. Mention the principal great Circles ?

Two great and small.

What is a great Circle

A.

equal parts

circle,

kinds of

how many

A. Sixty equal parts, called minutes.

it.

A. One-half of a circle, or 180 degrees.

Q.

the circumference of a circle di-

divided ?

LESSON
Analysis.

is

A. Into 360 degrees.

bounded by a curved line, every

equally distant from the center.
line that

How

Q.

is

A. The curved
Q.

1.

A. The Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Capricorn,

and the two Polar

Circles.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

14

LESSON
ANAI.Y8I8.

Q.

What

A.

It is that

a Line

is

Lines

Curved, Straight, Parallel

which has length without breadth

A. One

a Curved Line ?

that continually changes

What

A.

a Straight Line

is

line

its direction.

which has the same direction

A.

It is that

is

a Surface

Diameter.

which has two dimensions

length

Q.

What is

A.

It is

at

Parallel Lines

Q.

It is that

drawn

to

two

sum

of

is

is

the longest diameter of an Ellipse

What

is

the shortest diameter caUed?

A. Minor Axis.

a Point?

which

What

A. Major Axis.
Q.

A.

straight lines be

called?

points.

Q.

if

fixed points within, called the Foci, the

same direction, and

the same distance from each other at all

A. Lines that extend in the

What is

an Ellipse ?

a figure bounded by a curve, from any

these lines will be the same.

What are

are at

What

point of which,

every point.
Q.

Q.

Ita

and breadth.

What is

Q.

Point Surface Ellipse

or thickness.

Q.

III.

conceived to have neither

length, breadth or thickness, but position only.

LESSON
Analysis.

Angles

IV.

Right, Acute, Obtuse

A.

An

Triangle.

angle formed by a straight line meeting

a perpendicular
Q.

A.
Q.

line.

What is an Acute Angle

An angle less than a right angle.
What is an Obtuse Angle.
?

A. One greater than a right angle.

Fig. 2.

Q.

What is

an Angle ?

[seerig.z.]

A. The opening of two lines that meet in a

Name

the different kinds of Angles

A. Right, Acute, and Obtuse.

Q.

What is

A.

A figure bounded by three sides.

Q.

What is

A.

a Triangle
a Sphere or Globe

round body, every part of the surface

being equally distant from a point within, called

point.

Q.

Q.

What is

a Right Angle

the center.

Q.

What is

a Hemisphere ?

A. Half a sphere,

hemi meaning

half.

PLATE

1.

THE SUN.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

LESSON
Analysis.

15

V.

Solar System Sun Size Compared with the Earth Distance from the Earth
Weight How Known Physical Nature Appearance.
Terms Aphelion and Perihelion

Astronomy Heavenly

Bodies

Its

-A-STRONOMTy.
Q.

What is Astronomy

A.

It is that

A.

branch of science which

treats of

the heavenly bodies.

Q.

What

bodies

the

are

names

the

of

heavenly

Satellites,

Comets and

Stars.

SOLA.R system:.

What

the Solar System

is

A. The Solar System

is

heavenly bodies, moving

in

composed of these
harmony round the

common center.
How many bodies are embraced

Solar System

How

in

the

thirty-four Asteroids, or

THE
A.

Sun

the

is

Minor

What

is

A. The Sun
bodies, being

the size

planets.

around which the

and comets revolve.

of the Sun compared with
it

by far the largest of the heavenly

more than five hundred times as

is

large as all the planets taken together.

What

A. The Sun

is

the distance of the

is

is

equal to 1,400,000 globes the

form an adequate conception of

vast dimensions

Sun from the

when

the Earth

miles

but when

mean

is

distance,

the

in Aphelion, to be 93,000,000

it is

in Perihelion,

it is

90,000,000

distance being 91,500,000 miles.

Q. What is meant by the term Aphelion ?

A. That point of the orbit which is farthest

Q.

What

meant by the term Perihelion

is

How
all

is

nearest the Sun.

does the weight of the Sun compare

the planets, satellites

Solar System

and comets of the

A. About seven hundred and

A.

From

the power

Q.

What

is

known

constitution of the

fifty

respecting

its

of its attraction.

of the physical nature

Sun

and

physical nature and constitution.

The recent and most reliable hypothesis is, that

the nucleus of the Sun is an incandescent solid
or liquid mass.

How

does

it

appear to us

when

seen

through a telescope?
It

globe of

presents the appearance of an enormous

fire,

frequently in a state of violent agi-

tation or ebullition.
its

times as

A. Various are the theories of astronomers

A.

size of the Earth.

Can we

diameter

Sun?

A. Recent investigations show

Q.

magnitude when compared with

is its

that of the Earth

Q.

What

to

852,900 miles.

heavy as all of them taken together.

Q. How do we ascertain its weight

STJN-.

vast, brilliant globe,

the planets surrounding

Q.

Its real

Q.

with

planets, their satellites,

Q.

A.

Q.

A. There are the Sun, eight primary planets,

twenty-one secondaries, and one hundred and

What

the diameter of the

is

A. That point which

are they divided?

Q.

What

human mind

vastness.

its

from the Sun.

A. There are one hundred and sixty-four.

Q.

impossible for the

is

miles, the

Sun, as their
Q.

Q.

Earth

A. The Sun, Planets,

Q.

It

form an idea of

ELECTRO-ASTKONOMICAL ATLAS.

16

LESSON
Analysis.

Hypothesis Element Electricity

Its

VI.

Discovery

By Whom Diversity of

A. Electricity

is

Fig. 3.

From

the fact that the

Sun

is

the source of

parts of Electricity, therefore, the Hypothesis

the

all light, heat,

and

the realm of nature, and that light and heat are component

life in

Sun

is

is

entertained that

constituted with the all-porvading element Electricity.

What

Q.

Sun?

element naturally flows out of the

[See Fig.

What

is

"beaming

This seems

Q.

What

A.

He ascertained that

led

supposed

to indicate that the ancients

be the fountain of this subtle

him

to

make

fluid.

the discovery

the amber,

when rubbed,

acquired the power of attracting to

itself certain

Q.

How

illustrated

A.

By

it.

can this interesting phenomenon be

by
it

amber ?
of sealing wax and

the student without this

taking a stick

brushing

woolen

surrounding

briskly

cloth,

with a piece of

and passing

it

silk,

or

over small pieces of

its

manifestation

A. Infinite wisdom has constituted Electricity

an imponderable

is

fluid,

eman-

ating from the Sun.

ered

to

Q. Is Electricity uniform in

Electricity

A. Electricity

a mighty agent, in various ways, his "wonders

to perform."

When and by whom

Q.

signifies

paper.

S.]

A. Electricity.
Q.

Snn

light bodies

ELECTRICITY.

from another

))

Remark.
the

Operation.

derived

also

Greek word, Electore, which

sun.

its

was

Electricity discov-

Q. In

what manner more particularly

is

it

revealed ?

was discovered 600 years before the

A. It

Christian era,

by

Tliales,

a celebrated Orecian

How did

A.

He

he make the discovery

detected

it

from which
Q. Is

it

is

is

called Electron,

derived the term Electricity.

derived from any other

not simply manifest in the thunderbolt,

but in the agitative power of galvanism

and

sal flood of light,

in a substance called amber,

which, in the original Greek,

It is

permeating influence of magnetism

sage of the city of Miletus in Ionia.

Q.

A.

in the

in a univer-

in the all-pervading

mani-

festations of heat.

Q.
this

word 1

A.

What are

other modified representations of

same imponderable principle ?

I'ho attraction of gravitation

and cohesion.

LESSON" VII.
Analysis. Sun Relation to the Solar System
Electrical Power Developed in
firmed by R. A. Proctor and Other Eminent Astronomers Pervading of

all

Relation of the Sun to the Solar System.

the great fountain of electricity,

Its

Q.

What

entire Solar

relation does the

System

Sun hold

to

the

A. The Sun

is

Attraction and Kepulsion

Things by

Position Con-

Electricity.

from which emanates, as from a galvanic battery,

all the

power necessary, under the established

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

laws of attraction and repulsion* to

electrical

govern the motion of the planets in their diurnal

and annual revolution around the Sun.

Q.

What

A.

It

other principle does

all

life,

realm of nature, and

organic

the

of

upon the sea

produce ?

and effiand recompostructure of men and

the active

is

any part

of the Solar

this principle is not manifest

A. There

HemarTc.
sence
ciple

is

What

is

System

in

JV.

Y. Herald, from Cleveland, 0., Jan.

" During

....

all

these years, she has been gathering up

chips scattered about the mighty

workshop

which the giant workmen Attraction and Repulsion had

cently confirmed

me

in

fash-

Other eminent astronomers have

ioned the Solar System."

my

position as to the

in

re-

law of Attraction

and Repulsion governing the planetary world.

Sun'sMotion

Time

Revolution

Lives through

Extends through

Sun revolve on

its

axis

1
4

We

should never lose sight for a

we

call Deity,

moment

of the

whose Attributes are

Omniscience, Omnipresence, Omnipotence and Eternity

who

cre-

ated all things, and established the universe, composed probably

of hundreds of solar systems like our own, and sent

ning through

infinite

harmony, under those

space, balanced
electrical

and controlled

laws by which

them

spin-

in perfect

He governs

all

VIII.

have we that the Sun turns on

By

its

Disc

Accounted For Drum-

the motion of certain dark spots on

disc.

Q.

What is

A.

An imaginary line on which it revolves.

What is meant by the disc of a body

Q.

minutes.

its

Note.

great self-existent principle

A.

A. Twenty- five days, eight hours and nine

What proof

all extent.

operates unspent."

know it Revolves Its Axis Spots on

mond Light Compared with the Sun.

axis?

Q.

in the trees

all life.

Spreads undivided.

How

Motion of the Sun.

Q. In what time does the

in the stars,

things in His vast and infinite domain.

LESSON
Analysis.

in the sun.

And blossoms

And

Richard A. Proctor holds this language on the evolution

of the earth

warms

Glows

no department of the entire Solar

* In a letter written the

said of the Divine es-

Refreshes in the breeze.

which this imponderable principle does

in

Pope

or power.

a few

sand

as truly said of this all-pervading prin-

not exert a quickening and controlling influence

28, 1874,

shore.

" It

Q. Is there

System

influence

the largest

chemical changes

animals.

which

its

thing from

A. It permeates every

planet, Jupiter, to the smallest particle of

cient agent, both in decomposition

sition

Q. Is this element all-pervading in

produces the vivifying principle of both

animal and vegetable

in the

it

17

the axis of the Sun

A. The circular illuminated surface.

its

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

18

Q.

Dark Spots on the Sun.

When and by whom were the dark spots on

sented a spotted disc

By Galileo in

Sun always

pre-

A. From the year 1676 to the year 1684 the

Sun discovered ?

the disc of the

A.

Q. Since that time has the

the beginning of the year 1611.

Sun presented an unspotted

disc.

Fig. 4.

Q.

Do they always

the San's disc?

A. They do
across
lines.

it

the

Sometimes they seem to move

in straight lines

at others, in curved

Sometimes upward, as they cross from

east to west

Q.

not.

What

A. They are owing to the fact that the axis of

take the same direction over

at others,

is

inclined to the Ecliptic

view the Sun

so that as

we

from different points in the earth's

orbit, the direction of the spots

must necessarily

vary.

they incline downward.

causes these changes

Sun

The following diagram

this:

Fig. S.

will serve to illustrate

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

The annexed diagram

trate the

Fig. 7 affords a striking

will still further illus-

cause of the change of direction of the

19

example of

this aspect

of the penumbra.

solar spots

This spot presents the peculiarity, not at

X/-^-^

.-^r-^

^-^:r^/

umbra

unfrequent, that the dark

is

all

divided into

by luminous bridges, spanning

were, from one side of the penumbra to

several fragments
it,

as

it

the other.

The umbra itself is

black

tint.

far

from offering an uniform

In reality

always presents the

it

penumbra
and umbra were mingled, and mixed up their

appearance of varied shades, as

if

the

tints in varied proportions.

[We owe

W.

to the Rev.

R. Dawes the discov-

umbra is but a darker kind of penthe best conditions of air and

under
umbra
instrument, he has found within some umbrae a
much darker portion which he calls the nu-

ery that the

;

for

Q.

How

are the spots on the disc accounted

for?

A. The atmospheres surrounding the Sun, being

made up

This he finds to be of the most intense

blackness but in saying this we must warn our
cleus.

of the bright scintillations of electricity,

readers that such a

is

word

comparative only.

Sun
nhown

as applied to the

Sir J. Herpcliel has

which radiate from within, become so exceedingly brilliant and luminous, that when

any time an opening appears in them,

and the main body is seen, though incanat

descent, yet in contrast with the dazzling

corruscations surrounding

the nucleiis, or

it,

mass, appears in spots, dark and opaque.

The forms of the

shown by the

spots, as

drawings placed before the reader, are most

The penumbra most

varied.

reproduces

the

frequently

principal contours of

the

umbra, and often presents a great variety

of shades, when examined with considerable
magnifying powers.

On

the exterior edges

of the penumbra, the grey

the deepest, either

by

tint

seems generally

the effect of contrast with

the brilliant portions that surround

in reality

decided

it

tint.

it,

Fig. 7.

Bun-spots, showing

WILLOW LEAF
Umbra, Penumbra, and Luminous

Bridges.

(Nasmyth.)i

or because

possesses at these points a

more

that a ball of ignited quicklime, in a

oxyhydrogen lamp, which

itself

Drummond's
gives out an

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

20

apparently near approach to sunlight, when projected on

tlie

Sun appears as a black

spot.

that the Sun-spots, properly so called,

be so black after

all

may

bright scintillations of electricity have

appearance of the nucleus of the Sun

So
not

A.

body

!]

The transits of Mercury, moreover, over the

Sun's disc have taught us that the

umbra

changes

undergo, and what astronomers

motion," that

their actual

is,

Q.

proper

movement on

What

effect

How does the most

A. The

the

Drummond

most vivid

sents a

dark

it.

brilliant light of

light,

when held between our

Sun's surface in any direction.

Q.

openings are made, the mass or

of the Sun, although under the

we have any knowledge compare with

of the Sun

which they

call their "

the luminous envelope which surrounds

of the real dimensions of

the spots, the successive

the

incandescence, appears dark in comparison to

is less

dark than the unilluminated face of a planet.

We shall now speak

When these

upon

which

the light

the most powerful,

vision

and the Sun,

pre-

spot.

do you say these exceedingly

If we imagine that on the surface of the dark

nucleus there are formed from time to time gaseous
masses, incandescent by reason of their high temperature or again, if there exist on the same sur-

on its axis brings a spot nearer to the center,

hence gives us a more direct view of the opening,
and we discover more of the dark body. Again,
the nucleus will disappear as it passes by the center,
until we only can see the side of the opening,
and in a short time

face centers of volcanic disturbance, the eruptions

proceeding from these

craters, piercing and
tearing away successively the two interior
atmospheres of the

the penumbra will

also pass from our
view.

Sun, would produce

holes of the greater or
less extent, openings

that the opening thus

made in the photosphere will be smaller
than that in the
cloudy stratum. In
this case the black

But

through wliich the

central nucleus or the

overlying umbra
could be seen.

These

penumbra

is exon the
If,
plained.
contrary, the rupture

irregular cone,
widened

at the

upper

exposing at

center the solid

obscure part of

its

in the first envelope

closes up before the

and

the
Sun, and all around
tliis the cloudy atmosphere of a greyish
Hence, black
tint.

spots,

may happen

nucleus will be alone

visible, and it is thus
that a spot without

openings, therefore,
should present generally the form of an

part,

it

photosphere, then the

obscure body will be
invisible, a circumstance

which

easily

penumbra
explains
without a nucleus.

surrounded

with penumbra.
The Sun revolving
Fig. 8.
Explanation of eun-spots on Wilson's hypothesis

a a, photosphere

B, nucleus (umbra without penumbra)

6 b, cloudy

C,

Ttratum

A, spot with nneleas (umbra)

pennmbra without nucleus (umbra).

andpennmbra

PLATE

n.

HARVaiiC iOLltiC oaSi/iVATOMy Id/2

Enjlith

rnil.^

'<!

"9

SOLAR PROMINENCES.
/f
V
-if

'9

89

19a,

too

it

i
m

I
I

PLATE

m.

SOLAR PROMINENCES
>f
>t JP f '( "k ""

English miU., f

ELECTKO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

LESSON
AhALTSIS.

Solar

Prominences

Time

IX.

Production Duration Height Appearance

Spots Passage over Disc Appearance Uniform Time.

of Appearance

Harvard College

Q.

SoLAK Prominences.
Q.

What phenomenon

total eclipse

A. There

is

often revealed

manifest certain

when a

What

solar

is

from

a great diiference in their duration

;

at

To how great an

Q.

elevation

do these

often

arise 1
is

A. Sometimes to the height of eighty thousand

the general appearance of the solar

miles.

What is there peculiarly

Q.

originate in brilliant jets, either verti-

illustrations

cal or oblique.

Q.

long do they remain

Scenes

sometimes they remain only a few moments

promi-

prominences ?

A. They

of Jets

others, they continue for several days.

nences.

Q.

How

A. There

of the Sun occurs ?

are

21

How are

these solar prominences produced 1

are produced by incandescent mole-

A. They
cules, or emanations of the electrical element from
the Sun.

interesting in these

A. The varied appearance of these brilliant

some straight, some oblique, and others

and then falling again on the Sun, like jets
See plates II and III.
of our fountains.

jets,

rising

Fig- 9.

Q.

Which way do

these spots pass over the

tlie sun 1
A. They pass from east to west.
Q. In illustration (Fig. No. 9), describe the
form of the spot just entering upon the sun's

disc of

disc.

A. It appears oval in form, the greatest length

being at right angles to its motion across the sun.
Q. Does its form continue the same ?
A. In proportion as the spot approaches the
centre, it widens, so that it becomes nearly circular, and as it passes off tlie western portion of the

sun,

it

assumes the same forms, only reverse

in

the order.

How

long do these spots remain visible ?

A. About fourteen days.
Q. Is this length of time ascribed to all of them
A. Their time is usually uniform.
Q.

RemarTc. So uniform is their time, that just

fourteen days from the time the spot disappears
on the western border, it again reappears on the
eastern, often changed in form, it is true, but
generally recognizable.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

22

LESSON

X.

Dimensions Compared to
Globe Measurements of Schroeter Of Sir W. Herschel Of Captain Davis Re.
Physical Organization of the Sun Views of Sir W. Herschel Of Kerchoff Of Sir John Herschel Why Vary
the Planets and Constellations Turn the Same Way Evidence of
Axis Do
Appearance Way the Sun Turns on
their Revolution from West to East Time of Revolution of Sun Inclination to Ecliptic.

Analysis.

tlie

mark

in

all

its

Are the dimensions of the spots uniform ?

A. They are extremely varied as to size.
Q. How will they compare to our globe?
A. It is not uncommon to see them with their
Q.

surface larger than the earth.

How

Q.

Schroeter

extensive

circle of
ficies

Q.

is,

Sir

its

diameter ?

What are

the views expressed

form the atmospheres

by

Kerchoff"?

the denser

and lower one

than

fifty

thousand miles.

Herschel

the views expressed

respecting

enveloping the Sun

the

brilliant

by

Sir

John

atmosphere

He contended

that the gaseous, brilliant,

atmospheric representations arose from the

elec-

magnetism of the Sun.

trical

large were some observed by Captain

it.

What were

Q.

A.

A. It consisted of two parts, the diameter of

Davis in 1839

opening, and disclosing the dark mass within.

that float into

more than twenty-nine thousand miles.

size of a spot measured by

How

with luminous clouds, occasionally

ance of being white heated, the vapors of which

What was the

W. Herschel

Q.

filled

being luminous, from the incandescent particles

great was

less

always

embraced by a great

our Earth, or four times the entire super-

which was not

dark

equivalent to

of our globe.

Q.

to be a solid,

Sun is an incandescent solid, or liquid mass," by

which he means that its nucleus has the appear-

A. Nearly four times the diameter of the Earth,

that

Sun

A. The idea entertained by him was, " that the

measured

How

the

by

was one

sixteen times the surface

He supposed

A.

body, surrounded by a vast atmosphere, almost

Q.

He measured one which was

A.

Why

Q.

do the spots vary

in their appear-

ance?

A. The most extensive was not less than one

hundred and eighty-six thousand miles in its
greatest length, and the surface embraced about

A. The varied appearance of these spots depends upon the clianges of temperature in these

25,000,000,000 miles.

violent agitations.

Hemarl:

The question as to what

ical organization of the

Sun

is

is

the phys-

one on which

as-

tronomers have entertained various opinions, and

to

which they have

failed,

thus

far, to

The Sun appears

give a satis-

some

atmospheres, giving

duce the various openings which are dark, because

surrounded by an ocean of inexhaustible flame,

Q.

with dark spots of enormous size

floating

Q.

on

its

What

Herschel

now and

then

From west
Do all the

W.

its

the same

to east.

planets and satellites revolve in

direction

A. All of them except the

surface.

views were entertained by Sir

with clouds of various condensation.

axis?

A.

to

filled

Q. In what direction does the Sun turn on

to be

factory answer.

rise to tornadoes and other

The descending currents pro-

and Neptune
tion.

satellites of

Uranus

they revolve in the opposite direc-

PLATE

IV.

A.TOllt.PMOTO-llTM.

WEED. PARSONS KCO.,ALBANT,N.Y.

COMPARATIVE DIMENSIONS OF THE SUN.THE PLANETS

AND THEIR

SATELLITES.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

Q.

How is

from west
A.

By

Q.

How

it

evident that planets,

to east

etc.,

fast

A. At the rate of 14,400 miles in an hour.

revolve

Sun

does the Sun revolve in

orbit

its

Planets Why

thus

Called

What are

planets

wanderer.

laws,

we

God

term applied to these dark

down

revolutions

by the

relative position.

How
By

Q. Mention the primary planets

Why are they

A. Because they revolve around the Sun.

Q.

Why are the others called

What is

Explanation.

A. Because they revolve around their prima-

and with them around the Sun.

How many

secondary planets are there

A. Twenty-two.

by

centripetal

and

and
cen-

the origin or foundation of the law

its

I.

is

Two

origin in

the electrical

planets.

positives repel each other.

IT.

posi-

attract each other.

the fountain of all electricity to the

nature.

The planet drawing near the Sun becomes posireceding from the Sun betive, and is repulsed
comes negative, and is drawn again toward the
;

Q.

and kept

planetary system, therefore always positive in his

secondary plan-

ets.

ries,

and repulsion.

and repulsion ?

and a negative

The Sun

hence

repulsion in other words,

tive

called primary planets

attraction

power the Sun exerts over the

Uranus and Neptune.

the immutable law of attraction

A. This law has

A. Mercury, Yenus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter,

Q.

in their revolutions

are these planets balanced

of attraction

them

trifugal force.

Q.

are the planets divided

A. Into primary and secondary planets.

Saturn,

and

Attraction

and that he constituted certain

law of

electrical

heavens, while the fixed stars maintain the same

How

of

the hypothesis, that they are continued in their

in their respective orbits

A.

A. Because they change their positions in the

Q.

Law

created the planets and set

by which they are continued

lay

Q.
this

of Motion

rolling in their respective orbits,

From whence do they derive their name 1

A. From the Greek word Planatis, meaning

bodies

XI.

All acknowledge that

Q.

Why was

and twenty minutes.

Equilibrium of the Motion op the Planets.

A. Dark bodies revolving around the Sun.

Q.

Division Primary Secondary Equilibrium

Repulsion Law Explained.

The Planets.
Q.

the inclination of the axis of the

is

to the Ecliptic

A. Seven degrees

LESSON
Analysis.

What

Q.

the order of the signs of the zodiac.

23

Sun.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

24

LESSON
Analtbib.

Distribation

of

Secondary Planets

Interior

Planets

From

How

among

are the secondary planets distributed

the primaries

Q.
earth

Uranus

What

Jupiter four

and Neptune

eight,

Saturn

planets revolve within the orbit of the

yond

What are

they called?

Q.

Q.

A.

What

planets revolve without the orbit of

with
Q.

What

are these planets called ?

A.
Q.

Why

is

this

distinction

of qualification

Q.

A. Mercury and Venus

and are seldom seen

are called interior be-

and the other planets are

LESSON
Analysis.

Apparent

Motions of the Sun,

Motions of the Sun

What

Clianges in the Points of

Ecliptic Coincidence with the Plane of the

of the Earth

conjunctions have they ?

When are they in conjunction

When they are beyond the Sun

it

Obliquity of

How many

range

and the Earth.

When are they in opposition

When in range with the Earth and Sun,
?

What

and

between them and the Sun.

causes the planets to shine

How may

they be distinguished from the

stars?

A. Their light
stars

is

steady, while the light of the

appears to twinkle.

XIII.

How Caused The Daily Phenomenon Connected with the Apparent

Point of Culmination Solstices and Equinoxes Note
Earth's Orbit Intersection of the Circle of the Celestial Sphere and the Orbit

the Ecliptic.

Q.

Which way does he appear

to revolve in his

diurnal motion.

A. From west to

He has two.
What are they

in

Rising and Setting

apparent motions around the

Earth has the Sun

and

Called

Apparent Motions of the Sun.

Q.

How many

Sun.

cause they are but a short distance from the Sun,

A.

A. The reflection of light received from the

A. Exterior planets.

Q.

are the planets lying without or be-

the orbit of the Earth called

the Earth is

tune.

Q.

What

sition each.

A. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Nep-

made

Distinguished

A. They have one conjunction and one oppo-

the Earth?

Q.

Shine

tances from the Sun.

A. Interior planets.
Q.

How

A. Exterior planets.

one.

A. Mercury and Venus.

Q.

Conjunctions

called exterior because they are seen at all dis-

Q.

A. The Earth has one

eight

Exterior Their

Stars.

Distribution of Secondary Planets.

Q.

XII.

east.

Which way in his annual motion ?

A. From east to west.
Q.

called

A. They are diurnal and annual.

Q.

How

are these changes produced

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

A. The diurnal motion

caused by the rota-

is

and the annual by

the revolution of the earth around the Sun.
Q. How often, and at what seasons of the year
tion of the earth

on

its

point of the horizon and set at the west point

A. Twice each year

about the 20th of March

and the 23d of September.

Q.

What is

Note.

and a constant
tion,

From March

20th

till

points at which the

Sun

rises

June 21st, and the

and sets move from

and west toward the north.

Q. At what time of year does the meridian
tude of the Sun diminish ?

Q.

What is
It is

alti-

How

and the

altitude

22d,

move

decreases

December 22d till the 20th of March,

the points of rising and setting move backward
toward the east and west, and the meridian alti-

At what points

of time does the

to reach his culmination

the 21st of

Sun seem

Then

June and the 22d of Decem-

are these points called

A. They are called

What

nation of

solstices.

are the points at which the culmi-

the

equator called

A. They are

orbit.

the inclination of the axis of the

its

orbit 1

and one-half degrees.

what point do the Ecliptic and

at

Obliqxjitt of the Ecliptic.

inclination of the Earth's axis to the plane

The

of the Ecliptic causes the equinoctial to depart

23 28' from the Ecliptic.

the equinoctial

and the

This angle
Ecliptic

is

made by

called

the

OhUquity of the Ecliptic.

Let the line A
represent the axis of
the Earth, and B B the
Soles or axis of the
cliptic. Now, if the

inclines toA
ward the plane of the
Ecliptic, or. in other

words,

departs

the line

Q.

is in-

It is sixty-six

Sun

coincides with the celestial

called equinoxes.

from

B B

amount of

What

by the Earth' s

sphere

A. At an angle of twenty-three and one-half

line

ber.

Q.

tude increases.

On

around the

to revolve

equinoctial cross each other 1

also from

A.

circle of the celestial

Earth to the plane of

A. The points of the rising and setting of the

Q.

sol-

does the plane of the Ecliptic coincide

What is

Q.

Q.

December

the Ecliptic

A. The great

degrees.

the south,

of

of the point of culmina-

with the plane of the Earth' s orbit

move

setting

times in the year ?

toward

movement

the great circle of the celestial sphere

which the Sun appears

September 23d, and

Q. Does the meridian altitude vary at other

till

a constant

Earth every year.

A.

meanwhile the points of rising and

back toward the east and west.

Sun, from September 23d

up and down,

variation,

A.

tersected

the east

till

is

except that the Sun culminates at the same altitude for

Q.

21st

seen there

These two stationary points of culmination are called the

in

Q. During what time does the Sun' s meridian

From June

it is

several days, about the 31st of June and the 22d of December.

A. The highest point to which the Sun appar-

A.

From this

the points of rising and setting alternately from north to south,

Sun ?

ently rises above the horizon.

A.

stices.

the meridian altitude of the

altitude increase

Why called equinoxes

Q.

A. Because the days and nights are equal.

axis,

does the Sun appear to rise exactly at the east

25

to the
23 28', It is

obvious that the plane

of
the equator, or
equinoctial, will depart from the Ecliptic
to the same amount.

This departure, shown

by the angles C C, constitute the ObliguUvof
the Ecliptic.

Hitherto,

mary circles

Fia. 10.

we have
in the

Oblkjcitt

or the Ecliptic,

considered these great pri-

heavens as never varying iheir

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

26

How

position in space, nor with respect to each other.

Q.

But

A. The one which the Sun passes in March

it is

a remarkable and well-ascertained fact

We

that both are in a state of constant change.

have seen that the plane of the Earth' s equator

is

drawn out of place by the unequal

attraction of the Sun and Moon acting in different
directions upon the unequal masses of matter at
the equator and the poles whereby the intersecconstantly"

tion of the equator with the ecliptic is constantly

retrograding

thus producing

tlie

precession of

the equinoxes.

Q.

What

where

it

crosses the equinoctial called

is

that

the

called

which

is
it

Autumnal

equinox.

What

Q.

at

tic,

are the two points opposite the Eclip-

which the Sun

is

farthest

from the equinoc-

called?

tial,

A. They are called Solstitial points, or Solstices.

How are

they distinguished

A. The one north of the equinoctial

Summer

the

A. They are called Equinoctial points, or

Vernal equinox

the

called

passes in September

Q.

are the points opposite the Ecliptic

are they distinguished

Solstice

is

the one south of

called

the

it

Winter Solstice.

Equinoxes.

LESSON XIV.
Analysis.

Mercury Situation Rate of Motion Time of Revolution Indications Diameter Inclination of

Plane of Ecliptic Inclination of Axis Time of Revolution on
Axis Uniformity of Appearance.

Orbit

to

its

Mercury.
Q.

Which

is

Q.

the nearest planet to the

Sun ?

Q.

What

is its

rate of

plane of

Sun %

motion around the

hour.

flight

does

it

around the sun

take Mercury to

make

his

Q.

What

A.

does this indicate

the inclination of

orbit

How

axis

its

axis to the

one-third degrees.

long does

it

take Mercury to turn on

A. Twenty -four hours and six minutes.

What

does this indicate

A. Tlie length of his day.

Q. Is he always uniform in his appearance

A. The length of his year.

Q.

Q.

Q.

A. Eighty -eight days.

its

is

A. Seven and

its

How long

What

Q.

A. One hundred and ten thousand miles an

Q.

the inclination of the plane of his

A. Seven degrees.

How far is it from the Sun

A. Thirty-seven million miles.

is

orbit to the plane of the Ecliptic

A. Mercury.
Q.

What

He is not
moon sometimes

A.

What is the real diameter of Mercury

Two thousand nine hundred and fifty miles.
?

the

bons

he presents

different

phases

like*

a crescent form, then gib-

at other times a full face,

see rigs,

n and 12.

It"

>
<;

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

Let us speak
form.

its

first

27

from

of

Mercury, in

characterizes

the course of one of

oscillations,

its

henceforward

and more,

more

it

until

it is

only visible as a fine

pre-

thread.

sents phases entirely

luminous

analogous to those

ot

We give some of these

our Moon.

at

phases.

first

It is

a luminous

is

its

apparent dimensions

nearly circular, which

by degrees

of

increase

ive

Fig. 11.
Phases op Mekcurt when Seen Afteb Sunset.

disc,

The progress-

is

reduced

also

shown in exact
The

proportion.

on the side toward

same appearances are

the east, until not more

but

observed,

than

half-circle

is

verse
visible at the

of

period

greatest appar-

its

the

observed

during the period in

ent distance from the

S-u

is

in-

when

order,

Mercury

in

which he

is

a morning

Fig. 12.

crescent

star.

Fh^sk9 or Mercubv, when Seen Bbtobx Sitmbibk.

LESSON XV.
Analysis.

Transit Primaries Making Transits When Occur Condition of Earth and Planet when Occurs Ecliptic
Months in which Transits of Mercury Occur Why Called What First Transit Time of Others.
it

Nodes

A. They must be on the same side of the Eclip-

Transits,
Q.

What is

a transit ?

tic

A. The passage of a planet between the Earth

and the Earth, on the same

Q.

What

is

the Ecliptic

and the Sun and apparently over his disc.

Q. Which of the primary planets have been

orbit

known

scribe annually

among

What are

nodes ?

to pass over the Sun's disc.

A. Mercury and Venus.

Q.

A.

When
When

Q.

the interior planet

is in

or very near

When

the condition of the Earth

what must be

and the planet

plane of the Earth's

or the great circle the

Sun appears

to de-

the stars.

the plane of the Ecliptic.

Q.
transit takes place,

the

is

A. The points at which a planet's orbit crosses

can a transit ^ever occur ?

the Ecliptic.
Q.

A. The Ecliptic

line of its nodes.

place

When

do

all

transits

of

Mercury take

A. In the months of May and November.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

28

Q.

Why?

What are

Q.

A. Because the nodes of Mercury are on each

side of the Ecliptic,

and passed by the Earth

these

A. They are called

months called ?
node months.

in
Note.

these months.

The Earth

passes the ascending node of Mercury in

November, and the descending node

in

The former

May.

and the

wliich is in the 16th degree of Taurus,

of

latter in the 16th

degree of Scorpio.

When

Q.
place

6,

Q.

first transit

of

Mercury take

A. The
ber

did the

first

Novem-

ever observed took place

1631.

How many

more have transpired since?

A. Thirty-two.
Q.

When

did the last transit occur

A. November
Q.

A.
Transits

i>f

May

Mercury over the Suu, 1 the IStli November, 1881,2 the

5th November, 1868.

4,

1868.

How many will

Four In May
9,

1891,

and

in

take place in this century

6,

1878

November

November

7,

1881

10, 1894.

LESSON XVI.
Analysis.

Mercury Density Heat Solar

Light

Velocity Why so Great Conj unctions Names Distances

In what Months Most Favorably Seen.
1

from

Earth in Different Conjunctions

Density and Heat of Mercury.

Q.

What

is

Q.

the density of this planet ?

What

is

A.

It

supposed

is

the intensity of his heat

to

other planet, the electrical power of the Sun, in

'(

be so great that water

would be rapidly distilled into vapor, and that it

would dissipate every volatile compound.
Q. What is its solar light, compared with that

attraction

It is

and repulsion,

is far

he must of necessity move

force

greater

swifter,

therefore,

and the

and circular motion must be equal

the planet in

of the Earth?

A.

any other

swifter than

A. Because being nearer the Sun than any

A. About that of lead.

Q.

Why does he move

planet ?

central

to retain

its orbit.

Conjunctions op Mercury.

seven times greater than that of the

Earth.

Q.

Q.

What is

A.

It is said to

said of the velocity of this planet

yet discovered.

be the swiftest moving planet

How many

conjunctions has Mercury

A. Two.
Q.

What

are they called

A. Superior and Inferior.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

When

Q.

and why

is

he said to be in his

infe-

rior conjunction?

When

A.

because he

When

Q.

junction

he

is

its

between the Earth and Sun, and

is

and why

is

he

in his superior con-

Sun, and in range with

How far is

Q.

When

A.

it

Mercury

in his infeit

is

fifty-eight million miles.

How

Q.

tion
Fig. 14.

far

superior

his

when

in

conjunc-

Equatorial Band of Mercury

thirty-two million miles.

(Schroeter.)

What months

serving this planet

this,

are most favorable for ob-

make

observed
crescent

the

that

southern

was truncated

(fig.

to

show themselves anew

is

A.
its

On

which intercept the

plunged

in

which

shade,

Why

can

it

evi-

and of

val-

near

lie

the

surface

of the planet then

il-

luminated.
Schroeter,

when

ex-

amining Mercury durits transit

over the

Sun on the 7th of May,

1799, saw, or believed

that

he saw, on the

black disc of the planFig 18.

Q.

They

parts of the

account of

sunset.

to determine

light of the Sun,

low altitude above

and

pe-

dently indicate the existence of high mountains,

not

the horizon at sunrise

the

the

at intervals,

which has enabled us

hap-

it

of

These mark-

15).

ing

Why

they also

horn

the period of rotation of Mercury.

pens.

Q.

many

ings were not always visible, but disappeared,

March or April,
and in August or September, when its great-

easily seen in winter

14),

the line of separation

of

elongation

(fig.

during the crescent phases,

A. In the months

est

disc

its

and shade appear jagged

of light

leys

'i

of

observers (Schroeter, Beer and Madler) have seen

riodicity of

A. One hundred and

known

therefore, is

indentations which

conjunction

rior

little,

diligent observer, Schroeter, at

which he considered as an equatorial zone it

was from the direction of these bands that he
deduced the inclination of the axis of rotation.
Besides

from the Earth

very

One

the end of the last century, was able, however, to

and the Earth.

Q.

difficult

surface.

observe some dark bands on

then in range with them.

When beyond the

A.

what

29

crescent of Mercury, showing irregularities on the terminator and he truncation of

the Southern Horn. (Schroeter.)

not be seen in

summer

A. The long twilight prevents our seeing any

ever,

this

to the solar

rays renders the observation of the planet some-

observation,

It

* lummOUS pOint.
has been concluded

which has

not,

how-

been confirmed, that there exist on the sur-

face of

small object in the heavens.

The great proximity of Mercury

from

^''

Mercury

active volcanoes.

This would

be another analogy between the physical constitution of this planet

and that of the Earth.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

30

LESSON

Sun Time

Distance from
Indication Rate of

Situation
Venus
Time of Revolution on Axis

Analysis.

Q.

What is

Motion

XVII.

of Revolution Indication Inclination of Orbit with Ecliptic

Inclination of Axis with Plane of Orbit How Distinguished.

the second planet ?

Q.

Where is

situated

it

Q.

A. Between the orbits of Mercury

Earth.

the

of

What

make with

and the

its year.

angle does the inclination of her orbit

the Ecliptic

A. Three degrees,

'

Although Venus
one

does this indicate

A. The length of

A. Venus.
Q.

What

twenty-three minutes and

thirty-three seconds.

is

Q.

nearest

take

planets to the Earth,

it

astronomers have ex-

on

perienced great

How

Venus to turn

axis

its

and

hours

apparent diameter in

minutes.

precise

This

is

Q.

manner.

owing

Fig.

and to the irradiation

which is produced in

Apparent dimensions of Venus at

its

image

in

its

16.

How

far is

it

from

Q.
tion

What

is

of

the rate

Sun

What

the inclina-

is

of her axis

plane of her

Sixty-eight million

to

the

orbit?

A. Ninety degrees.

How

revolution

does

long

take Venus to

Q.

it

make a

around

For what

distinguished

A. She

the

liant

Sun?

Two hundred and

Satellite Venus

the most bril-

planet

of

all

the

Sun and

Moon.

17.

XVIII.

Satellites of the Sun Evidence How Discovered W^hat Names Diameter Ap Similarity to Moon Conj unctions Appearance in Each.

and Mercury
pearance

Mekcukt and Venus Satellites of the Sun.

Q. What is a Satellite?

An

Venus

Comparative dimeueions of Venus and the Earth.

LESSON
Analysis.

is

is

orbs except the

Fig.

twenty-jBve days.

A.

Q.

of motion in her revolution around the

our instru-

miles.

A.

length

A. Seventy-seven thousand miles an hour.

Sun

Q.

does this

her day.

extreme and mean distance from the Eartli.

ments.

A.

What

A. The

of the light of Venus,

Q.

twenty

determine ?

to the

astonishing brilliancy

the

A. Twenty -three

diffi-

culty in measuring its

long does

attendant body of a primary planet.

Q.

What

Venus

evidences have

are satellites of the

we that Mercury and

Sun ?

PLATE

WE EO. PARSONS

C?,ALBANY.

VI.

ATOLLE.PMOTO. LITH

FORM AND SURFACE MARKINGS OF VENUS.

ELECTKO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

A. Their close proximity to the Sun, and the

uniformity

of

movements and

their

Q.

appear-

we behold in the moon.

Q. Is Venus an interior

discover this planet

A. Because

it is

the largest and brightest of the

Q.

EVENIKG AND MOENING StAE.

is Venus familiarly known ?
Star.

A. Because for some months of the year she

"Evening Star."

sunset, as the

ally approaches the Sun,

and

a time

"Morning
Q.

before

the

rising

Sun, as

Two

Q.

A.

Q.

A.

in superior conjunction

it

the

Venus i

situated

beyond the Sun and

in

and the Earth.

When is she in her inferior conjunction

When between the Earth and the Sun, and
?

in range with

Q.

the diameter of

When
When

range with

dis-

Star."

What is

Q.

A.
is

appears, but soon reappears in the east in all her

splendor, just

and the Sun.

conjunctions have Venus ?
superior and inferior.

How many

after

She then gradufor

Why?

Earth, or between the Earth

Why?

found brilliantly shining in the west just

A. Because she revolves within the orbit of the

By what name

A. Evening and Morning

or exterior planet

A. Interior.

stars.

Q.

A. All the different phases are manifest which

How can we now easily

Venus

Q.

when seen through

her appearance

a telescope at different times

ance.

Q.

What is

31

What is

it.

the appearance of the planet

when

in superior conjunction ?

A. Seven thousand eight hundred miles.

A.

LESSON

then

It is

full like

our

full

moon.

XIX.

Venus
Changes Diameter Difference in Size Transit Time When Benefit Derived Appearance
Time of Transits Time of Last One Occur When Time of Last When Next Peculiarity of Twentieth
Century How far Recede from Sun.

Analysis.

DiflFerent

in Transit

Changes of Venus.

of

Q.

What

A.

It

its

change then occurs ?

Why

the planet

is

the apparent diameter least

is full

A. Because

gradually diminishes until, at the time

then the

it is

then farthest from the Earth

Q.

When

is it

is

A.

planet

It is

junction

it

con-

any other

when

assumes the

form of a slender

her

cresFio.

18.

The Variations

of Venus.

infe-

than at

time, except

it is

seen during

transit.

Q.
cent.

always great-

rior conjunction
its inferior

greater

when near an

MORNINOSTAK

continues to wane, un-

near

than at any other time

er

til

when

great elongation,

only half of the disc

seen,

Q.

What is meant by

her transit ?

ELECTRO-ASTKONOMICAL ATLAS.

32

A. Her passage across the disc of the Sun.

Q.

Why

conjunction

does

it

A. In the year 1769.

not occur at every inferior

is

and one-half degrees below the plane of the

Earth's orbit, and the other half as many degrees
three

years.

have been derived from

At what time will the next occur ?

A, December 6th, 1882.

A. Owing to the minute investigations of them,

Q.

Venus ?

Sun and the dimensions

planetary system have been more cleary
the distance of the

of the
deter-

of

What

How long

do some of these

A. Nearly seven hours.

What is

her appearance in a transit ?

When

When

did her

How

Q.

when

A. That of a dark spot.

last transit take place

the twentieth century

A. There will be no transit in that century.

Venus ?
A. June

transits last ?

peculiar fact respecting the transit

Venus during
Q.

mined.

Q.

next transit transpire

A. December 8th, 1874.

it.

What benefits

vestigating the transits of

Q.

When will the

Q.

Q.

Q.

taking place at intervals

rare,

of about eight and one hundred and thirteen

in-

Q.

transits of freqiient occurrence

A. They are very

A. Because one-half of this planet's orbit

above

Are these

Q.

wUl there be another

of

transit

7th, 2004.

Venus recede from

far does

in its extreme elongation

the

Sun

A. Forty-seven degrees.

LESSON XX,
Analysis.

from

Mountains of Venus Height Schroeter'a Statement Volume Light Compared to that of the Earth Distance
the Earth In Different Conjunctions Circumference of Orbit Phases Evidence of What How Change her Ap-

pearance.

Mountains of Venus.
Q.

What is known

A. Schroeter

Venus

of the

Mountains of Venus ?
the

that

states

quent measurement

Mountains of

are twenty-seven miles high, or five times

the height of the loftiest

Venus
The solid ground
of Mercury and of the Earth it is covered with
hish mountains. But is it certain that these asis

uneven, like that

perities attain

stated?

such a considerable height as

Do mountains

exist

on Venus to the

tical elevation of twenty-seven miles

say, five times higher than the

peak

in Thibet,

Blanc

This

is

ten

times

the

that

is

veris to

most elevated
colossal

first

results

perhaps

settle.

But

if

were confirmed, we could scarcely

help thinking of the strange aspect the mountain-

ous regions of Venus would

offer

the sublime

peaks of our Alpine regions would be but mere

peak on the Earth.

of

the

may

Mont

a delicate question which subse-

mole-hills in comparison.

drawings of Schroeter
sents

Venus

If

we

(see plate V.),

in three of its phases,

that the luminous part of the disc

refer to

which repre-

we
is

shall notice

far

from

minating abruptly along the line of shade.

light, on the contrary, diminishes gradually

this

diminution

twilight

Q.

may

said of

ter-

Its

and

be entirely explained by the

on the planet.

What is

the

its

volume

PLATE

VII.

A TO LLE. PH OTO-LIT H

WEED. PARSONS tCO..ALBANT.N.Y.

THE EARTH SUSPENDED

IN

SPACE.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

A.

It is

Q.

How

little less

A. That she passes through

than that of the Earth.

does the quantity of light compare

Q.

Q.

How far is Venus

her inferior conjunction

How far is
What is

it

an

in

orbit

live, is

more distant than

Venus.
Q.

the circumference of her orbit

What length

the center of the Solar

revolving around

Were

the orbit nearest to us,

how would

she appear

A. Like a brilliant moon, twenty-iive times

larger than she

miles.

Venus

the enlightened hemisphere of

turned toward the Earth, when in that point of

A. Five hundred and thirty-three million eight

Q.

is in

Star.

her superior conjunction

hundred thousand

does this prove

System, and that the Earth, on which we

A. One hundred and sixty -three million miles.

Q.

the motions

from the Earth when in

A. Twenty -seven million miles.

Q.

What

A. That the Sun

about twice as great.

It is

all

and phases of an Evening and Morning

with that of the Earth?

A.

33

of time intervenes between one

Q.

now appears

to the

naked

Why does she not appear so to us

eye.

A. Because at that time her light side is turned

conjunction and another?

A. Five hundred and eighty-four days.

Q. During this time what may be observed of

toward the Sun, and her dark side toward the

Earth.

her?

Analysis.

The

LESSON XXI.
Evidence Not Perfect Proved
Earth Situation Form Spherical
-

Position

Difference of Diameter

Important.

The Eaetu.
Q.

A.

What is the Earth?

An opaque body

In explanation of the following figures,

dwell a short time on their different points.

the third planet in ihe

It is

well

What

is its

form

also,

approaching

A.
at

modified
is

an oblate

stacles of

poles.

fonu

reis

when

only

some

eleva-

tion limit the view.

at sea, the circular

two points opposite

otlier,

its

mountains or other ob-

A sphere flattened

each

but

mains the same, and

globe.

What

If the latter

moves, the circle moves

nearly to the form of a

spheroid

of a

surrounding the

observer.

A. Tliat of an oblate
spheroid,

Q.

that the horizon of a plain

circle

Sun?

Q.

known

presents the form

order of distance from

the

us

let

of the horizon

called the
Tie. 19.

Mountain figured on a Plain.

more decided

is

(fig.

Out
form
still

19 )j

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

34

and changes only near the coasts, the outline of

which breaks the regularity.

we

Here, then,

obtain the

notion of the ro-

first

tundity of the earth, since a sphere

body which

is

always presented

form of a

circle,

view

examined.

it is

the only

us under the

from whatever exterior point of

that the horizon

vision,

to

is

and that

is

Moreover,

it

formed by the

it is

this

cannot be said

limit of distinct

which causes the appear-

ance of a circular boundary, because the horizon

is

enlarged when we mount vertically

surface of the plain.

ivbov<> tlu'

This extension of the horizon would be inexplicable

if

plain.

had the form of an extensive

the Earth

The curvature

manifests itself in a

of the surface of the sea

still

Suppose yourself on the

high tower,

hill

striking manner.

more

the masts

the

highest sails; the lowest sails

and the hull are

proaches,

its

invisible

as the

it

appears

The

fact of the suc-

sea, or

middle

parts

vature

is

mountain

object,

by

the
it,

is

in the

manifest e d

sphere, will prove our

From

an

of

highest parts of

of a

foot of the

the different

beginning

cur-

assertion.

appearances

on the surface of the

plain,

that

(Fig. 20.)

entire.

tain is figured in the

whose uniform

vessel ap-

lower part comes into view above

tliphoiizmi. niid soon

The preceding drawing, in which a mouna

of a

a vessel

appears on the horizon, you see only the tops of

cessive

of

summit

coast, at the

or steep, rocky shore

same manner to the

sailors who, from the

th(^

-^^.^iSiS^S^fSs:'

have but a very lim-

ship, o b serve the

The explanaland.

Let him

tion is rendered clear

the

spectator

ited horizon.

will

the

ascend half-way, his

in

visual radius extends,

sketch,

is

course

inclined below the

horizon,

and

cular area.

At

cir-

the

the spectator will see

ured on

fio. 20

summit of the moiintain the

horizon increases, and

where
of

if

surface of the sea.

As

the atmosphere be pure,

numerous

it

fig. 21.)

same

where, from the lower stations, the sky alone was

visible.

little.

Fio. 81.

Vessel figured on the Convex of the Sea.

in

follows that the earth has really

the form of a sphere, or at least diflFers from

is fig-

the convex

the curvature of the ocean is the

every direction,

objects appear

(See

the

vessel,

seen in profile,

reveals

a more extended

following

it

but

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

Q.

How

A.

By

Q.

Who first sailed around

A.

do we know the Earth

is

spherical

the sailing of a ship around

tlie

Q. Is the Earth a perfect sphere

it.

Earth ?

Portuguese by the name of Ferdinand

Who next made the voyage

five

lie sail

this

known ?
The degrees from

actual measurement.

ing the Earth

not a true sphere or globe.

13,

Q.

A. Seven thousand nine hundred and twenty-

started

September 26,

navigated ?

the longest or equatorial diameter t

four miles.
Q.

Q. Since that time has the Earth been circum-

What

is

the polar diameter ?

A. Seven thousand eight hundred and ninetyeight miles.

By many

others

among them Cavendish

Q.

What is

mean diameter ?

the

A. Seven thousand nine hundred and twelve

and Cordes.
Q. In what direction did they sail

other proof have

nearly round

and

miles,

A. In a westerly direction.

What

What is

is

tlie

1580.

Note.

we

that the Earth

is

their diff"erence twenty-six miles.

The

Earth, considered as a planet, holds a very im-

portant and conspicuous position in the solar system.

pleased an infinitely wise Creator to assign

A. The shadow of the Earth in the eclipse of

the

By

from Plymouth, December

same place from whence he

Q.

How is

A.

small vessels, and arrived at

sailed

1577, with

A.

Q.

Q. In what year and from whence did

He

It is not.

same but increase in length with the latitude, as

we go from the equator to the poles, thus show-

A. Sir Francis Drake.

A.

A.

the equator to the poles are not uniformly the

Magellan.
Q.

35

Moon indicates

its

positions

It

has

among

the heavenly bodies, where nearly all of them are visible to the

naked eye.

a globular figure.

LESSON XXII.
Revolution of the Earth Time Indication Changes of Seasons Axis Position Time of Revolution on
Production Cause of Bevolution on Axis Explanation Illustration Law Equally Essential in Planets
Problem Solved Distance from Sun Circumference of Orbit Rate of Motion Inclination of Axis.

Analysis.
Axis

its

all

its

Revolution op the Earth.

Q.

How long

around the Sun

A.

It

east in

does

it

Q.

take the Earth to revolve

moves around the Sun from west to

865 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 48
is

this called

What

A. The

A.

does this annual motion produce

changes of seasons.

What is
It is

same

Q.

through the

the position of

always

its

axis

parallel to itself, pointing in

direction in the heavens.

How

often does the Earth turn on

A. Once in every 24 hours.

A. Her year, or annual motion.

Q.

Q.

the

What

center of the Earth and terminating at the poles.

seconds.
Q.

A.

What is the axis of the Earth

An imaginary line passing

Q.

What is

this called

A. Her diurnal motion, or her day.

its

axis ?

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

36

Q.

What

A. The succession of day and

In view of the
planets,

come

dark, and thus becoming deeply negative,

does this revolution produce?

fact,

admitted by

and sent them rolling

God

created the

we

constituted a certain law

by

motion

in

that

all,

in their respective orbits,

He has

to the conclusion that

which they are continued

tracted

night.

hence,

we

trical

and humbly ask of the

explan-

Scientific

to present another more feasible one,

and

which the controlling power of the Sun can be

illustrated by attraction and repulsion.
in

Q.

What law

Earth on

axis

its

How

repulsion.

Q.

How

equally essential to the

the Earth

is

in aphelion, the distance

ninety-three million miles

ninety million miles, the

when in perihelion,
mean distance being

ninety-one and one-half million miles.

What

is

the circumference of the Earth's

orbit?

A. That part of the Earth which has been longest in the

When

A.

Q.

law illustrated in the continued

revolution of the Earth

It is

what problem is solved which hitherto

has remained a mystery 1
A. The cause of attraction and repulsion.
Q. How far is the Earth from the Sun ?

it is

A. Tloo positives repel each other, and a positive and a negative attract each other.
is this

axis

planets,

that law explained

is

its

A. Certainly not.

is

and

in attraction

on

revolution of every planet in the Solar System.

continues the revolution of the

A. The immutable law of Electricity, manifest

Q.

tion of the Earth

Q. In applying this law to the revolution of the

We call attention now to the following

World

Q. Is this law simply applicable to the revolu-

law of Attraction and Repulsion.

ation of this law,

is at-

hence, the revolution

of the Earth is continued.

present the hy-

pothesis that they are continued in their revolutions by the elec-

by the positive Sun

rays of the Sun having become positive,

by the electrical influence of the Sun, is repelled.

The opposite portion of the Earth, lying in the

A.

It is six

hundred million

Q.

What

the rate of the Earth's motion

is

miles.
?

sixty-eight thousand miles an hour.

A.

It is

Q.

What

is

the inclination of the axis of the

Earth?

A.

It is

twenty -three and a half degrees from a

perpendicular to the plane of the Earth's

orbit.

LESSON XXIII.
Analysis.

Time How

Reckoned

How

is

Time

Uniformity Advantage Derived Remarks Plane

Law Location of Sun in Earth's Orbit Shape of Orbit.

Q. Is the rotation of the Earth on

always uniform and invariable

A. Its revolution

is

A.

Reckoned.
its

axis

What

this the

Kepler

only true principle

of reckoning time in hours, days, etc.

Remark.

1st.

While

all

the other periodical

motions of the heavenly bodies are subject to

change, this has remained the uniform standard,

derived from this regu-

having undergone not the slightest appreciable

advantage

larity of the Earth's

by

Ecliptic HluBtrated

invariably the same, once in

twenty-four hours.
Q.

We obtain

of

is

motion ?

change from the date of the

earliest observation.

>
<:

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

The

2d.

different periods of time in

common nse

this.

How may we

and secondary are reguwhich law there is no exception

to

known ?
A. That the square of the periodic times of the

subdivisions of the day.

Q.

and

lated,

of Kepler respecting the planets,

the primary

by which

Weeks, months and years are

recorded by days and fractions of a day while
hours, minutes and seconds are divisions and
date from

all

What law

Q.

37

planets' revolution is as the cubes of their dis-

the plane "of the

illustrate

tances.

Ecliptic

A.

By -filling

one side of the center of

the orbit in which the Earth

represent the orbit, the surface of the water even

with the rim of the bowl, the plane of the Ecliptic,

How far is the Sun

Q.

a bowl with water, the rim will

and the bowl would represent one-half of the

moves around

it

about three million miles.

A.

It is

Q.

What is

A.

It is that of

the shape of the Earth's orbit

an

ellipse.

concave sky.

LESSON XXIV.
Causes of their Change How far the Axis of
Night Why Then Why Day Why Night The

Analysis.

and

is

Way of

Rotation Inclined to Plane of Ecliptic

at the equator

What causes

A.

First, the fact that the

the change of the seasons

Sun

one-half of the Earth at a time

to the plane of the Ecliptic

any one point

invariably parallel to

in

Q.

illuminates but
;

secondly, that

the axis on which the Earth revolves

is

inclined

thirdly, that its posi-

the Earth's orbit

is

position at every other

its

point.
far is the axis of rotation inclined to

the plane of the Ecliptic

At what time
day and night ?
Q.

On

of the year

the 21st of

of Sep-

that time

is

do we have equal day and night

at

Day.

It is called

What is the side turned from the Sun

A.

It is called

Q.

What is

Earth on

it

called

Night.

the result of the revolution of the

axis

its

was day it becomes night, and

was night it becomes day, and the day

Where

where

it

equal.

What are

those points called ?

A. Equinoctial points.

the

N. B.
the

Which way

does the Earth move around

Sun ?

A.

Why

to pole.

the side of the Earth toward the

Q.

Q.

March and on the 23d

and shines from pole

A.

Q.

do we have equal

tember.
Q.

What
called

and night are

A. About sixty-seven and a half degrees.

A.

Sun

A.

How

Equal Day
Points Called

Tear

Axis

A. The Sun at those points strikes us vertically

Seasons.

Q.

Q.

its

the Revolution.

The

tion at

Time of

Result of the Revolution of the Earth on

From west

The

first

to east.

teacher will

part of the Atlas.

explain

this

on the Diagram

in

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

38

LESSON XXV.
Analysis.

Difference of

Summer Solstice Why bo Called Distance the Sun Shines

Movements of the Sun Further Explained.

Time in the Days and Niglits Explained

Beyond the North Pole
Situation of South Pole

The following

instruction should be illustrated by the teacher

A.

It is entirely in the dark.

Q.

What takes

on the Diagram

Q.

Why

do the days grow longer and

niglits shorter

21st of

tlie

summer

from the 20th of March until the

June?

A.
tial,

A. Owing to the inclination of the Earth's axis

Q.

moves along in her orbit from her

place in March, more and more of the northern
hemisphere is coming into the light of the Sun
and the Sun shines farther and farther beyond
the North Pole until the 21st of June, hence the
Earth turning on its axis in the meantime, the
days continue to increase till then, and nights
grow shorter in the same proportion.
Q. Why is the 21st of June the longest day in

A.

as the Earth

the year

A. The most of the northern hemisphere

lightened that can be at

Q.

What is

this point called

A. The summer
Q.

any one

is

en-

Why is it so called

far does the

the North Pole

A.

It shines

Q.

What

this time

is

to return

toward

it.

North Polar

circle

its

greatest

northern

Sun then shine beyond

twenty- three and a half degrees.

the situation of the South Pole at

the

advances farther and farther

and the South Polar circle in a corresponding manner extends into the light until
the 22d of September, when the Sun again strikes
into the dark,

and shines from pole to

pole, causing once more equal day and night.
Q. Why do the days grow shorter and the
nights longer from the 22d of September till the
21st of December ?
vertically at the equator

A. The axis of the Earth being inclined always

Polar

the equinoctial line, or the equator.

How

Sun reaches the

same

direction, as the

Earth moves along

to east in her orbit, the

circle recedes farther into the dark,

declination, or is at its greatest distance north of

Q.

the

How is this accomplished

By the Earth moving along in her orbit,

from west

when

then ceases to decline from the equinoc-

and begins

in the

time.

solstice.

A. The Sun then has

It

solstice

place

advances more and more into the

circle

light, so that less of the

enlightened

northern hemisphere

the Sun,

greatest southern declination, or

est distance

is

and more of the southern

December
the Sun has reached
of

by

until the 21st

its

North Polar

and the South

is

at its great-

south of the equinoctial,

winter solstice

is

reached,

and the Equator are

from each other.

when

and when the

the

Ecliptic

at their greatest distance

ELECTRO-ASTKONOMICAL ATLAS.

39

LESSON XXVI.

Analysis.
Length of the Days and Nights Considered
Number of Seasons What Called Zodiacal Light Time of Appearance
In what Part of the Heavens
Form of the Light Compared with Milky Way Not Seen at all Seasons When
What is it Description of Belt How Occupied Location of EclipOnly
In what Months
Favorable Nights
Zodiac
What Use is made of the Signs of the Zodiac Names
Term "Constellation " By Whom Used Why Called Zodiac
tic
The Earth in Capricorn
Where then is the Sun Vertical 1
Correspondents of these

Q.

What may be

at this time

said of the days

and nights

Q.

what

As

any time during

produced ?

become equal again, on the

21st of

March.

climate the twilight is of short duration,

sunset,

we may
This

tions.

is

if

little

we

after

perceive a faint light that rises in

among

the starry constella-

what astronomers

call the

Zodi-

Let us see

now if it

is

possible to account for the

nature of the Zodiacal Light, which evidently

is

not a purely meteorological phenomenon, since

How many

seasons have

we 1

its

A. Four.
Q.

acal Liglit.

A. Tlie days grow longer and the nights shorter

Q.

the form of a cone

year.

tlie

the Earth continues on in her course,

until they

examine the horizon toward the west a

eflfect is

A. The days are the shortest and the nights the

longest of

participation in

visibility in regions of the

What are

they called

A. Spring, Summer,

from the other, and,

Autumn and

Winter.

its

Earth very distant one

lastly, its nearly invariable

inclination along the Ecliptic, indicate sufficiently

that the cause which produces such appearances

The Zodiacal Light.

lies

In the evenings, about the time of the vernal

when in our
in March and April,
Equinox,

movement,

the diurnal

our atmosphere,

outside

in

the

celestial

spaces.

Among the

explanations that have been given,

the most probable one

is

that which likens the

Zodiacal Light to a flattened nebulous ring sur-

rounding the Sun at some distance.

It is to

be

remarked, that the direction of the axis of the

1
1
Iba^

\ \

\\

horizon, always passes through the Sun.

(See

Fig. 22.)
It

was believed

at first that this direction pre-

cisely coincided with the solar equator; but

seems more certain that

'

or of the pyramid, prolonged below the

cone,

it

it

coincides with the

plane of the Earth's orbit, or the Ecliptic.

Another hypothesis, also connected with the

first is that the Zodiacal LigJit is formed from

\
^^

XV \

myriads of solid particles analogous to the aerolites,

possessing a general

separately
Fig. S2.
Direction of the Axis of the Zodiacal Light.

world.

around

the

movement but
focus

of

traveling

our

solar

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

40

The

light of the ring

of this multitude of brilliant

by the accumulation
points reflecting

Zodiac.

would be thus produced

toward us the light borrowed by

This explanation

each of them from the Sun.

admit that the condensation of the particles or

the density of the ring is not the same throughout

movement

its

of

its

It is

is

the Zodiac

an imaginary

What

Q.

circulation

What part

Ecliptic

of this space is occupied

to that portion of the

Zodiac

A. In March and April in the evenings, about

the time of the Vernal Equinox.
Q. In what part of the heavens does it appear i

It

its form and appearance

Q.

A.

Q.

How many are the

Why

is

it

not seen at

all

seasons of the

when
Q.

It is
;

only seen when our

when

it

tvviliglit is

it

of short

objects were repre-

signs of the Zodiac

the signs of the Zo-

may be seen about the

time of the

equally short duration.

When

is it

most favorable

to take

a view of

it?

When

moonless.

and sow

them

to tell

their grain.

What names were given to the constellations

forming the Zodiac

A. Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo,

V Lebra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquar-

Autumnal Equinox, in the months of September and

October, in the morning, when the dawn has an
It

to plant

increases the Zodiacal Light

not seen at any other time of the day,

or of the year

(See plate of the Seasons.)

To what purpose did

diac serve the ancients

Q. Is

A.

imagine

A. That of Calendar, enabling

disappears.

Q.

What did the Chaldeans

That many animals and

A. There are twelve.

extends iipward in the form of a cone,

brigiiter in appearance than the Milky

duration

A.

'i

sented in the heavens.

Way.
year

From the Greek word "Zoon," which means

Q.

A.

is

Why was it called Zodiac

A.

A.

sets.

What is

and

Q.

Q.

seen in the west, near the place where

Q.

an animal.

It is

heavens embraced in the

A. The Chaldeans or Egyptians.

Q. In what season of the year does the light

Sun

the

seems at length established.

A.

by

A. The center hence eight degrees lie on one

and eight on the other of the orbit.
Q. Who first applied the term " constellation"

shall hereafter speak, and the existence of which

the

east.

question whether this lenticular ring of matter is

distinct from the systems of meteors, of which we

its

16 degrees in width

of our solar system in revolving around the Sun.

side

make

belt,

does this Belt show

round the Sun presents, successively, different

parts to the Earth. In tliis case, it becomes a

appearance

A. The width of space occupied by the planets

to

and

A.

Q.

extent,

What

surrounding the heavens from west to

accounts for the variation of the intensity of the

Zodiacal Light at different epochs it would suffice

its

Q.

the night

is

clear

and the night

is

and Pices. (Refer to plate above.)

Q. To what do these constellations correspond 1

ius,

(See plate of the Seasons.)

A. To the twelve months of the year, beginning at September, letting it be represented by

Aries, October by Taurus, and so on.
Q. When the Earth is in that constellation
called Capricorn, where is the Sun then vertical ?
A. To the constellation in the heavens directly
opposite at Cancer.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

41

LESSON XXVII.
What Does This Show Why Warmer on the 31st of June Sun Further Away Difference Diameter Difference
in Equinoctial Points Nearest the Sun Perihelion Fartherest Aphelion Motion Faster at Which Density
Variation of Equinoctial Points Difference of Diameter Discovery Weight at the Poles and the Equator Cause of This.

Analysis.
of

Q.

in

Time

What

does this show

A. That when

it is

Summer with us

Hemisphere, that

tliern

lation Capricorn,

is

Nor-

than

its

in June, in the constel-

A.

It

in tlie

and the Earth passes

in its orbit

to the direct opposite point in the constellation

Cancer, which

December, the inhabitants wiD

is

have then the same season of the year, south of

the Equator, that

we had

June north of the

in

Equator, and so at every opposite point of the

warmer with us, north of the

Q.
Equator, on the 21st of June, when we are three
millions of miles further from the Sun than on
the 21st of December?
A. The Sun rises to a much higher altitude
is

it

above the horizon in

hence,

liquely
Q.

upon

What

the longer
orbit

A.

rays

its

fall

Summer than

more

directly

in

and

Winter,
less

ob-

the difference of the length between

and the shorter diameter of the Earth'

Q.

How

A.

From

is this

two hundred and

ascertained

thirty-

>

the variation of the apparent diameter

What

Q.

is

A. About

What

Q.

the density of the Earth

times that of Water.

five

is

known

in regard to the

the Equinoctial points

varying of

A. They are slowly receding or falling back

Q.

How is

Ecliptic.

this

caused

A. The Earth, in

passing

around the Sun,

reaches the Equinoctial points twenty-two min-

and twenty-three and a half seconds earlier

year, and in the course of twenty-five
thousand eight hundred and sixty-eight years
utes

each

they will perform a retrograde

motion quite

Q.

What is the difference between the length

the Equatorial

of

and the Polar diameters of the

A. The Equatorial diameter is about thirty -four

miles the longer,
Q.

What trifling circumstance led

tant discovery

to this impor-

A. The difference of the number of the vibra-

of the Sun.

What

moves more than three thousand miles an

faster.

Earth

It is three millions

faster at its Perihelion

around the heavens.

the surface of the Earth.

is

six thousand miles.

Q.

hour

Aphelion distance

westward on the

Earth' s orbit.

Why

Does the Earth move

Q.

is

the difference of time between the

Equinoctial points ?
A. There are between seven and eight days
more between the 21st of March to the 23d of
September than from the 23d of September onward to the 21st of March.
Q. What is that point called when the Earth is

tions of a

pendulum

different latitudes

of the same length

also that a

makes

in

body or substance

weighing 194 pounds at the Equator would weigh

195

pounds

at the poles.

Q. What is the cause of a body weighing more

at the Poles than at the Equator ?
A. The motion of the Earth's surface is not so

nearest the Sun ?

A. It is called Perihelion distance ?
Q. What is that point of its greatest distance

great as at the Equator, and it is nearer the center of the Earth, hence, the body would not have
so great a tendency to fly off, and, being nearer

called

the center of the Earth,

A.

It is called

Aphelion.

more

force.

is

attracted toward

it

with

LESSON XXVIII.
Analysis.

The Moon Form of

a Year How

Lunar Days

Any

in

Orbit

niiicli

Seas, Lakes, Kivers

of

Perigee Apogee Mean Distance Inclination of Orbit to Plane of Ecliptic

Moon Seen Illustrated Evidence of any Life on the Moon Besult there were
its

if

The Moox.
Q.

How many

A. The

Satellites

A. There
Q. Then

has the Earth ?

has one

Earth

Any Winds or Tornadoes.

Satellite,

called the

A.

It

is

no difference

how many

in time.

lunar days

make a year?

takes thirteen days.

Moon.

How

far is

A.

It is

two hundred and forty thousand miles.

Q.

How

Q.

it

from the Earth

long does

A.

It

take this Satellite to

it

volve around the Earth

re-

takes 27 days, 7 hours and 43 minutes

and 11^ seconds from one fixed

star to the

same

fixed star again.

Q.

What

A.

It is Elliptical.

is

the form of

its

orbit

in giving the instruction of the Moon should

quently refer to the Diagram in the front part of the Atlas.

The Teacher

fre-

Klg.

Q.

Perigee and Apogee.

How much

of the

A. Only one side

Q.

What

A.

It is called

Q.

What

called

is

is

the point nearest the Earth called

the Perigee.

A.

It is called the

What is

A. It

is

its

Apogee.

mean

distance from the Earth

two hundred and thirty-eight thousand

How much

Moon do we

ever seen

see

that being turned

toward us when seen.

How may this be illustrated ?

A. Let a person walk around an object, keeping his face toward it all the time, and he will
beautifully illustrate the manner the Moon always
turns her face toward and goes around the Earth.
Remark.
class to the

eight hundi-ed miles.

Q.

is

Q.

the point farthest from the Earth

Q.

2.3.

Comparative Dimensions of the Earth and Moon.

nearer to us in Perigee than in

Apogee ?

Here the teacher should turn

diagram in the

first

the attention of the

part of the Atlas.

Have we any evidence

that there is animal

on the Moon ?
A. None wliatever no moving object has ever
been seen on the disc of the Moon.

Q.

or vegetable

life

A. It
Q.

is

twenty-six thousand miles.

What

is

the inclination of the Moon's orbit

to the plane of the Ecliptic

>

A.

It is live

degrees and eight minutes.

Q.

What

the diameter of the

A.

It is

is

Moon

two thousand and one hundred and

sixty miles.
Q.

What

Q. Is there any evidence that there are seas,

lakes, or rivers on the Moon ?

A. If there were, the solar heat would develop

a gaseous envelope, and thick clouds of vapor,
which have never been discovered.
Q. Are there winds or tornadoes manifest over
the surface of the

is

the difference between a lunar

and a month upon the earth

day

Moon

A. There being no water, of necessity there is

an absence of winds, currents, or even air itself.

PLATE X
d

>

if

III
ill

I-

ii-

mwrmwn
New

''Moon

Last

/Quarter

Full

WEED. PARSONS

CO. ALBANY,

N.

Moon

A.TOLLE. PHOTO-LITH.

ORBIT OF THE
.

MOON

EXPLANATION OF THE PHASES.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

43

LESSON XXIX.
Explanation of them First Appearance where At what
Her Changes Explained Time of Full Moon Position now

Phases of the Moon

Degrees in twenty-four hours

Anai,T8IS.

time
Way of "Revolution
Why in
in Respect to Sun

Opposition.

Phases op the Moon.

Q. What is understood by the Phases

Moon

of the

A. They are different illuminated aspects she

Q. In her revolution, vehat

her

is

first

appear-

form of a beautiful

tlie

toward the

time does she appear in this form

Earth

she departs further and further from

more

more and

into view.

How many

ing her

first

degrees does she pass in reach-

quarter

What is

Q.

her appearance at this point

from the new

Moon, she presents just

one-half of her enlightened hemisphere toward
to the full

the Earth.

From west to east.

How many degrees eastward does

Q.

A. Having finished just half of her course

may be seen in the west just after sunset.

Which way does she revolve around the

A. She

A.

to evening, as she con-

A. She passes just ninety degrees.

east.

Q. In what part of the heavens and at what

twenty -four hours

What

Q.

she pass

changes mark her appearance as she

continues her course

A. She constantly increases her luminous ap-

A. She passes thirteen degrees, ten minutes,

and

As

A.

Q.

crescent, with horns turned

in

appearance from evening

the Sun, her enlightened surface comes

A. She appears in

Q.

changes take place in her luminous

tinues her revolution

presents in her revolution around the Earth.

ance

What

Q.

pearance, presenting a gibbous face to the Earth.

thirty -five seconds.

Fig.

Rotation of a Sphere, supposed to be at rest.

We

must

recollect that

it is

the phases of the

Moon which have demonstrated

tion

round the Earth.

the fact that the

its axis, it is

right to anticipate an

This movement, added to

sometimes conceived of the rotatory movement

Moon

constantly presents the

to the length of its sidereal revolution, that is to

about twenty-seven days and a third.

In speaking of the

Moon on

objection often made, proceeding from a false idea

same hemisphere to the Earth, proves that it turns

also on itself, in a period of time exactly equal
say, in

the

to us its revolu-

movement

of rotation of

of a movable body.

"Since the Moon,"

it

is

"always presents the same face to us, it

cannot turn on itself. If it turned on an axis or
pivot, it ought to present us all its sides successively."
Such is the objection simply put.
To solve this difficulty, let us examine into the
said,

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

44

What

phenomena.

How
ple,

is it

known

of

a movement of rotation

that a body, a sphere for

and how

does rotate ?

is it

exam-

known when an

been completed ?

entire rotation has

when

is

Evidently,

the sphere has presented successively one

toward every point of the space

sides

its

which suxTounds

it.

If

we

accompanying diagram will show how the sphere would be seen

at the commencement of each of those periods,
an observer at

Now,
cutes a

A.

in tl>e Interval of a Lnnatlon.

It crosses it twice.

Q. Does
tion

continue to indicate the same posi-

it

at the

beginning

takes to effect this rotation roiind

it

Moon

end of

its

rotation as

it

did at the

rest.

the sphere, during the exact time that

if

the

divide the entire ro-

tation into four periods, the

to

Fig. 25.

Movement of Rotation of

Actual

movement

of revolution

its axis,

exe-

round the obser-

A. Comparing the indication of the two Full

Moons with

respect to the location of the Earth,

there is a continued variation during the entire

rotation.

whether the observer be at

ver,

none the
be

rest or not,

less evident that the entire rotation

effected,

if

it is

would

the side, of which the point

forms the apparent center,

is

all times.

Q.

Moon, during a complete revolution

as may be seen from the comparison

of figures 24

and

A. This must necessarily take place in order

that the same side of the Moon be presented to us

this is the

case with the

in its orbit,

Why is there a variation

successively pre-

Now,

sented to all parts of space.

Q.

25.

What

occurs

when

she has accomplished

one-half of her circuit around the Earth

A. She appears then as a Full Moon.

Q. What is now her position, with respect to the

Sun?
Q.
the

What

Moon

changes

occur in one lunation of

passes from one Full

A.

It

Q.

How many

A. She
Q.

times does

Moon
it

to another.

cross the orbit of

the Earth in the course of one lunation

is

in opposition.

And why

in opposition

A. Because she

is

then on the opposite side of

the Earth, with respect to the Sun, and

in the east just as the

Sun

is

is rising

setting in the west.

PLATE

XI.

WUD.PARXONt kCO..ALaAIIT.II.Y.

TH

FULL

MOON

(telescopic view.)

A.TOLLt,PMOTO-LITM.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

LESSON XXX.
Analysis.

Appearance

When

Called

in the First Half of

New Moon When

Near the Earth

Full

Revolutions in a

Appearance in the Last Half What Remarkable in her History

Relation to the Earth Satellite Time of Revolutions What Called How

her Orbit

Moon

Year

45

Synodic and Stderial Revolution.

The wave-like motion

The Siderial revolution of the

Moon around

Earth

the

of the Moon,

accom-

is

it

crosses the path of

Earth twice each

plished in about twenty-

the

seven and a third days,

month

owing

but,

lution of

own

its

the Sun,

Earth

it

o\yn peculiar

in

complete

revolution
into the

its

the

and come

same

toward
that

same position

Sun and

As
the

side of

Moon is kept constantly

Synodic

it

us,

it is

evident

must turn on

its

axis once each month.

as before, with respect

to the

its

motions

ment of the Earth.

takes more

than two days longer

to

of

and the onward move-

around

orbit

produced by

is

a combination

to the revo-

tlie

by which

Earth.
Fig. 26.

The curve described

Q. In passing over this half of her orbit

has her course appeared to us

in a year,

how

upper hemisphere.

What

successive evening.
Q.

how

does her course appear to us

A. She seems to descend below the eastern

horizon and pass through the lower hemisphere.

what form does she next present herself ?

A. We next behold her in the morning a little
Q. In

west of the rising Sun, in the form of a crescent with

its

horns inverted, turned

Q.

the Earth.

What now

now toward

the west.

transpires which

is

remarkable

A. She rises and sets in conjunction with the

or three days

we

lose sight of her

altogether.

Q.
first

During her progress through the east half

of her orbit

Moon round

Sun and for two

change takes place now in her aspect ?

A. She continues to wane rising later on each
Q.

tlie

in her history

A. Slie has apparently passed over our heads

in the

by

By what

different terms is she called in the

half of her revolution around the Earth

When

A.

in conjunction,

she

is

called

Moon ; having completed her first quarter,

Moon ; when she is in opposition she is

New
Halfcalled

Full Moon.
Q.

What

Earth
A.

relation does the

Moon hold

It is the satellite

of the Earth.

to the

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

46

Q.

How long

the Earth

does

it

take her to revolve around

New Moon

Q.

What

A.

It is called

Q.

What

is

is

this revolution called

Hi

Q.

Blie 1b at A, a spot la
upon tlie disc of the Sun

Q. Of

A. The

nearly, to C, which will require nearly two days for the

spot at B to Ei't directly toward the Earth, as sliown at
D. This last is a synodic
revolution.
It consists of

Q.

"c#

revolving around

the

orbit.
is

nearest

is

is

nearest.

she to the Earth

only two hundred and forty thousand

miles distant.

Fig, 27.

the Sun upon hlu axis, and,

BIDXBBAL
27 over.

Moon

How near is

A. She

one complete revolution of

It is called

is

advancing in her

heavenly bodies, which

all the

to the Earth

days 8
hours, the Kurtli has passed
on in tier orbit some 25", or

A.

Moon

is

itKi^zs'c

25

about

is

one day and twenty hours.

causes the difference of time

Earth, she too

IJ.
The Sun revolves In
the direction of the arrows,
and In 25 days lU hours the
spot comes round to B again,
or opposite tlie star E. This
Is a sidereal revolution.

at

tlipse

What

A. While the

When

and

the difference between the length of

is

A. The difference

her revolution from any fixed star

star again called

What

a Synodic and a Siderial revolution

her Synodic revolution.

same fixed

requires 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes

It

seconds.

Q.

Let 8 represent the Sun,

and A the Earth In her orbit.

DuriuK

A.

to another is

29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds.

seen

What time is required to perform this revolu--

tion?

A. The time from one

to the

Q.

AND BTNOmO BXTOLtTTIOHS 07 THX VSi

Q.

her Periodic or Siderial revolu-

How many

revolutions does the

Moon

per-

form round the Earth in a year ?

A. Nearly

tion.

thirteen.

LESSON XXXI.

Appearance Tlirough Telescope

Appearance Variable
Cause of this
Analysis.
Physical Aspect of the Moon
Eclipses
Description
King Mountains
Mountains
Compared to those of the Earth
Peculiar Formations
Eclipse
Philosophical Cause Given.

Moon uniformly bright in appearance

A. There are alternations of light and shade

What

is

the cause of this varied appearance

A. These represent lofty and rugged mountains

and deep
Q.

is this

demonstrated

the appearance of the mountainous

Moon when compared

regions of the

with those

A. They equal,

they do not surpass,

if

ged and precipitous ranges of our Globe

Q.

A. The Moon, when viewed through a magnified

telescope, in quadrature, presents
light,

Rough
Cause of

tlie

rug-

travers-

ing the lunar surface in all directions.

valleys.

How

What is

Q.

of the Earth

extending over the entire surface.

Q.

Lunar Mountains.

Physical Aspects of the Moon.

Q. Is the

on the

line of

a shade of a rough and jagged appearance.

What peculiar

Moon

possess

mountain formation does the

A. Tliey are called Ring mountains.

Q.

How are these

formed 1

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

A.
plain,

deep cavern or crater

47

often seen on a

is

surmounted by a chain of mountains like a

from the center of this in-

ring, and, frequently,

peak shoots

closed plain an isolated

Tip to

great height in the sky.

Ring Mountains.

How

Q.

do the mountains

differ in

appearance

from other lunar mountains ?

A. They are lofty mountains, circular in form,
inclosing a vast area resembling the crater of a

volcano.

What is

Q.

the extent of their diameters?

A. They are from ten

What

Q.

Fig 28

other peculiarity in their formation

A. They sometimes contain in their center one

more

or

lofty peaks.

What is

Q.

of these

hundred

to a distance of several

How

A.

It is

is

Copernicus distinguished

one of the grandest of the Ring moun-

What is

the length of

A.

It is tifty-six

Q.

What

A.

It

is

its

diameter

its

mit

is

What

thousand

brilliant,

and sometimes

Ring mountains

is visible

naked eye ?

to the

A. Tycho appears in the south-east quadrant

Moon

is

fifty-four

feet,

The
Q.

What

A.

It is

miles across, and

is

is

Eclipses.

an Eclipse

an obstruction or obscurity of the light

of the Sun or Moon by the interposition

dark body between them and our sight.
Q.

What

A.

When

Eclipse

has a central mountain, two of whose

It rises eleven

other of the

causes an Eclipse of the

the

Moon,

the Earth, passes into

formation

peaks are quite conspicuous.

Q. How high does it rise and what
A.

miles in diameter.

there peculiar in

exceedingly

tains.

Q.

appear in light of the Full

sixteen thousand feet high.

A. They are considered by some to be streams

of lava which have once flowed out in all directions from these volcanic mountains.

For what

it

streaJcs.

are they accounted for

Q.

does

It is

of the

are these called

A. They are called radiating

Q.

and shade

miles.

What

Q.

How

i-esembles a string of pearls.

Q.

A. There are seen streaks of light

and spreading

Q.

Moon?
A.

observed flowing out from all sides

Ring mountains

radiating

Copemicas, from a drawing by Sir John Hcrscliel.

to sixty miles in diameter.

Q.

of some

Moon ?

in its revolution
its

shadow, she

around

suff"ers

an

What

is

the

philosophical cause of an

Eclipse?
is its

form

and the sum-

a narrow ridge, nearly circular in form.

A.

A body always casts its shadow in the oppo-

site direction

Sun

is

from which the light strikes

the great source of light

and

is

it

the

nearly one

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

48

hundred thousand times as large as

its immense size, the

million four

the Earth, hence, owing to

rays of light from the Sun

and

Earth,
forty

womd pass beyond the

at a distance of eight

hundred and
and

thousand miles would come together

and as it assumes the form of a cone, it would terminate at a point where the rays of the Sun come
together beyond the Earth at a distance of eight
hundred and forty thousand miJes from it. The

diameter of the Earth being eight thousand miles,

Moon

around the Earth,

the diameter of the Earth being about eight hun-

hence, the

dred thousand miles, the shadow near

when she comes into its shadow would become

completely immerged in it and will have to move

its

surface

would also be about the same but the Moon is

only two hundred and forty thousand miles from
;

the Earth

shadow

at that distance

from the Earth, the

in passing

two or three times her whole diameter before she

will emerge from the shadow into the light.

only about six tliousand miles broad,

is

LESSON XXXII.
When occur Explained Wlien they cannot occur Result, the Orbits of the Earth and Moon were on
Cause of an Eclipse of Sun When only occur Tides How produced Time of Spring Tides Why
Effect of Suu That of Sun less than Moon Why

Eclipse
Analysis.
the same Plane

if

A.

Eclipses.
Q.

At what times only do we have an Eclipse

Moon

of the

can occur only at the time of a Full Moon.

A.

It

Q.

Why is this

so

A. Because the

shadow
Q.
the

Moon

we

at Full

Moon

can never get into the

any other

time.

not always have an Eclipse of

Moon

Above the Earth's hadow.

Shftdow above the Earth.

,'C

""'UJ

/-

Y
Shadow below

Below the Earth's shadow.

the Eitrth

Fig. 29.

NEW AND FnU. MOONS WITHOUT

ECLiIPSBS.

Moon do
Moon may

A. The orbits of the Earth and the

not

lie

on the same plane, hence the

sometimes pass above or below the shadow of the

Earth, then she will not suffer an Eclipse.
Q.

What would

the Earth

Moon

at

Q.

New Moon.
What

causes an Eclipse of the Sun

A. The Moon, in passing around the Earth,

of the Earth at

Why do

the

every Full Moon, and an Eclipse of the Sun at

every

We should have an Eclipse of

be the result

if

the orbits of

and the Moon lay on the same plane

when she gets between the Earth and Sun, her

shadow being in the opposite direction from the
Suu at that time, it can fall upon the Earth.

PLATE

WEED PARSONS &

CO. ALBANY,

N. Y.

XII.

A.TOLLE, photo-uth

GENERAL THEORY OF ECLIPSES.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

Wliy do we have an

Q.

New Moon

at

Eclipse of the

Sun only

A. At any other point in the orbit the shadow

Moon would

of the

fall

away from

would be impossible
have an Eclipse of the Sun.

hence,
to

a total Eclipse of the Sun. Here the dark shadow

of the

it

at

entire

Moon
body

Again,

the Earth,

any other time

if

falls

on the Earth and obscures the

of the Earth.

the

Cone of

visible in those parts

Cone
are only found

Eclipses of the Sun.

Some

Solar Eclipses are of three kinds

are

the

Moon's shadow does

not reach the earth, there will be annular eclipses

tion of the

total

49

comprised in the prolonga-

a partial eclipse to those which

in the

penumbra.

represented by the next figure.

the dark disc

entirely

Sun.

Others

partial

hat

conditions of the pos-

of

of a

eclipse

of

disc is eclipsed. Last-

in

annular,

is,

ly, there are

which

when

take

Fit'. 31.

place

the disc of the

Moon

is

not large enough to

nous

round

As
much

its

the

Moon
it

small

less

space.

be

The
tions,

it is

relative

disc to

This distance

by reason of the elliptical form of

Going
and hence the dimensions

its orbit,

Q.

How many

have each year

Q.

of the lunar disc are some-

A.

smaller than, and sometimes equal to those of the

you

to

will witness

do we generally

What is the greatest

number

sometimes

you turn

solar eclipses

A. Two.

off.

If

last,

Fig. 32.

varies

Sun.

condi-

except the

ANNULAR ECLIPSE OF TUB SUN; THEORY.

er dimensions than that of the Sun.

Fig. 31,

same

into

are necessary for an

appear of

larger,

shadow

by her

annular eclipse.

equal and even great-

times

the

must bo

of the cone of

distance which causes

its

at

than the length

projected

is

new

Lastly, her distance from the Earth

leaves a lumi-

than

will

understood that
its

same time be near a node

visible
own body.

smaller

Sun,

the

and

conjunction, that

she must be

She must

TOTAL ECUPSK OP THE PDN.

entirely cover that of the Sun,

ring

The Moon must be

Solar

the

total
the Sun

sibility

are the following

portion only, large or

small,

that

therefore,

are

is,

is

seen,
the

will be

It

Moon then
covers the

of the

This case

(Pig. 32.)

Fig. 83.

PROGRESS 07 A CENTRAL ECLIPSE.

possible

It is seven.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

60

The
It

well

is

and

Tides.

that twice a

known
day

hours gains its maxi-

at

mum.

an interval of 12
hours and 25 min-

Scarcely

Gxjlood tide attained

then the flow or rise
of the water ceases

the ocean present us

with the spectacle of
the flow of the tide.

The

tide

beach, which

descent com-

the

by degrees

gaining on the

rises,

the in-

is

stant of hi(/h water

shores of

utes the

still greater
and after six

height,

it

mences, and

tlie

succeeds

to

ebb

the

flow.

covers to a greater
Fig. 84.

What phenomenon results

the influence of the Moon
Q.

and the Sun causes

mainly from the

it

making

foot,

A. The Tides.
Q.

feet.

What

causes the Tides 1

A. The Earth

Moon, and the Moon

The solid particles of

matter composing the surface of the Earth not

on the side of
Earth

the

Moon and on

move, the attraction

is

toward

of the Earth, while

not perceptible by us, but the particles of

at the

matter composing the surface of the ocean being

free to

tide

the exact opposite

being free to move, the attraction of those particles is

six

it

then high

It is

the

attracts the

in turn attracts the Earth.

another

rise

to

two sides

the Earth

of

low

it is

perceivable, which
tide.

causes the water to rise and form a wave.

(See

Why does not

Q.
fig.

34.)

the

At what time do we have spring

A. At New Moon.
Q.

Q.

tides

Moon

is

traction

then between the Earth and

Sun, and in range with them.

Q.

How

does that

eff'ect

A.

upon

a
at-

the

being so

Earth,

it

much

larger

than

the Mooni!

the Tides to

make

A. The

them higher ?
A. The Sun and Moon, being on the same side
of the Earth, and in range with it, the attraction
(See fig. 35.
of both acts together on the Earth.
Q.

exert

more powerful

Why?

A. The

Sun

What proportion do they attract

The Moon causes the water to rise

about
miles

Moon

is

91,260,000

nearer

the

Earth than the Sun

is at

five feet,
Fig. 36.

New Moon.

PLATE

WEED. PARSONS

XIII

A.TOllE,rHOTD-l>TH.

Cf.ALBANY.

MARS AND THE EARTH

COMPARATIVE DIMENSIONS

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

61

LESSON XXXIII.
Location Appearance To the Naked Eye Distance from Sun Time around Indication Time
Indication Diameter Inclination Exterior Whj- Resemblance Earth Changes of Climate
Divisions of Land and Water Geography Similar Mars Probably Uninhabited- Circumference of Orbit Distance from
Earth Opposition Where looked for Position of the Earth Appearance of Mars.

Analysis. Planet Mars

it

of Revolution on Axis

The Planet Mars.

Q.

Where

Planets

A.

is

Mars located

in the order of the

the fourth planet in the order of dis-

is

tance from the Sun, between the Earth and the

Asteroids.

Q.

its

appearance
it is

How far is

from the Sun

this planet

A. The average distance

its

snow-caps disappear.

145,205,000 miles

is

How

it

take Mars to revolve

around the Sun?

It

Q.

What

A.

It is

thing

known

nearly as well

known and

so unequal,

it

as well de-

See Fig. 86.

life

is

inhabited

on these planets are

seems hardly possible or even pro-

Mars

to be inhabited.

heat or light enjoyed on the Earth, hence, the

take to turn on

its

axis ?

apparent impossibility of

human

existence.

A. Twenty-four hours and forty minutes.

Q.

What

does this show

A. The length of his day.

Q.

What is

A.

It is

Q.

What

his diameter

4,200 miles.
is

the inclination of the plane of

his orbit to that of the Ecliptic

A. One degree and fifty-three minutes.

Q. Is

Mars an

A.

He

Q.

Why?

is

interior or exterior planet

an exterior planet.

A. Because he

lies

wholly

beyond

the

orbit of the Earth.

Q. To what globe has Mars a near resem

blance ?
Fig.

A. The Earth.
Q. In what respects

A. In climates.

seems to confirm this position ?

Q.
A. Mars receives but one half the amount of

A. The length of his year.

it

of its geography

What

does this indicate

long does

Q. Is there evidence that Mars

bable, for

takes 687 days.

How

Any

A. The conditions of

long does

A.

Q.

fined as that of the Earth.

from the Sun.

Q.

A. At certain seasons Winter scenes are preand at others, rain is apparent and the

sented,

A. In divisions of seas and land.

distinguished for

brilliant red light.

Q.

in

Q. Are there other analogies

What is

A. To the naked eye

Q.

Are there similar changes of cold and heat

Mars as in the Earth ?

Q.

He

to

3fi.

CHART OP UABS, PKOM DRAWINGS BY MR. DA WEB.

is this

manifest

Q.

What is the

A.

It is

circumference of

901,064,000 miles.

its

orbit

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

52

What

Q.

Earth
A.

mean

the

is

distance of

Mars from the

Earth

He

is

A. In opposition

Which way do we

A. Between the Sun and Mars.

50,000,000 miles.

Q. Is he tlien in conjunction or opposition

Q.

Then where would be the position of the

Q.

look to see him

At this time

A.

It

wliat

is

the appearance of

Mars ?

appears with a surface twenty-five times

laiger than

A. In the direction opposite to the Sun

Q.

when

in his conjunction

LESSON XXXIV.

Inclination
Rate of Motion
Light, compared
Distance one side of Orbit
Cause of brilliancy
Wlien take place
Analysis.
Ratio from Sun of
Difference of Weight
Density, compared with the Earth
Difference of Diameters
with that of Earth
Snow Zones.
White Spots
Rapid Changes
the Orbits of Planets described

Q.

A.

When does this

When he is in

beyond the Sun

take place

that part of his orbit

from the Earth and in range

with them.
Q.

how
A.

When

he

far is lie

He

is

is

in his superior conjunction

from the Earth

240,000,000 miles.

Does this account for the changes

the size and brilliancy of the planet ?
Q.

of

A.

It does.

Q.

How

Mars
A.
Q.

DIAMETEK or MARS AT EXTREME LEAST AND HEAX DISTANCES.

far is the

Sun one

side of the orbit

Q.

He is 13,463,000 miles.
What is the inclination

plane of his orbit

A.

It is thirty

Q.

What

tion

in

is

It is

Q.

What

compared

of his axis to the

What

is

A.

It

would weigh 5 ounces and

Q. Wliat

an hour.

on the Earth

is

6 drachms.

the ratio of the distance from the

Sun, of the orbits in which the planets already

falls

upon Mars

move ?
A. Venus' mean

described

as

A. About one-half as much.

Q.

It is

proportion of light

to that

Mars compared with

much less.
Q. How much would a body weigh on the
planet Mars that weighs one pound on the Earth
A.

Mars' rate of motion in his revolu-

54,640 miles

A.

the density of

is

the Earth?

degrees and eighteen minutes.

around the Sun

What

the difference between the polar

and the equatorial diameter of Mars ?

A. It is two hundred and sixty-three

Mercury

is

about twice as far

that of the Earth twice as far as

Venus, and the mean distance of Mars twice as

far as the P^arth.

miles.

distance

>

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

There

and rapid

constant

are

53

changes going on, as in Fig.

38.

Yon

perceive the change manifest in an

two hours. These changes

interval of

in the brightness

owing,

of

the disc are

supposed, to the varia-

it is

tions of the clouds of

vapor in

its

atmosphere.

No

mountains liave yet been

dis-

In the region of the poles

covered.

are brilliant white spots,

which are

supposed, by some, to be masses of

Snow.

Fl|. 38

VIKW9 OF MAR3 AT TWO HOURS' INTKRTAL.

These Snow Zones recede in

summer and increase on the approach

Hence, we can observe in fact most,

of winter.
if

not

all,

the changes of the seasons which take place on

Q.

What

(WARREN DE LA RUB.)

small planets

lie

between Mars and

Jupiter %

A. They are the Minor Planets.

the surface of our neighboring planet.

LESSON XXXV.
Analysis.

The Minor Planets What are they Number Space occupied Kepler's impression Not witnessed in his Day
Two Hundred Years after Discovery Made Four Found Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta.
?

The Minor Planets.

Q.

Where

are the

Q.

Minor Planets ?

Q.

Mars and

How many

A. There are

Jupiter.

do they number ?

now known

to be

one hundred

and thirty-four Minor Planets.

Q.

How

large a space do they

What

impression was

made on

there

Q.

it ?

Who was the first to

A.

It

was an

Italian

of Piazzi, in 1801,

What

effect

mind

of

It

new planet ?
astronomer by the name
detect the

and called

it

Ceres.

did this discovery produce on

the Scientists of that

1800,

search for the hidden planet.

Q.

A.
the

Kepler in view of this unoccupied space

A.

commenced a

Q.

occupy

A. Not less than 35,000,000 miles.

Q.

commenced

A. Twenty-four Scientific Explorers, in

A. There are a large number of Minor Planets

lying between

Who

day

gave a new

impulse to astronomical

investigations.

Q.

What was

the result

He was

of opinion that within that space

A. Not simply one but four were discovered.

must

lie

an undiscovered planet.

Q.

How

long after his day before a thorough

research was

made

A. Some two hundred years.

What were

they named

A. They were called Ceres, Pallas, Juno and

Vesta.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

64

LESSONXXXVI.

Analysis. Ceres
Time and by whom discovered
Estimate by Sir W. Herschell
Diameter
Distance from San
Time
around it
Appearance in Size and Color
Inclination
Pallas
Time and by whom Discovered By whom Measured
Distance from Sun
Time around it
Inclination
Appearance as to Size and 'Jol or
Juno
Time and by whom Discovered
By whom Estimated Appearance as to Size and Color Distance from Sun
Time around it
Inclination of Orbit
Vesta
Time when and by whom discovered
Comparison with the other Minor Planets
Diameter
Distance from Sun
Time of
Revolution
Inclination of Orbit
Description of all nearly the same.

Ceres.
Q. In

covered

what year and by

whom was

Ceres

dis-

Who

has given the most accurate estimate

Wm.

A. Sir

What

A.

Q.

What

A.

It is 262,764,110 miles.

Q.

How long

her mean distance from the Sun

It

Q.

What

does

is

it

is

is its

is

its

appearance as

to

size

and

shines like a star of the seventh magni-

It

is

of a yellowish light.

A.

It

Q.

and

in

what year

was discovered by Professor Harding, of

Lilienthal,

on the

What is

its

1st of September, 1804.

appearance as to

size

and color?

and thirty-seven minutes.

general appearance as to color

A. This planet shines as a star of the eighth

magnitude and

is

of a reddish color.

What is its mean

distance from the

Sun ?

planet shines with a

reddish

pale,

like a star of the eighth magnitude.

A. It is 253,524,410 miles.
Q.

Pallas.

At what time and by

What

is

the time of

its

revolution around

Sun ?

A.

Q.

What

Who discovered Juno,

the

A.

degrees thirty-seven min-

Q.

Q.

and

covered

It is thirty-four

its

A. This

Q.

the inclination of the plane of

is

Juno.

take to revolve around the

the inclination of her orbit to the

ten degrees

What

lustre,

one thousand six hundred and eighty

What

tude and

takes about 1680 days.

plane of the Ecliptic

size

Sun?
A.

A.

color

diameter ?

is its

is

Q.

Q.

Herschell.

It is 163, miles.

and

revolution

utes and twenty seconds.

A.

Q.

It is

its

orbit with the plane of the Ecliptic

of this planet ?

A. It

A.

the time of

is

Italian astronomer of Palermo.

Q.

What

four days.

A. In the year 1801, by Professor Piazzi, an

Q.

Q.

It is

one thousand

five

hundred and

thirty-

two days.

whom was

this dis-

Q.

What

is

the inclination of the plane of

orbit to the plane of the Ecliptic

its

On

the 28th of March, 1802,

Of whom has been received

able measurement of this planet

by Dr.

Olbris.

the most

reli-

A. Thirteen degrees three minutes and seventeen seconds.

Vesta.

has been given by Dr. Lamont of Munich.

A.

It

Q.

What

A.

It is 263,186,670 miles.

is its

mean

distance from the

Sun

Q.

At what time and by whom was Vesta

covered

dis-

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

A. She was discovered

by

Dr. Olbris, on the

29th of March, 1807.

How

A.

planets

Jupiter

A. She

is

a small planet of the sixth or seventh

magnitude, yet, when she appears in opposition

appears the brightest of

to the Sun, she

all the

Minor Planets.
Q.

What

A. She
Q.

is

How

A. She
Q.

is

is

is

with

the period of her revolution

own

is

the inclination of the plane of her

seven

degrees

the

eight

minutes and

The Minor

instruments in the

research,

At

events

all events,

and more
M. Leveras-

such a

ring,

limit, that if

Planets are so nearly similar, that

it

is

globe, those already discovered

TgWth part

of

it.

This would

form only

make

the

num-

ber of the Minor Planets about 150,000.

in reducing
of

unnecessary to speak further of them separately.

we suppose

to possess a density equal to that of our

admitting that this number

twenty-five seconds.
Note.

all

not

those most easily visible from the Earth.

pose the

What
It

all

if

from mathematical considerations, has

twenty-five days.

A.

now acquainted,

signed to the total mass of the bodies which com-

one thousand three hundred and

orbit to that of the Ecliptic

are

The discovery of others will, therefore, become

more and more difiicult, and the extension of
their number is partly subordinate to the use of

rier,

224,327,205 mUes.

is

we

detailed celestial maps.

from the Sun ?

question to solve, but

difficult

with the largest of the Minor Planets, at

them

Q.

is

probable that

is

larger

only 295 miles in diameter.

far is she

What is

A. It

her diameter ?

A. This
it

between Mars and

of fresh bodies in this zone

compare with the minor

does she

55

it

may be excessive, and

to the tenth of its value, this

bodies

celestial

will

But,

be

still

swarm

counted by

thousands.

The four

JUPITER.

planets of
which we have
just given

details,

among

From

some

ting in their

are

the

the largest planet

To

most important
of

the group.

The smallness

we have just
members of our system circulaorbits, we pass without transition to

that region of space where

seen the smallest

the

Fig. 39.

COMPARATIVE DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH AND JUNO,

OKBXS PALLAS AND VESTA.

of nearly all the others

is

such that

it is

not possi-

the

first

naked

a shadow.

in a telescope merely as

but rarely.

It is

probable that the least of these microscopic bodies

have diameters which do not reach

many

score

ful

Moon is

the

absent, sufficient to throw

Its light is constant,

But

telescope

is

if,

to

examine

and

is

worlds.

central planet

Q.

How long

shall

we go on making discoveries

and

little

points of light

oscillate in short periods of time

:

scintillates

a rather power-

generally seen to be

accompanied by three or four

which

it,

used, the point expands into a

well-defined disc,

and that a good walker could easily in a

day make a tour of many of these miniature
miles,

vari-

distance from the Earth, is some-

its

when

ble to measure their diameters, as they appear

luminous points.

eye, Jupiter appears as a star of

magnitude, the brightness of which,

able with
times,

the colossal Jupiter.

These are the

round the

Satellites of Jupiter.

Venus, Mercury and Mars, as we have seen,

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

56

are without satellites

The reason of

the Earth has only one.

this difference

between the appa-

its

four moons, which the powerful

rent diameters of the disc is easily explained.

attraction of its

bulk compels to revolve round

The

Jupiter with

orbit of Jupiter, like that of Mars, encircles

and the motions of the two

him, exhibits to us, therefore, a small system

the terrestrial one,

analogous to the solar one of which

bodies in their respective orbits bring them, once

it

forms part

and which it reproduces on a smaller scale.

To arrive in our journey from the Sun as far as
the Jovian system, we must pass over a distance
which exceeds five times the mean distance of the

Sun from the Earth, or, in the mean, 500,000,000

miles. But the orbit described by Jupiter round
the Sun differs from the circular form more than
does the Earth's. Its distance, therefore, is more
variable, and while at Perihelion it reaches 472,-

in every thirteen months,

same

in the

straight

with the Sun, and on the same side of

line

Jupiter

is

then in opposition, and

it

distance

its

measured by the difference of

the distances of the two bodies from the Sun.
In a similar period the two planets are still in a
from the Earth

is

straight line with regard to the Sun, but

site sides

of

This

it.

is

on oppo-

the conjunction of Jupi-

and the distance of the two planets

ter,

is

found

not less

by adding their respective distances from the Sun.

than 520,000,000 miles from the Sun, hence the

These distances themselves are sometimes smaller

difference being 48,000,000 miles.

and sometimes gieater than at others, and therefore the same thing happens with regard to those
which separate the Earth from Jupiter at the

000,000 miles, at

its

greatest distance

it is

Jupiter, therefore, as seen from the Sun, pre-

sents an apparent diameter sometimes greater,

mean one and, of course,

same phenomenon is seen by observers situa-

sometimes
the

less

than

its

ted on the Eaitli, but in a

tion.

much

greater propor-

Fig. 40 will give an idea of the variations

time of opposition and conjunction.

At

its

greatest distance from the Earth, Jupiter

617,000,000 miles from us

is

may be

at opposition

within 375,000,000 miles

it

but in the mean,

the distance of Jupiter at conjunction with the

Sun

is

591,000,000 miles, and at opposition 400,-

000,000 miles, the difference being the diameter of

the Earth's orbit.

Prom

the preceding

numbers we may perceive

the immense development of

member

orbit described

of our planetary system.

by

this

to

traverse this path,

This gives a

tlie

mean

it

Thus,

requires twelve years.

rate of

upwards of 700,000

miles a day, or nearly 30,000 miles an hour.

The movements with which we

Fig. 40.

jrPITEK'8

MEAN AKO EXTRJ9UE DISTANOBS FROM THE EAKTH,

of size which the disc of Jupiter, at the time of

its

mean and extreme

presents to us.

distances from the Earth,

are acquainted

on the Earth can give us no idea of such a mass

traveling eternally through the depths of space
with a velocity eighty times greater than that of a

cannon

ball.

"

'

PLATE

1
1
11

XV.

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Cf. ALBANY.

A.TOUC.PHOTO.

JUPITER.
^n'^At and dark ^elfs, transit gfa Jateliiteamiits 3ka4:&fw aavssthecUsk

LITH.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

57

LESSON XXXVII.
Planet Jupiter Situation Why Distinguished Distance from the Sun Time around Indication Diam Time of Revolution on Axis Indication Circumference of Orbit Rate of Motion Effect of Motion on the
Weight of Bodies on his Surface Weight of Bodies on his Surface compared with their Weight on the Earth Cause of
Difference Satellites Variable Appearance Observations of Mr. Dawes.

Analysis.
meter

it

its

JUPITER.
Q.

What

planet

in the regular

A.

lies

Q.

next to the Minor Planets

order from the

Sun ?

Q.

For what

He

is

is

Jupiter distinguished

does this rapid motion on his

effect

axis have upon the weight of bodies on his surface ?

A.

It

makes them

were

its

motion no greater than that of the Earth.

It is Jupiter.

A.

What

Q.

lighter than they

would be

What is the weight of bodies on the surface of

regarded the largest and most magniti-

Jupiter compared with their weight

upon our

Earth ?
cent planet of the Solar System.
Q.

How far

A.

He

Q.

How long

is

is

Jupiter from the Sun

495,817,000 miles.

does

it

revolution around the

A.

It

takes

him

take this planet to

Sun

4,382

make a

A.

Q.

What

body that weighs one pound upon the

Earth at the Equator, would weigh two pounds
four ounces and a half on the Equator of Jupiter.
causes the difference

days 14 hours and 2

A. The immense

What does

this indicate

What is

A.

It is

Q.

How

his axis

the

mean diameter ?

telescopes.

eighty-nine thousand miles.

long does

it

Four luminous points

four small stars
unceasingly accompany Jupiter in its twelve-yearly
revolution.
They are easily observed with small

A. The length of his year.

Q,

size of Jupiter.

Satellites.

minutes, or nearly 12 years.

Q.

take Jupiter to turn on

From hour

to

hour

their positions vary,

and

they seem to oscillate from one side to

takes 9 hours and 56 minutes.

the disc, in paths nearly jiarallel to the direction of

A.

It

Q.
Q.

What does this show 1

The length of his day.

Q.

What is

A.

It is 3,110,000,000 miles.

Q.

What

A.

It is

Q.

What is

A.

It is said

is

the circumference of this orbit

his rate of motion

is to

These are

moons

its

said of his motion on his axis

They

are be-

sides frequently seen to disappear, one, two,

ter

be greater than that of any

other planet in the Solar System.

or satellites.

It

and

sometimes, indeed, even

happens that not one of the four

other of

say, to the eqiiator of Jupiter.

even three at a time.

estimated at 30,000 miles an hour.

to

the belts, that

tlie

is visible.

Jupi-

then appears alone, deprived of its companions.

This state of things was observed by Mr. Dawes,

on the 27th of September, 1843.

pens very rarely.

But

it

only hap-

::

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

58

LESSON XXXVIII.
Satellites of Jupiter Number Names Diameters Distances and Revolutions Eclipses Number per Month
Sun effected by them Inclination of the Axis of Jupiter to Plane of his Orbit Plane of Orbit to Plane of Ecliptic
Eccentricity of Orbit Solar heat compared with Earth.

Analysis.

Eclipse of

Lastly, as mentioned, above,

it

may happen

that during the disappearance of the three

satellites,

and the

the fourth

is

between the Earth

Then the planet equally

planet.

appears solitary and deprived of

its

com-

panions.
Fig. 41.

Fig. 42

wiU render

clear the various posi-

JUPITER AND ZTB FOtTB SATKLLITB8.

Q.

How many

satellites

has Jupiter

tions

A.

What

Taking these

with

refer-

One

of

them

in this figure is

is

seen projected

distances, the times of their revolutions are as

shadow is thrown
hidden by the planet, and the fourth is

on the

disc,

a third

is

Callisto.

the order of their

in

satellites

may occupy

represented Eclipsed, the other

are they called

Europa, Ganymede and

lo,

satellite

ence to the Earth.

A. Four.
Q.

which the

on which also

its

entirely visible.

follows
First satellite

lo

1 day, 18 hours,

(Europa)
(Ganymede)

Second "
"
Third
Fourth "

(Callisto)

"

18

"

"

16

"

16

38 minutes.
"

"

43
43

"

33

"

"

In comparing these times with that of the

Moon, it is seen that the

movements of the satellites of Jupiter are
much more rapid than that of our Moon. This
rapidity is the more marked, as their distances
revolution of the

from the planet, and, therefore, the lengths of

their orbits are

of our satellite.
planet, the

more considerable than in the case

Measured from the center of the

mean

distances of these satellites are as

follows

Q.

What
and

ces

primary

are their respective diameters, distan-

periods

of

revolution

around

their

Fi;,-.

We

have seen what are the apparent dimen-

sions of the four satellites as seen from Jujjiter,

compared to the apparent size of our Moon. But

we must not confound the apparent with the real
diameters.

DlAHBTER.

A.

Miles.

DlSTAHCE.
Miles.

Hktoltjtiok.
Days. H'rs. Min. Sec.

So, the third

are the

42.

DIMENSIONS OP THE SATELLITES OP JUPITEE COUPABED WITH THOSE OP

THE KABTH AND MOON.

first

one only

See the above table of diameters.)

and fourth
and second

is less

than our

in the order of distance

in order of

Moon

magnitude

2,440

378,500

18

37

34

they would form a body 9^ times larger than

Europa

3,190

443,000

13

14

36

Ganymede

707,000

43

or about one-fifth of the

3,580

33

Callisto

3,060

1,343,500

16

16

31

50

lo

Lastly,

taken together,
it,

volume of the Earth.

the volume of the largest exceeds by

ELECTRO-ASTKONOMICAL ATLAS.

59'

How many can

two-thirds the volume of the planet Mercury.

Q.

we have a secondary body larger than

a primary one of the first order, and far surpassing in size those which circulate between Mars

A. All of them can never be eclipsed or cause

Here, then,

and Jupiter.

an eclipse

at the

cause an eclipse at a time

same time

What

is

the inclination of Jupiter's axis to

the plane of his orbit

Q.

How many

month ?
A. The
or nine

and a half
and a half

fifty-four

minutes, or three degrees and five

minutes from the perpendicular.

eighteen

the third, about four.

much

the second, eight

The fourth does

as either of the other three, as

frequently passes

its

opposition without being

involved in the shadow of Jupiter.

Q.

A. Eighty-six degrees and

Eclipses do they suffer every

first suffers

not suffer as
it

seldom ever but two

of them.
Q.

Eclipses of these Satellites.

When

either or all of

come between

it

fall

What

them are between

?

iipon the planet as they

and the Sun, causing an

eclipse

is

the inclination of the plane of his

orbit to the plane of the ecliptic

A. One degree and nineteen minutes.

Q.

What

Jupiter

Jupiter and the Sun, what takes place

A. Their shadows

Q.

is

the eccentricity of the orbit of

A.

It is 23,810,000 miles.

Q.

What is

the intensity of

its

solar heat

when

compared with the heat of the Earth ?

A.

It is

twenty-seven times

less.

of the Sun.

LESSON XXXIX.
Analysis.

Observations of Astronomers Appearance of Belts What known Situation How esteemed by Astronomers

formity considered

Otiier peculiarity of appearance Accounted for Difference of Jupiter's Diameters.

Q.

What

is

the appearance of these belts

A. They appear

lilie

dark

-Unl-

stripes across the

disc of this planet.

What

known of these belts ?

A. They are known to vary as to their number,
Q.

is

distance from each other

Q.

How

and

their positions.

do they appear to be situated

A. Parallel to one another and to the equator

of Jupiter.
Fig. 43.

TBLESCOPIO VIBW OF JUPITBK.

Q.

What

has been particularly observed by

astronomers relative to the planet Jupiter

A.

On

certain occasions as

many

have been seen, at others only one.

as eight belts

Q. How are these regarded by astronomers ?

A. They are esteemed by some to be openings
in the luminous atmospheric envelope of Jupiter,
by others that openings betray the dark surface
of the planet, and that glimpses thus caught of
the solid body constitute the narrow, dusky belts

or bands.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

60

Are they at

Q.

times the same in length and

all

the belts, sometimes they continue.

Cassini ob-

served one in the same position for forty years.

width?
A. They continue for months without variation,

and a new

belt is seen to

form in a few hours

sometimes they decrease in length and then

How

Q.

and spots accounted

are these belts

for?

in-

A. They are regarded as nothing more than

crease in width until tliey run into each other to

atmospheric phenomena resulting from the rapid

the extent of five thousand miles in breadth.

motion of the planet on

What

Q.

appearance

other peculiarity

is

manifest in their

rial

the;

its axis.

difference

between the Equato-

and the Polar diameters of Jupiter ?

is sixty -three hundred miles

A. The Equatorial

A. There are at times seen bright and dark

spots in these belts, which usually disappear with

What is

Q.

the longer.

LESSON XL.
Saturn Situation Distance from Sun Time round Indication Diameter Revolution on Axis Indication
Orbit Inclination of Orbit to the Ecliptic Eccentricity of
Orbit Difference of Diameters Solar
Light compared with that of Earth Kate of Motion Density Difference of Weight Why one of the most magnificent
Planets Kings and Moons.

Analysis.

it

Inclination of Axis to

its

its

Saturn.

Where

Q.

the planet Saturn situated

is

plane of

A. Next to Jupiter, in the order of distance

from the Sun, and between the

and Uranus.

What

Q.

orbits of Jupiter

from the

Sun?

the inclination of

its orbit

It is

Q.

What
Two

axis to the

perpendicular.

A.

A.

its

is

the inclination of

its

orbit to the

degrees and twenty-nine and a half

seconds.

A.

It is

nine hundred and seven million miles.

Q,

What

A.

It is

Q.

How long

is

the diameter of this planet?

seventy-nine thousand miles.

around the Sun

A.

It

does

it

take to

make

a revolution

What

A.

It indicates the length of its year.

Q.

How long

does this show

it

take Saturn to turn on

its

A. Ten hours and sixteen minutes.

indicate

A. The length of her day.

its

A.

It is forty-nine million miles.

Q.

What

rial

is

orbit

the difference between

its

Equato-

and Polar diameters ?

is

six

thousand and seven

its

Polar.

Q. What proportion of solar light does this

planet receive compared with that of the Earth ?
A. It is about one-nineteenth part of the

amount

axis?

What does this

the eccentricity of

hundred miles longer than

takes twenty-nine and a half years.

does

What is

Q.

A. The Equatorial

Q.

Q.

is

plane of the Ecliptic

the distance of Saturn

is

What

Q.

of light.

Q.

What

A.

It is

Q.

What

It is

is its rate of motion ?

twenty-two thousand miles an hour.
is

the density of this planet

about as great as cork.

PLATE XVI.

WUO. PARSONS t CO.. ALSANT. NX

A.

TO LIE. PMOTO-LITM.

SATURN.

froniOdseroatims of^ond, StruzfeandM[rrenI?elaJhieMtf./SJZa/u/Mar./SS6.

"

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

61

LESSON
Analysis.

Rings of Saturn Situation of them Revolution Detached How known to be Separate Distance from Planet to
Ring Breadth of Width between Kings Thickness of Rings Consists of what How determined Importance

Interior

of

them

Q.

to the planet.

body

that weighs one

surface of Saturn

pound on the

A.

sur-

would weigh how much on

How much

pound on the
if

Q.

Why

is

the planet Saturn considered one

A.

It is

and

interesting objects in

attended with eight moons and a suite

the planetary system

surface of the Earth, at the equator,

Sun

would weigh about twenty-seven and a

of the most magnificent

would a body that weighs one

transported to the

It

half pounds.

the

A. One pound and four drachms.

weigh

it

face of the Earth

Q.

XLI.

of gorgeous rings.

Rings of Sattjrn.

How are the

Q.

rings of Saturn situ-

ated in regard to each

other

and

planet

to the

A. They

one

or

centric,

con-

are

lies

between the other and

and they

the planet,

are over the equator

How

revolve

A.
Q.
,

same

time.

How

know
rate

they

do

On their axis and

in the

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Fig 44.
SATCBK AD THE BARTH <JOMPARATIVE DIJOUfeiOKS.

wholly

detached from

each

other?

A. The fixed stars have been seen in the

tant heavens through the openings between

and between the planet and the

Q.

What

interior ring

A.

and

is

first ring.

the distance from the planet to the

fifty miles.

the

A.

It

nineteen

is

thousand

and

fifty

is

the

miles.

What

width of the opening

rings

A.

two

the

between
?

two thou-

It is

sand and nine hundred miles.

Q.

What

breadth

of

terior ring

A. It

is

the

the

ex-

is

seven

thousand and three hundi-ed miles.

Q.

What is

the thickne ss of the rings.

A. They are not more than one hundred miles

in thickness.

Q.

Of what do they

consist

A. Various opinions ar e entertained as to their

It is thirty-three

16

dis-

them

is

ring ?

they are sepa-

What

breadth of the interior

Q.

^^^^^B
^^^^^H^

or

Q.

^^^^P^jjj^l^v^^^

of the planet.

Q.

H^^^^^^^^Hj^^H HH^^^HI^^H^^H

thousand and six hundred

composition
some that they are a solid compact substance, and others that they are fluid.
;

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

62

What

Q.

clusion

reason have they for the latter con-

It is the fact they are

A.

Q.

What importance

A. They serve to

are they to the planet

upon

reflect light

its

surface.

almost infinitely divided.

LESSON XLII.
Circles not True Centers coincide with the Center of Planet Gravity of These Rings Importance to the Stability of
Moons of Saturn Number Seldom Seen Revolve with the Rings Respective Distances fro)a
Saturn Inclination of their respective Orbits to the Plane of Saturn Eclipses of these satellites Seldom Suffer Respective

Analysis.

the System of Rings

Sizes.

Q. Are they in true circles

A. They are not exactly.

Q. Does the center of their

edge of the ring being but about 31,000 miles.

On
rings coincide with

the center of the planet.

does not exactly.

It

Q.

What

A.

The center of gravity of these rings oscilaround that of the planet, describing a small

lates

known

more

distant from Saturn than

satellite,

A.

is

the other hand, Japetus is nearly ten times

The Moons of Saturn.

How many

Q.

What

importance

the system of rings

A.

are from our

system measures nearly 4,500,000 miles.

of their centers of gravity

orbit.

Q.

we

so that the diameter of the Saturnian

It

lites

tion of other

by any

names of the eight moons

and the time of

solar days

mean

terrestrial

their revolution in

Fig. 45.

BATtJRN A2n> rrs SATELLITES. (SIR JOIIK HKRBCHXX..)

Enceladus
Tethys
Dione
.

Titan

119,725

153,630

Time of Slderlal Revolution.

Days H'rs- Mlu. Sec.
23 27 23

....

190,225

21

53
18

243,670

17

41

340,320

12

25

11

Rhea

Hyperion
Japetus
.

A.

They are

OUly

SeeU Wltll

good instruments and under favorable circumQ.

Are they

stances.

Distance from Saturn's

Center In MUcs.

Mimas

easily discovered?

of Saturn, with their distances from the center of

the planet,

has Saturn

Q.

external force or attrac-

heavenly bodies.

give below the

satel-

A. Eight.

prevents the rings from being shifted from

their equilibrium

We

moons o r

is this to the stability of

When

is

the best time to take a view of

them?
A.

When

the planet

is

at

its

Equinox, then the

26

788,915

15

22

41

25

954,160

21

41

2,292,790

79

54

40

rings are nearly invisible.

Q.

How

do these

satellites revolve

A. They revolve eastward with the rings of the

planets

in orbits nearly circular, and, with the

exception of the eighth, in the plane of the rings.

The

first

than the
over,

four satellites are all nearer to Saturn

Moon

is

to the Earth.

Mimas

is,

more-

but 82,000 miles from Saturn's surface, and

Dione about 206,000

Mimas' distance from the

Q.

What

are their respective distances from the

planet ?

A. The distances and periods of the

of Saturn are as follows

satellites

PLATE

WEED, PARSONS

CO. ALBANY,

XVII

NY.

URANUS AND THE EARTH

COMPARATIVE DIMENSIONS.

A TOll.t,PM0T0-liTM.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

IXttMBOt

Mimas

Enceladus

Tethys

In Ulta

128,000

190,000

Pariodic t'iDM.

123,000

Dione

251,000

Khea

351,000

Titan

21

tt

17

suffering eclipses

13

"

55 seconds

811,000

15

"

22

"

51

Hyperion

2,766,000

79

"

54

"

Japetus

2.336,000

4G

00

"

12

'

What

Q.

What

orbits to the plane of Saturn's orbit

A. The orbits of the six inner

clined about thirty degrees

eclipse,

and they

is

the respective sizes of these satel-

A. The two nearest to Saturn are the smallest,

the inclination of their respective

is

lites?

the third

Q.

satellites

happen only when the rings are seen edgewise.

it

"

regard to these

A. They seldom suffer an

"

What is known in

Q.

00 iays , 22 hours.
'
"
1
8

63

and

fourtli the

next in

size,

the fifth

and

sixth are somewhat larger, the seventh and eighth

The eighth is. about four thousand two hundred miles in diameter and turns on
its axis, and it is probable all the others do the
are the largest.

satellites are in-

the other two about

twenty-four degrees and forty-five minutes.

same.

LESSON XLIII.
Uranus Situation Distance from Sun Time of Revolution round the Sun Diameter Time of Revolution on
known Inclination of Orbit Rate of Motion Light compared with that of the earth Density Eccentricity of
Orbit Difference of the Weight of Bodies on the Earth and the Surface of Uranus Satellites of Uranus Number Respective Distances and Periodic Times Their Variation in Revolution Size of them Seldom suffer Eclipse.

Analysis.

Axis not

Q.

Where

is

A. Uranus

Uranus.
the planet Uranus

A.
situated

utes

the eighth planet in the order of

is

distance from the Sun,

orbits of Saturn

its

orbit lying

between the

and Neptune.
Uranus from the Sun ?

It is

but very

Q.

What is

A.

It is fifteen

Q.

What

its

A.

It is 1,824,000,000 miles.

A.

It is three

Q.

How long

Q.

What is

does

take this planet to revolve

takes eighty-four years.

It

Q.

A.

It is thirty-five

Q.

How

the diameter of

long does

A. Owing to

its

Uranus

thousand miles.
it

take to turn on

its

axis

immense distance from the Sun

diurnal motion has not as yet been ascertained.

Q.

What

is

rate of

motion

proportion of light of this

1

hundred and sixty times

the density of this planet

less.

A. About that of water.

What

is

forty-six min-

planet compared with that on the Earth

A.

its

it

thousand miles an hour.

the

is

Q.

around the Sun

inclined

and twenty-six seconds.

How

far is

little

the inclination of

plane of the ecliptic ?

its orbit to

the

Q.

What

A.

It is eighty-five million miles.

Q.

What would

is

the eccentricity of

its orbit

a body weighing one pound on

the Earth' s surface weigh if removed to the planet

Uranus
A.

It

would weigh fourteen ounces and

teen drachms.

four-

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

64

Satellites of URANtrs.
Uranua, like Saturn,

the center of a

is

.--0--

little

system, comprising, besides the principal planet,

eight

moons or

revolving

satellites,

in

planes
/

d/ /

...

'

n9

Fig. 4G.

DI7FSBXKGE BETWEEN THE APPARENT FORMS OP A FLATTENED

eXiOBSt SEEN IN TWO DIFFXBBXT POBtTIONS.

nearly perpendicular to the plane of the planet's

orbit.

These bodies, whose revolutions are accom-

plished, the nearest in

two days, and the most

Fig. 47.

distant in about 108 days, possibly compensate,

some

in

degree,

by

during

their reflected light,

the nights of the planet, the feeble intensity of

The Sun

the daylight.

is

Uranus as a

visible at

small disc, whose superficial extent

is

but one

370th of the extent of the solar disc as seen from

The heat received from

our globe.

it,

too, is

but

The

first satellite is

but 128,000 miles, or about

half the distance of our Moon, from the planet.

The most distant of the four of which we have certain knowledge is 392, 000 miles. Of these four, the
two nearest, Ariel and Umbriel, were discovered
by Lassell and Otto Struve respectively the six
remaining ones (two of which have received the
names Titania and Oberon), by Sir W. Herschel.
;

one 370th of that we receive from the Sun.

We have shown

in

the relative dimen-

fig. 47,

sions of the orbits of the satellites, as they

be seen
the

if

we could

plane

which they

in

would

obtain a bird' s-eye view of

revolve.

We

have

already mentioned the fact that their movements

are performed in a direction nearly perpendicular
to the plane in

the Sun.

this is

found

nowhere else throughout the solar system, further

movements

is

Uranus

the

retrograde

direction

that is to say,

trary to that of all the other

of these
it is

con-

known movements

and planets. But this anomaly probably results from the very great inclination of
their orbits, shown in fig. 47.
of satellites

How many

A.

It

Q.

What

satellites

has eight

Third

Note.
but

224,000
296,000
S10,0U0

Of the

little

respective

and

distances

DlBt. in PBRiomo
Miles, d. h.

First Satellite
Second "

has Uranus

their

is

period of times

which the planet revolves around

Another peculiarity, and

distinguishes

Q.

5
8
10

21
16

23

Tmi,
m.

25
57
2

Dist. in Pbbiowc Tif<

Miles,
d. h. m. s.

8.

26

47

Fourth
Fifth
Sixth

remaining two but

Satellite

"
"

little is

390,000

11

TTi.OOO
1,556,000

107

3S

10
48
16

56
l
39

29
OO
56

known, and hence

can be said.

Q. In what respect do the satellites of Ui-anns

vary from the analogy of the motion of

other satellites in our planetary system

A. Their motions in their orbits are

all

the

known

to

PLATE

WECD. PARSONS k

XVIII.

.TD11I,PHOTO-LITN.

C* ALBANY.

NEPTUNE AND

ITS SATELLITE.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

be retrograde, so that instead of advancing

ward

in tlieir orbits

from west

to east

primary, as other satellites do, they

for-

What

Q.

from the Earth, but

around tlieir

were they not about three thousand miles in diameter they could not be seen.

in the

What

Q.

known

is

to their vast distance

move

opposite direction.

lites

owing

65

of the size of these satel-

an eclipse

is

known

of these satellites suffering

A. They seldom suffer eclipses, but

A. They have never been accurately measured.

may

suffer

two a year.

LESSON XLIV.
Analysis.

Neptune Situation Orbit Distance from Sun Revolution round Diameter Rate of Motion Inclination of
Time on Axis unknown. One Satellite - Situation Time around the Primary Indication.
it

Orbit to the Ecliptic

At a distance nearly equal

Neptune.
Neptune
scopes,

it

is

the

apparent movement

Its

which

but, as the orbit

Snn

In tele-

eye.

has the aspect of a star of the eighth

magnitude.
shnv

naked

invisible to the

is

so immense,

theless, considerable

its real

it

is

extremely

describes round

velocity

is,

from the Earth, that

to

is

utes

:* this

orbit, in 5

say,

Moon

about 225,000

round Neptune

miles, a satellite revolves

very circular

to that of the

in a

days, 21 hours, 8 min-

has enabled astronomers to calculate

never-

about 12,400 miles an

it is

hour.

Like

all

other planets,

it

is

sometimes nearer

and sometimes further from the Earth.

time of conjunction

it is

At

the

distant from us, on the

average, 2,9.^8,000,000 miles, whilst

its

minimum

is less by 218,000,000 miles.

The real dimensions are somewhat considerable,
and in virtue of them Neptune is the third planet

distance at opposition

of the system. Its diameter

than the diameter of the

the globe of

times

that

Neptune

of

is

37,000 miles greater

Eai-th.

is

more than twenty-two

and its volume is

Earth,

the

intensity of the heat

that planet is

but

distance, than the

Fig. 48.

8ATKLLITK OF NEPTUNE.

the mass of the primary.

l-17000th part of the

nearly 105 times.

The

salellUe

The surface of

little

and

light received

by

more, at that enormous

thousandth part of that received

by us. But, as nothing is known of its physical

and atmospheric conditions or of its rotation,
nothing can be determined on the climatic conditions of the planet.

times

til

equal to about the

mass of the Sun, or

at of the Earth.

the matter of which

It is

to 21

Hence, the density of

Neptune

consists is less

than the fourth of that of the Earth, or nearly

equal to the density of nitric acid, and a

than that of sea- water.

From

little less

this point of view,

This disc has not yet presented any perceptible trace of flattening
neither can any spot be distinguished on it, so that the time of its rotation

remains unknown.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

66

Jupiter

the planet most analogous with this

is

body, whilst the force of gravity at

its

surface

is

about the same as on Saturn and Uranus.

Where

Q.

is

A. His orbit encircles the entire solar system,

being the ninth planet in the order of distance

from the Sun.

What is

A.

It is 2,8.'5(),000,000

Q.

What is

Sun i
miles from the Sun

its

diameter

It is thirty-five

Q.

How

long does

thousand miles.

A.

It is

Q.

What

Ecliptic

A. Owing

to

time on
its

axis

its

vast

distance,

its

diurnal

motion has not been ascertained.

Q.

is its

motion

rate of

How many

How

revolve around this

satellites

far

from

primary

its

is

this satellite

what time does

around

its

primary

tliis

satellite

revolve

A. In five days and twenty-one hours.

the inclination of

two hundred and twenty-three thou-

It is

sand miles.
Q. In

eleven thousand miles an hour

is

Q.

A.

take this planet to per-

it

takes one hundred and sixty-six years.

It

is its

situated?

form a revolution around the Sun

What

What

A. Only one has as yet been discovered.

the distance from the

A.

A.

fifty

planet?

Q.

Q.

one degree forty-six minutes and

It is

seconds.

Q.

Neptune situated

the planet

A.

its

Q.

orbit to the

What

does this indicate

A. The time of a lunar month on the planet.

LESSON XLV.
Analysis. Comets

Where

found

- Appearance Why called Comets Appearance

Form of Orbits How are they distinguished.

Varied

Distinguished

from Planets

Comets.
Q.

What other planets are found circulating

among the planets of the

A. They are Comets.
Q.

What

is

Solar System

their appearance

A. They are bodies of the nebulous form,

composed of a nucleus of a bright center or

head

the coma, a kind of envelope of a

nebulous siibstance, and a

tail

moving

in

an

opposite direction from the Sun.

Q.

Fig. 49.

Why called Comets?

A. They derive their

1.

name from

the Greek

word "Come," which means "hair," they resembling

it

in appearance, hence called Comets.

Q. Is their appearance uniform

A. They are extremely varied in appearance.

TAILLKBS OOHST.

some have no

2.

HEAD WITHOUT TAIL OB

tails,

lOrOLXtTB,

others have several

tails,

some

appear without any nucleus.

Q.

When

these bodies are far

Earth and Sun

the planets

how

away from

the

are they distinguished from

PLATE

WEED, PARSONS

t.

CO. ALBANY,

N.

XIX

>".

FORMS or CO METS.

A. TO LLC, PHOTO?

I.

ITH.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

68

What is

Q.

A. They

the comparative size of their orbits

are small, all revolving within the

What

is

and

the greatest thirty-ojie,

the least three degrees.

orbit of Saturn.

Q.

A. They are small, the average being twelve

and a-half degrees

the comparative

of

inclination

Which way do

Q.

they revolve ?

A. They revolve from west to east

their orbits.

LESSON XLVII.
Analysis.

them

Comparative

Course of Revolution of Comets

Inclinations very diverse Velocity comi)ared

Periods of Comets

in opposite directions

whose Orbits have been ascertained

with Planets in general

Far

One-half of
Greater
Number

Discovered.

A. The

Comparative Periods of Comets.

What

number

is

from

larger,

the earliest

are the comparative periods of these

period up to the present time more than eight

A. With the exception of a few Comets whose

hundred have been recorded, of which three hundred have their orbits computed, and of the latter

Q.

Comets

periods have been computed to be about seventyfive

they

years,

are

considered of very

long

fifty

four have been identified as returns of preSince optical aid has been used in

vious Comets.

periods, some more than one hundred thousand

searching for Comets,

years.

actual

Q.

or

the Comets whose

all

ascertained,

A.

what

is

have been

orbits

the course of the revolution

About one-half are

volve from west to east,

direct, that

is,

they

re-

and the remainder are

Q.
A.

They

is

said of their inclinations

are very diverse,

some revolve within

What is

their velocity in

planets in general

much

comparison to the

not less than 4,000 to

5,000.

How

Q.

discovered

far

from the Sun are they generally

Among

those Comets which have been no-

how many

ticed,

Mercury

greater.

The Comet of 1680 was

and that

of 1843,

was

1,260,-

000 miles an hour, or 350 miles per second.

How many

Q.

passed between the Sun and

How many

orbits

880,000 miles an hour,

Q.

is

to view, includ-

A. There were thirty.

Ecliptic.

A. Very

estimated that the

Comets brought

ing both Hemispheres,

Q.

the zodiac and others at right angles with the

Q.

of

is

A. About 1,824,000,000 miles.

retrograde.

What

number

it

Comets have been discovered ?

between the

other respective

A. Between Mercury and Venus, forty-four be;

tween Venus and the Earth, thirty-four

the Earth

and

between

and Mars, twenty-three; between Mars

Jupiter, six.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

69

LESSON XLVIII.

Comet of 1811
Dimensions
Aphelion distance
Analysis.
Celebrated Comets
Halley's Comet
How distinguished
How distinguished Enclie's Comet Period of Return Wliat pecuAppeared in many previous years
Comet of 1843
Effect produced
Wonder of Many
liar iu its return
Donati's Comet appeared in 1858
For what distinguished
Law by
Longitude of tlie Parhelion of the Comet 1858
Description of its Operation
which they are Governed
Longitude of its

Node

Longitude of the parhelion of the Comet 1863 Longitude of

its

Node

Rapidity of

Comets

Cause for

it.

Celebrated Comets of the Present Century.

Among

the Comets which have

made

their

A.

appearance during the present century, which are

1607,

Q.

A. The one of 1811

is

esteemed by Astronomers

as a most maguiiicent Comet.

W hat were

Q.

its

and

the great Comets of 1531,

1682, believed they were only the reap-

pearance of the same Comet.

most distinguished?

the

He on examining

Q.
it

dimensions ?

A. The head was 112,000 miles

its

pei'iod did

uniformly returned

A.
in diameter

What
He

he

fix as the time in

which

established the time of the interval at

seventy-five years.

nucleus was 400 miles.

Q. What was the

vinced the world that

shape and the length

he was correct in his

of

conclusions?

its tail

A. Its

was a

tail

fan

beautiful

aphelion

is

make

A. It

distance

of

of

appearance

beginning of

1759.

Q.

that

times

its

the

in

What was

result of his

fourteen

is

declared that

in the last of 1758, or

the

Comet ?

this

con-

the Comet would again

112,000,000 miles.

What

He

A.

shape,

extending not less than

Q.

How has he

Q.

A.

Nep-

was

tune, or 40, 000, 000, 000

Great
felt,

the

prophecy?
interest

and though

he died

before the
yet on Christmas night, 1758, a
peasant near Dresden
discovered the (yomet.

miles, reaching far be-

time,

yond the Solar System

or the stretch of the

Fig. 51.

OBBAT OOMKT OF

largest telescope.

Q.

FROM A DBA WING BY ADUIBAL 8MYTU, IN THB

" SPECULUM HARTWBLLIAMUM.*'

1811,

What is said of the Comet of 1835, commonly

known

as Halley's

A. This

is

Comet?

reason to believe

remarkable as being the

whose period of revolution was

first

Comet

satisfactorily

Q.

What

appearance at similar intervals before the days of

Haliey ?
A.

established.

led Dr. Haliey to suspect that this

was the reappeai-iug of a former Comet

upon past history, have we

that this Comet had made its

Q. In looking back

It

was seen

in

England

in 1066,

when

it

was

regarded as the forernnner of the victory of

William of Normandy.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

70

Q.

What then was

A.

It

and

was then

its

appearance

in size equal to the full

in 1456 its tail reached

A.

Moon,

from the Horizon

to

Pope Calixtus indited a prayer for

the people as follows: "Lord save us from the
Devil, the Turk, and the Comet."

of

its

What

of this

regarded the earliest record given

is

What was

A. That

its

said of

its

light

guished
A.

It

of 1843 distin-

was so intensely brilliant as to be visible

and it was so near the Sun as

in full daylight

What period
Its

Q.

What

period

is

It returns

upon

its

motion

invariably to

and a half hours

earlier

What

its

made

Comets ?

perihelion,

two

than the most perfect

ellipse,

The Sun

being positive and they deeply negative,

it

It

said of Donati's Comet which ap"i

produced great excitement and was the cause

of universal wonder.

Q.
first

What was

its

attraction increases continually in proportion as

swifter

distance from the Earth

when

swifter until, as they

fly

they are very near the

more than

move

approach the
eight

hundred

At their Perihelion
Sun and become very

again into fields of space with the same lightning

speed that they were attracted toward the great

What

Comet

and in August traces

which extended to about

50,000,000 miles in

length.

Q. For what other manifestations has this Comet

is

the longitude of the Perihelion of

of 1858?

A.

It is thirty-six

Q.

What

A.

It is

is

degrees and thirteen minutes.

the longitude of

Node ?

its

one hundred and sixty -five degrees and

nineteen minutes.

What is

the inclination of

its

Angle

A. Sixty-three degrees and two minutes.

Q.

was 240,000,000 miles

of its tail were observe'd

of that year it

been distinguished ?

and

thousand miles an hour.

Q.

discovered ?

A. In June

begins

to exert a controlling influence over them, as that

the

is

almost immeasurable, having lost their

Fount of all motion.

Don ATI's Comet.

What

thousands of millions miles

charge of Coloric, they become minus.

Q.

Q.

in their orbits

from the Sun, they move very slow in the arc of

highly positive, and hence are propelled back

calculations indicate.

peared in 1858

great law controls the motion of the

Snn, they sometimes

only three and a half years.

interesting discovery has been

from observations
A.

designated as the time of the

Comet ?

return of Encke' s

A.

is

the squares of the distance decrease, they

almost to graze his surface.

Q.

will it return

A. In about 2,000 years.

Q.

an

For what was the Comet

When

Q.

When

light surpassed the brilliancy of the

Sun.
Q.

nucleus and the graceful curvature of the

A. They are controlled by the same specific

law which governs Planets of the Solar System.

Comet ?

A. In the 130th year before Christ.

Q.

has never been excelled for the brilliancy

tail.

the Zenith.

Q.

It

the

What

Comet

A. It

is

the longitude of the Perihelion of

?

forty-nine degrees

Q.

What

A.

It is

and

is

of 1862

is

and seven minutes.

the longitude of

its

Node

two hundred and seventy-eight degrees

fifty-eight minutes.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

Q.

What is

the inclination of

plane of the Ecliptic

A.

It

is

its

orbit with the

nomena which

71

these bodies present, which

is stUl

so obscure.

and twenty-nine

degrees

fifty-eight

Comets, as we have said, form part of our Solar

Like the planets, they revolve round the

System.

minutes.

Sun, traversing with very variable velocities extremely elongated orbits

the form of the comet-

ary orbits furnishes us with the

first

of their

specific characters. *

Q.

Why do Comets pass out of sight so rapidly

after passing their Perihelion

A. They move around tlie Sun in orbits much

more elongated than that of the Earth and when
they cross the plane of the orbit of the Earth on
their flight to regions of space, they are then

mov-

ing in one direction and the Earth in another, and

moves at the rate of sixty-eight

thousand miles an hour and the Comets at the
rate of a million miles an hour, they seem to move
as the Earth

much
Fig. 52.

OOMKT OF

1744

(OHKBSAirX'S COMBT),

motion
WITH MtTLTIPLB TAILS.

their
It is right to

faster as

say that among the numerous

comets observed up to the present time, either

with the naked eye, or by means of telescopes,

by a nebulosity

the majority are distinguished

Q.

is

they soon disappear, while their

slower and slower

What may

in respect to

Comets

A. That the real diameter of their nebulosity

increases proportionally as they

especially of the most brilliant ones, possess a

smaller the nucleus but the

displayed fan-like,
as

if

the

body had

With

is

others, the

divided into

tail,

many branches,

in reality several distinct tails.

Fig. 52 gives an idea of the varied

forms of these

cometary appendages.
perhaps, some

will,

day, enable astronomers to class comets into genspecies

and

varieties,

and

facilitate the perfection of the

by

Note.

As we go

to press, a

new Comet

Prof. Swift of Rochester, N. Y.

trical

law of radiation

is

Is

Although

sufficient to

will

doubtless

theory of the phe-

prevent

It.

more

brilliant.

forms the ground work of

all

our

cal-

orbs ?

A. Tlie semi-diameter of the Earth.

What

is

necessary or suflicient to enable a

person to understand the

mode by which

the dis-

tances of the heavenly bodies are determined

A.

slight

knowledge of Geometry and Trigo-

nometry.

first at Marseilles, France, April 17, by Mons. Coggia, and recently detected
represented as earth-ward, yet no fears are entertained of a collision, for the elecReterenceas to location, may be had to Map 1 of the Star Sketches in this Atlaa, page 75.

announced, discovered
Its

dis-

culations respecting the distances of all celestial

Q.

This diversity of aspect

era,

Q.

What

become more

and the nearer they come, the

tant from the Sun,

tail.

they arrive at

be considered a remarkable fact

surrounding the nucleus, and a great number,

luminous train or

till

Aphelion point.

direction

Is

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

72

LESSON XLIX.
What
When

Analysis.
Stars

supposed to bo
exhibited

Periods of Showers

by their rapid

At

How

Intersection of

flight

through the

What called Why so called How many seen

Hombold and Bompland's Observations Arago's

Showers of
Regular
the Earth and the Orbit of the Comet Brilliant display accounted for Light produced
Atmosphere Annual Exhibition of Meteors in August Regularity accounted for
produced

what Intervals

in

an Hour

Observations

Schiaparrelli's discovery.

A curious

Meteors, Shooting Stars or Aerolites.

In the immense number of meteors which invade

some perdomain and

the regions of the air in a year, there are

haps that only pass through

its

continue their path in space, after having presented

us with the spectacle of a transient illumination.

great number, on the other hand, not only do

to

circumstance, and one which helps

prove the relationship between the shooting

and meteors, is the fact that the appearances

of meteors are more frequent in August and
November than at other epochs of tlie year and
the total number from July to December exceeds
also that observed from December to July.
stars

not again leave our atmosphere, being vaporised

therein, but,

when

of large size, attain the very

surface of the Eartli.

Falls of stones, ferruginous

masses, and dust, from

air,

tlie

upper regions of the

are proofs of this assertion.

Prom

shooting stars to meteors, or bolides, the

transition in

our narrative

is

easy

the difference

between these two orders of phenomena

not

is

Fig.

very strongly marked.

Bolides are luminous bodies of circular,
rather of spherical, form,

Like shooting

diameter.

denly, but generally they

or

sensible apparent

meteor which have been recorded, leaving that of

stars,

they appear sud-

1783 out of the question, was recently

move more

slowly,

and

Their light

much more

ordinarily less vivid, but their

is

con-

siderable apparent dimensions are sufficient to

this

[One of the most curious observations of

and of

disappear after some seconds.

compensate

5.3.

APPEIBAHOK OF A XXTEOB IS A TBLKSOOPK. (SCHMIDT.)

difference of

illumination of the landscape

intensity.

by

The

the presence of

Dr. Schmidt,

who was

made by

fortunate enough to observe

a large meteor in a telescope, under a magnifying

power of eight

times.

was followed by
side

by

until all

The

fire-ball

was

twin,

and

several smaller ones, following

side with parallel motions of translation

were extinguished

This obser-

(fig. 53).

meteors

a meteor sometimes approaches that of moonlight.

vation lends force to the supposition

Most of them leave behind a luminous train

others explode with violence, and sometimes the

exist in space as a crowd of bodies, revolving

tliat

accompanied with reports like

explosion

is

charges of

artiller}'.

The appearance

of meteors

that of shooting stars, the total

dis-

more rare than

number of obser-

is

vations recorded amounting at most to a thousand,

reckoning those recorded by the ancients.

round each

other, before they enter

our atmos-

phere.]

Q. What are they supposed to be, and how are

they produced ?
A. Of metallic substances similar in composition
to the Comets themselves accompanying them in
their revolutions around the Sun, as cosmical
clouds or meteoric swarms.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

Why called Shooting or Falling Stars

Q.

Q.

A. Because of their rapid motion in darting

through the heavens.

How many may

Q.

From

Q.

At what periods of

ten to twenty

time does the shower of

Stars exhibited

12th

and

13th of

ber occur

A.

on

may

flight

their ignition

be seen.

seems

Tlieir light

by

the compression of the air

and

"^

"'

consumption

in

^^"^^^'~='^

-^

their passage.

Q.

Novem

At intervals

What evidence (

^
M

pheno-

menon ?

Homboldt

and
Bompland observed on
tlie
12th and 13th of

November,

to

respecting

annually

meteors

August?
A. The August Meteors annually revealed to

us are produced by their

annual revolution
secting

tlie

inter-

Earth' s orbit

on the loth of August.

1799,

we

are

exhibited on the 10th of

ot

this

What

understand

t the

have we of
A.

be produced by their

to

their
P""^

dis-

through the atmosphere, causing

tht

thirty-three years.

Q.

A.
rapid

times in the interval of an hour ?

can you account for the brilliant

play of light exhibited in their passing through

the heavens ?

be observed in ordinary

A.

How

73

Q.

What

reason have

shower

of Stars, as a real

we

rain of

fire.

ring of meteoric stones

Q. In

year did
force

what following
it

represents the orbit of a

previous Comet

recur in great

A. Schiaparelli has in

A. In the year 1883.

fact discovered so close

Arago

a resemblance between

November

12th,

compared the shower

a

to conclude that this

fall

Q.

of snow.

When

Fig.

did the last

periodic shower occur

A.

It

August

the path of the

to

meteors and that of the

M.

AN1> NOVKMBBR MKTIOR-8HOWBR8.

coaiKTS III., 1862, and i., 1866.)

ORBITS OF THB AUGDST

Comet

(ORBITS OF

there

was again observed on the 14th of No-

doubt as

1862,

No.

3,

that

be any

cannot

to their complete identity.

vember, 1867.
Q.

How

is

the regularity of these seasons ac-

counted for or determined

A.

On

the principle of the regularity of the

revolution of the Earth, and the intersection of

orbit

by

the passage of the meteoric shower

the Earth

near

it

is

its

when

passing through the cloud or very

at the time of the periods

The

calculations

Peters,

above mentioned.

and Le

of

Verrier,

Schiaparelli,

Oppolzer,

have also discovered the

comet producing the meteors of the November

shower, and have found
1866,

No.

seilles.

I.,

Its

first

it

in the small

comet of

observed by Tempel, of Mar-

transformation into a ring of meteors

has not proceeded nearly so far as that of the

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

74

comet of 1862, No.

more recent date

Its existence is of

III.

a mucTi

and the

the meteoric particles along the orbit,

consequent formation of the ring,

is

but slightly

developed.

The

According

Le

to

Verrier, a cosmical nebulous

and passed so near the planet Uranus as to be

its attraction into an elliptic orbit
round the Sun. This orbit is the same as that of
the comet discovered by Tempel, and calculated
by Oppolzer, and is identical with that in which
brought by

November group

of meteors

make

their revo-

that of the

Since that time, this cosmical cloud, in the form

first

seen as a comet.

much

is

smaller than

August meteors, extending

at the

aphelion as far as the orbit of Uranus, while the

is

nearly as far from the

The comet completes

Earth.

its

Sun

as our

revolution in

about 33 years and 3 months, and encounters

the Earth's orbit as

it

is

approaching the Sun

toward the end of September.

It is

followed by

a large group of small meteoric bodies, which

form a very broad and long

tail,

through which

the Earth passes on the 13th of November.

particles

phere,

Those

which come in contact with the Earth, or

approach so near as

lution.

comet

orbit of this

perihelion

cloud entered our system in January, A. D. 126,

the

part of our solar system, was

and, therefore, the dispersion of

become

be attracted into

to

ignited,

and appear as

its

atmos-

falling stars.

of a comet, has completed fifty-two revolutions

As

round the sun, without

meteoric shower, for three successive years at the

its

existence being other-

made known than by the loss

number of its components, in the form

of an immense

wise

stars, as it

crossed the Earth's path in each revolu-

tion, or in the

years.

It

of shooting-

month

was only

of

November,

in every 33

in its last revolution, in the

year 1866, that this meteoric cloud,

now forming

Earth encounters the comet's

the

tail,

or

same place, we must conclude the comet's track

to have the enormous length of 1,772,000,000
In Fig.

miles.

orbit of this
orbit

of

54,

represents a portion of the

comet which

the

November

is

identical with the

meteors.

Srpectrum

Analysis.

LESSON

L.

Remarks Constellations Design in presenting an EleimrUary Work Not Extensive or Critical In considering the
The Object in Presenting Constellations How differ from Planets In Tvpinkling and Scintillating
Description of a few Exhibited in the Northern Sky The best time of observing them What Called Why Called Northern
Circumpolar North Pole point of Revolution Consideration of Maps MAP Constellation Great Bear, Ursa Major Time
of appearance Number of Stars contained in the Group Figure formed Large Dipper Two Northern Stars Pointers Why
called thus Polaris the object to which they point Revolution 2d Constellation Little Bear How Distinguished Contains Polaris North Pole Star A Fixed Star Why called Fixed Stars They revolve in the Universe Great Velocity Time
Light travels do wn to us 3d Constellation Cassiopia Location Form of Figure Sprawling " W " Cepheua and Draco
Where Located Nothing Striking Perceus elsewhere.

Analysis.

Stellar Universe

I.

its

they have been arranged in groups, called Constel-

Constellations.
RemarTcs.

ary

may

Work to

It is

not

my design in this Element-

be very extensive or

critical in

what

be presented of the Stellar Universe.

In studying the
easily

comprehend

stars,

that

we may

the

lations.

We will
tions,

more

their location in the heavens.

now

present some of these Constella-

and describe a few

of the principal stars

contained in them, as exhibited in our northern

sky, with the best time for looking at them.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

Q.

How

planets

do they

differ in

A. Because they point out and are always in

appearance from the

range with a bright star called Polaris.

A. They twinkle or scintillate, and no telescope

has been able to enlarge them into a disc.
Q.

What

are these constellations called

this star

map

I,

this

map

A. Little Bear and Cassiopia.

how

Little Bear, or Ursa Minor.

compass arranged.

A. The right hand west, the

top of

other constellations are revealed on

as Polaris.

Q. In considering the following Star Maps,

are their points of the

What
map

Q.

called Northern Circumpolar ?

recognized on

around

below the horizon.

A. Because they revolve around the north polar

star,

often does the dipper revolve

A. Once in twenty-four hours, never sinking

Southern Constellations.

Why

How

Q.

A. They are called Northern Circumpolar and

Q.

75

left

hand

Q. For what
east, the

north and the bottom south.

A.

Its

form

is this

is

constellation distinguished

that of a

dipper, containing

little

seven stars, one of them distinguished as the Pole

Star, called Polaris.

MAP

I.

Constellation The Great Bear

Major.
Q.

What time of the

Uksa

Q.

Why called the Pole Star

A.

It is

esteemed the point of the northern pole

of the Earth.
'"^^^

Q. To what important class of stars does

year are the constellations

on

this

map

Polaris belong

first

Why

of November, at nine

Q.

o'clock in the even-

called

ing,

in

our

A. Because

have

night.

How many stars

in this

are

constellation

visible

naked eye

A. Their rate of motion

thirty-eight.

A. They appear in the form of a Large Dipper.

Q.

are the two extreme northern stars in

cup called 1
A. They are called

the

Q.

place.

they not

like the planets

i'ig. 55.

are one

are the seven principal stars arranged ?

What

occupy the

to

same

Do

for

re-

volve in their orbits

hundred and

How

they

appeared

ages

Q.

the

A. There

Q.

to

are th%y

Fixed Stars or

Suns ?

latitude,

they are visible every

Q.

A. To those called
Fixed Stars or Suns.

most clearly revealed?

A. About the

pointers.

Why are they so called

of

many

What is

A.

It is

Q.

How

A.

the rate of motion of Polaris

ninety miles per minute.

long does

it

take

It

greater than that

of the planets.

Q.

Earth

is far

takes fifty years.

its light

to reach the

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

76

How many

Q.

A. They are arranged somewhat like a broken-

stars are visible in this constella-

backed

tion?

A. There are twenty-seven.

Q.

W.

chair, or a sprawling capital

What

other constellations are found on this

map?
Constellation
Q.

Where

Cassiopia.

A. Cepheus and Draco are located nearly south

on the

constellation located

is this

of Polaris.

map?

any thing striking in their features ?

A. There is nothing, and Perseus is better
represented on another map.
Q. Is there

A. Nearly east of Polaris.

Q.

What

the form in which the principal

is

stars are grouped.

LESSON

LI.

Constellation Oeion.

MAP Time of favorable appearance Names of the Constellations Distinguished The most beautiful
Sky Whale better seen elsewhere Stars of Belt of Orion The Bull or Taurus Situation How
Marlied Cluster called Hyades Another cluster called Pleiades Another Constellation called Gemini, or the Twins Where
Situated Names of the most important Stars Castor and Pollux Little Dog Location How distinguished Procyon
takes to reach
and Gomelza Great Dog Situation Name of the largest Sirius Briglitest Star Rate of Motion Time
the Earth Distance estimated Diameter Constellation The Whale Situation.

Analybis.

II

Constellation in the

it

MAP

A. There are three stars in a

II.

Q. What time of year may the constellations on

this map be most easily pointed out

near the cen-

line,

ter of the parallelogram, called the belt of Orion.

A. About the

map

first

Bull, or Taurus.

n,

of February, at nine
o' clock in

Q.

are

Costar,._

the

names

of the constel-

lations

on

the

is

group called the Bull,

the evening.

What

Where

Q.

Pleiades

PoUuxi

"'--.

-.

..^

.'.

AUh-bamn'

situated

A. It

is

in the north-

west,

and marked by

*"

A.

map

hHwH^^^'^"'

Orion,

Bull,

Great

Twins,
Little

this

sliaped cluster,

called Hyades.

Dog,
Proci/on*

Q. Wliat cluster of
stars is

what

is

Orion distinguished
It

is

beautiful

the

A.
stars

most

constella-

How many

may

be found
of

Bull,

called Pleiades.
Fig.

stars

found near it

A group of seven

north-west

tion in the sky.

Q.

^
<^

Dog, and the

Whale.
Q. For
A.

unTLE DOG

form the

where are they located ?

belt of Orion

and

m.

Q.

Where

can the

constellation Geminii or the Twins be found ?

A. North-east of Orion, at this time.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

Q.

How is it marked,

A.

It

or

marked by a

is

what

is its

what

shape ?

What

group

is

the largest star in

names of the most important

are the

stars in this

distinguished

is it

A. It is called Sirius, and

the whole heavens.

large quadrilateral of

stars.

Q.

77

Sirius.

What is

A. They are Castor and Pollux, the most northern and brightest stars of the group.

the rate of motion of Sirius ?

Q.
A. It is eight hundred and forty miles per,

minute.

Little Dog.

Where

Q.

the location of the Little

is

A.

It is situated east of

Q.

How

A.

It is

marked by two

Q. How long does it take the light to reach the

Earth ?
A. It takes twenty-two years.
Q. What is its estimated distance from the
Earth ?
A. It is said to be 3,376,000 times that of the
Sun from us.
Q. What is its diameter ?
Q. Twelve millions miles in diameter.

Orion.

distinguished

is it

Dog

solitary stars,

Procyon

and Gomelza.

The Great Dog.

How is this

Q.

located

A.

constellation

marked and where

It is

a group of several

stars, located south-

east of Orion.

What is

Q.

Q.

the

name

of the largest star

and

A.

for

LESSON

The Whale.
Where is he situated ?
He is located north-west of

Orioij.

LII.

Constellation Virgo.

Favorable time for Inspection When seen in

Heavens How liuown Large Constellation One
Spica name Leo, or the Lion Where situated Ilow easily known Shaped like a Sickle
An inverted figure 5 Regulus the largest On the Ecliptic Gamma "Where situated 3d Constellation Hydra
Situation Form of Serpent Swimming froiu East to West Stars small.

Analysis.

MAP

Star of

first

MAP

III

tlie

Magnitude

its

MAP

in.

Virgo.

(^-f

Q. At what time

BC\AR

Til.

A.

first

with
called

magnitude,
Spica

the

large

one star of the first

constellation
more clearly seen ?

On

is

constellation,

is

this

A.

It

of

April, at nine o'clock

^' \

*-

\7ieouhi^

Procyon

the others are

not easily traced with-

out a Plenisphere.

in the evening.

Where in the
heavens may it be seen

Leo, or the Lion.

Q.

at this time

A. Near

Q.

Q.

idian.

Q.

known?

be

of

Virgo.

the Mer-

it

situated'^

west

A. Just

How may

Where

How is

recognized
Fig. 57.

A.

By

it

easily

six

stars,

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

78

shaped
ure

like

an

or

sickle

raverted

the

fig-

Which

of these stars is the brightest,

and
Constellation Hydra.

where situated?
A.

a star called Regulus, and

It is

is

on the

Ecliptic.

Q.

What is the next important star in this group

and where located ?

A.

November meteoric

the

shower.

5.

Q.

point of

radient

It is

Gamma, and

is

generally situated near

Q.

Where

A.

It is

Q.

What is its form,

A.

It is the

east to west,

LESSON

situated

located south of Leo and Virgo.

course and size of the stars ?

form of a serpent, swimming from

and its stars are small.

LIII.

Constellation Bootes.

MAP IV Time of Appearance In June Situation in the Heavens The Brightest Star Arcturus Where found
On Meridian Shape Parallelogram Four bright Stars Form CofBn Another group East Like a boy's cap Northern
Crown Large Constellation further East Hercules Size What figure Two Quadrilaterals Opinion respecting the
course of the Solar System Drifting toward Hercules.

Analysis.

MAP

IV.

Q.

Constellation Bootes.

What is

Q.

the time of

its

appearance ?

A. In the month of June, nine o'clock,

Q.

What form does this group of stars represent?

A. They form a figure somewhat similar to a

coffin.

p.

m.

Q.

What group of stars is found east of Bootes

Where in the

this time

Crown.

Q.

It

What

name

of

its

stellation

A.
is

the

may

largest

It is called

Q.

Arc-

figure

Where in the
heavens may it be
Q.

at this time

^s-

A. Facing the south, you will see

meridian,

and in shape

four bright stars.

like

it

on the

a parallelogram, of

what

do they form

A. They are small

and present the figure
of two quadrilaterals.
h a t is the
Q.

turus.

found

Her-

What is the size

of the stars and

It is called

be

cules.

star?

A.

What large con-

found further east ?

Great Bear.
Q.

a boy's cap,

the Northern

called

may be seen
on the meridian,
south-east of the
A.

semi-circle of

stars, like

be found at

stellation

A.
MAPrV.

heavens may this con-

58.

present opinion entertained as to the course the

Solar System

A.

It is

is

now

taking

supposed to be drifting toward Hercules.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

LESSON

79

LIV.

Constellation The Swan.

MAP V Time favorable Where found Overhead Figure formed Large Cross Principal Star at foot
Multiple Star The Eagle Where situated South of Swan How distinguished A Large Star Atair
Pegasus Where located North-east of Eagle Figure of these Stars Perfect Square The most Western found Head
of Androraedia The Lyra Where situated West of Swan and North-west of Eagle What Star Prominent Vega

Analysis.

Albireo

What

completes the group

Four faint Stars.

MAP

V.

Pegastts.

Constellation The Swan.

What time in the year

Q.

make

its

On

A.

appearance
the

first

Q.

does this constellation

located

A.

of September, 9

o'

clock in the

Where can

the

Swan be found

at this time

A. Overhead, in the

MAP

Milky Way.
Q.

What

is

'%

.'-^

* '

What is the figure represented by these stars

A.

v_

fig-

's>
^''^

A -N*'
.

tion.
"i^V

,'

'-"

is

the

of the principal

star at the foot

WATCRBCARER

'*

g\

^ A

r.

^K.
*

Q.

'

constellation
':

It is called Al-

*.'

i t

ated?

this

A.

/sc""Fi'>-E N-f

A.

The Lyea.
Where is

,.....,

Andro-

media.

C5
/
'; -i <u

""V

j^ieu&

name

v-*^

the

is

located in

It is

the head of

large cross.

What

"s '-,''

ranged as to form a
Q.

Where

A.

,f6?a

ar-

of the

most western one

found ?

stars of this constella-

A. They are so

principal stars.

Q.

by four

perfect square is formed

Swan, and

Q.

by the

group

is this

PEGASUS.".*--.

ure formed

Swan

It is situated directly east of the

'

the

the

north-east of the Eagle.

evening.

Q.

Which way from

It is

cated

found

lo-

west of the

a multiple

bireo,

Swan, and north-west

star.
Pig.

The Eagle.
Q.

Q.

Where is it situated?

A.

How
It is

Atair,

is this

constellation distinguished

marked by

and several small

A. There
?

a very large star called

ones.

What

distinguished star

constellation

A. Nearly south from the Swan.

Q.

of the Eagle.

9-

Q.

What

is

found in this

is

a very bright star called Yega.

other stars complete the groiap

A. Just below Vega are four faint

ing an oblique parallelogram.

stars,

form-

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

80

LESSON LV.
Constellation Persetts.

MAP VI When favornbly seen December Where found Meridian Well North in Milky Way Figure of
Turliish Sword Bent at the point What near the point Mass of Telescopic Stars, very beautiful One marked
Called Algol Connlelliition Aries or Ram Where seen South of Perseus Figure formed of Principal Star Kight.
Angled Triangle Point in the Seasons marked Vernal Equinox What Constellation South of the Ram Whale Figure
easily traced Pentigon of Stars.

Analysis.

chief Star

MAP VL

A.

Constellation Perseus.
Q. What time is most favorable for

its

exhibi-

Constellation Aries, or The Ram.

A. In the month of December, 9 o'clock

it

Where

p.

M.

then can

Q.

MAP

Where

is this

seen ?

A.

VI

be found ?
A.

On the meridian,

Q.

What

is

A.
GzptUa.

Q.

>''

are not

V.OASO^.......

by

form the figure of a

much

Wha

B/

U~-,

I-

*-

Aldebaran"'*-

is

Syades

j^^^^^^^^^^^k

a mass of telescopic

stars,

the most

What

rather a

this constellation
it

has

the place of the Ver-

Q.

What very large

one

marked

is

found near

star.

lation is

found south of the

Ram

A. It is the Whale.

beautiful, perhaps, in the sky.

Q.

marked

yet indistinct constel-

is

point in
is

nal Equinox.

disFig. 60

A. There

What

been known to mark

covered near the point

of the sword

forms a right-

A. Long ago

bent at the point.

Q.

It

the Seasons

very bright, but they

Turkish sword,

kind of a

fonned by

angled triangle.
^^

A. They

is

the principal stars?

said of

the chief stars in this

constellation

What

ligure

Milky Way.

Q.

discovered

It is

south of Perseus.

well to the north, in

the

a strange,

variable star.

tion?

Q.

It is called Algol, distinguished as

this

group which

is

Q.

What

A. There

figure is easily traced in it?

is clearly

seen one pentigon of stars.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

81

LESSON LVI.
Contrast of the Distance op the Sun and that of the Fixed Stars
From the Earth.

Remarks.
Rate of motion of ball from an Armstrong gun
Time taken to reach tlie Sun
Time for the sound of the
Explosion to reach the Sun
Prof. Mendenball on nervous sensation
Time
The infant burns its finger by touching the Sun
necessary to realizing the sensation
Distance of Sun from
Earth on disc of Sun
Require a large telescope to discover it
Earth compared to that of the Fixed Stars
Revolve in the Universe like
The Fixed Stars, Suns
Do not remain unmoved

Analysis.

other Planets Principal Suns named Why appear small Distance cannot be computed by miles Velocity of light considered Miles per second Number in 24 hours At this rate hovr long to reach the nearest Mxed Star 61 Cygni Vega
Siriu^ Ursa Majoris Arcturus Polaris and Gappella These do not shine by reflection Suns in other Systems.
On the Distance

op the Sun.

Q.

Remark.
Reflection only can bring to our
minds an adequate idea of the immense distance
whicli exists between us

Q.

What

from an Armstrong gun

A.

It is

Q.

At

and the Sun.

the rate of motion of a ball fired

is

four hundred yards per second.

this rate,

reach the Sun

how

long will

It will

Q.

How much

it

longer before the sound of the

travels the faster,

sound or nervous

therefore,

an infant were born, with an

arm of the somewhat inconvenient length of 91,500,000 miles, so as to reach the Sun, and should
he stretch out his arm, touch the Sun, and burn
his finger, how long before he would feel the
sensation

A. That child must

live

till it

has grown to man-

will be conscious of the fact that the tip of his

was burned.
Q. Suppose the Earth be placed on the disc of
the Sun, could it be seen with the naked eye ?
A. It would require the aid of a large telescope
finger

make

it

Q.

What

A.

They

Q.

Why Fixed Stars

visible.

are they?
are called Suns.
?

place in the heavens.

Do

they remain unmoved as Fixed Stars

A. They revolve in their respective orbits in the

Universe, like other planets.

Can you name the principal Fixed Stars %

A. Alpha Centauri, 61 Cygni, Vega, Sirius,
Q.

Ursse Majoris, Arcturus, Polaris, Capella.

Q.

Why are they so

A. They are so
Q.

hood, and reaches the age of 135 years, before he

to

the size

Q.

nerves travels ten times slower than sound.

Q.

Sun from the Earth, how much greater

and distance from the Earth is one, even
the nearest of what are termed Fixed Stars ?
A. We can only answer this question by comparison
hence, call your attention to the following in respect to what is said of the Fixed Stars.
tance of the

A. They appear always to occupy the same

A. Prof. Mendenhall says, sensation upon the

If,

disparity of the size and. dis-

to

take thirteen years.

would reach the Sun

A. Six months later.

sensation

take for

all this

Fixed Stars,

explosion

Which

it

With

A.

Q.

How far

A. So far it

by

far

us.

the nearest

oflF is

is

small

from

impossible to compute

its

distance

miles.

Q.

How

can

we

obtain an adequate idea of

distance from the Earth

A. Something of an idea
distance if

we

may

be gained of the

consider the rapidity with which

light travels.

Q.

What

its

then

is

the velocity of light

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

82

A.

one hundred and ninety-two thousand

It is

miles per second.

Q.

How many

four hours

seconds are contained in twenty-

A. Eighty-six thousand and four hundred.

how far

Q. According to this basis of reckoning,

twenty -four hours

will light travel in

61 Cygni, nine years

3.

Vega, twenty-one years.

twenty-two years.

4.

Sirius,

5.

Ursae Majoris, twenty-two years.

6.

Arcturus, twenty-six years.

7.

Capella, seventy-two years, or 390.541,824,-

000,000 miles.

hundred
and eighty-eight millions eight hundred thousand
A.

and four months.

2.

It will traverse sixteen billions five

Polaris.

miles.

Q.

At

this rate,

how many days

will

it

light of the nearest fixed star to reach us

A.

It

take the

8.

A.

It is

can be obtained

Q.

How

a-half years, before a glimpse of

it

Q.

earth

of the inhabitants of the Earth.

Q. If this incom prehensible distance lies between

us and the nearest Fixed Star, what must be that

lying between the Earth and the most distant

by

light to travel the different distances

Alpha

long does

It

Q.

Do you

them

Centauri, three years

and six months.

it

take

its light to

reach the

A.

A.

ninety miles per minute.

takes

fifty

It is
is

down

years to travel

to us.

perceive the utter impossibility that

by

reflected light

evident that they are Suns

each of

a focus of light and heat, and probably

a system comprising, like ours,

the center of

of other fixed stars

1.

the rate of motion of Polaris

these stars shine

A. In answer, we will give the number of years

required

or 271,209,600,000,000

years,

fifty

What is

must continue its course at this tremendous

hundred days, or over three and

velocity thirteen

by any

Polaris,

miles.

planets, satellites

and comets.

LESSON LVII.
Light.

Space
Flowing out from the " Orh of Day " Recuperation, or Waste Away
Views of Sir Isaac Newton
Does not remain Stationary
System
Rapidity of light
At this rate how long will it take to fill the Space
How does tlie Sun remain undiminished and
Moves on in Circle
Light changes its Polarity
Is received back to the Sun
Principle
No indication of a continued work of creation
brilliant as ever
By recuperation In the return of it to the San

Analysts.

What

embraced

is it

in Solar

illustrated by.

Q.

What is

A.

It is

an

Sun through

light?
electrical effusion of brilliant parti-

cles or bright scintillations emanating

Q.

What was

respecting the origin of light

A. That light

from the Sun.

the theory of Sir Isaac

is

Newton

an emanation of inconceivably

minute particles flying

off

from the body of the

that space which

is

occupied by

those opaque bodies which are governed

by

its

influence.

Q. If light be an

emanation of infinitesimal

atoms, or particles of matter flowing out from the

"Orb

of day,"

wasted away

why

is

it

not diminished and

A. This could not

fail

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

83

Are we then

to understand that the great

to be manifest if there

Q.

was not a constant recuperation or increase of the

ocean of

original fountain.

passes on and gives place to another

To what extent does

Q.

light

emanate from the

Sun?
A.

It is

an acknowledged and well-authenticated

fact in science, that light radiates in every direc-

tion

from this central luminary,

space occupied

by

the Solar System

the entire

the Solar System.

How many miles

Q.

filling

this rate,

and almost

vast

how

long will

it

the

fill

space described above,

infinite

It will

take about four hours.

Q.

When

this vast expanse

ocean of

light,

does

it

is

once

filled

with

continue to occupy this

is

one of the forms in

which the element of the Sun,

electricity, is

mani-

fested throughout the Solar System.

its

circle,

hence

in respect to

original fountain.

must necessarily be drawn

the course taken by light ?

A. That light being an exhibition of one of the

must

manner flow

forms of

electricity, it

and again return to the place whence

in like

in
it

emanated.
Q.

Do you ask how

It

some imperceptible manner,

light,

agency exerted upon

creative

Sun

of

be constantly fed
it.

what
would be vio-

Q. If the latter conclusion be entertained,

principle in the order of creation
?

A. From the order of creation we learn that

all

things were created in a limited time, hence, no

Q.

A.

is

given of a continued work of creation.

What may be regarded

We are,

from

fact that light is

the most reliable

and
1

full evidence, inclined to the

and

in sustaining

it,

present the

only the ever-flowing scintillations

of electricity, and, like

circle; hence,

it,

necessarily runs in a

having accomplished

its

mission,

returns, like all electrical currents, to its original

fountain, the Sun.

Q.
light can return to the

was thrown out by the positive force of

the Sun, and having changed its polarity it is attracted and received back to the Sun.
A.

return, in

former position,

Q. AVhat conclusion

circle,

correct position to be occupied in this matter

"i

A. Electricity always runs in a

returns to

by waste.

these particles to their original source, or that the

indication

What peculiar course does electricity pursue

flows out from the Sun

How then has it remained undiminished and

by the

lated

A. Overflowing light

it

utterly annihilated

as brilliant as ever

by

immense space ?

when

result,

A. The Sun long since would have frittered

Sun, the great fountain of

A.

Q.

been the inevitable

be the emanation of infinitesimal effusions

A. Evidently this waste must be supplied either

take to

with light

this

What must have

if light

Q.

ninety-two thousand miles in a second.

At

endless succession.

away and been

the velocity of light

A. Light travels at the rate of one hundred and

Q.

principle the vast ocean of light

this

from the Sun, unsupplied from some source

million mUes.

Q.

On

must give place and the space be filled by another,

every four hours, then displaced and filled again
in the same short space of time, and so on, in
Q.

of space are embraced in

A. Not less than seventeen billions onehundred

What is

A.

the entire Solar System,

light, filling

What

of action

A. The

beautifully illustrates this principle

ocean,

by

evaporation,

clouds with water, this

is

supplies the

borne over the globe,

and discharged among the mountainous regions

to

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

84

supply the high lakes and fountains,

these, in re-

and streams, which,

course, form rivers, which empty

turn, send forth the little rills

meeting in their

into the ocean again,

reservoir from

and keep that immense

becoming exhausted.

LESSON LVIII.
Attraction of Gravitation.

Attraction

of Gravitation defined
All under the magcetic
Seen in the power the Sun exerts over the Planets
Planets rendered Magnets by the electrical power of the Sun
Sun
This inherent magnetism controls the
Satellites
This magnetism called Terrestrial Magnetism
Subject Terrestrial Magnetism or the Magnetism of the Earth
This
magnetism accounted for
Sun a great Galvanic Reservoir
Heat of Torrid Zone
Compared with Temperate and Frigid Zone
Intensity of the heat of the Sun
Three hundred times greater than any point on the Earth's surface
Sir John Herschell'a

Analysis.

influence of the

Note.

estimate

Q.

What

A.

It is

is

the attraction of gravitation

the magnetic influence whicli one

has over another in attracting

it

body

to itself.

Q,

How is this manifest in the planetary system

A.

It is seen in the

'(

power exerted by the Sun

and in the controlling power of

over the planets,

How

influence

do the planets receive

their magnetic

it

Are all bodies, more or

ence of magnetism ?

less,

under the

influ-

A. All the heavenly bodies in the Solar System

less

under the influence of

this

magic

How do they receive their magnetic influence

A. The Sun
its electrical

is

a great Galvanic Battery, and, by

power, renders

tlie

Earth and every

What

is

the influence these planets exert

tipon their satellites

and other bodies surround-

A. This inherent magnetism of the planet controls its satellites

scope of

its

and every thing

else within the

influence.

Q. What is this magnetism called which

manifest in the Earth ?

A.

great Galvanic reservoir, pours

and heat

vertically

or twenty -three

upon

its

streams of light

the space embracing

and a-half degrees each side of the

What

is

the heat of the torrid zone

when

compared with the temperate or frigid zones ?

A. Far greater, and always uniform and excessive.

Q.

A.

What

is

supposed

to be the intensity of tlie

It

Sun

has been estimated to be three hundred

face.

Q. Wliat estimate did Sir

upon

planet a magnet.

ing them

the theory that the Sun, being the

times that received at any point of the Earth' s sur-

from the Sun ?

Q.

Upon

heat at the surface of the

power.
Q.

A.

Q.

from the Sun.

Q.

more or

Terrestrial Magnetism, or the Magnetism

OF the Earth.
Q. How is terrestrial magnetism accounted for ?

equator, constituting the torrid zone.

A. They receive

are

forty-seven degrees of the Earth' s middle regions,

these over their satellites.

Q.

It i^ called terrestrial

magnetism.

is

A.

the heat of the

He supposed

Sun

that

John Herschell place

it

would be

sufficient to

melt a cylinder of ice forty-five miles in diameter,

plunged into the Sun, at the rate of two hundred

thousand miles a second.

This estimate being correct, we are not

Note.
surprised that the entire planetary system is under
the electrical control of this great Galvanic Battery,
and, as a consequence, revolve in their respective
spheres, accomplishing the will of their Creator.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

85

LESSON LIX.
Teeeestrial Magnetism

Continued.

Analysis. Torrid regions

More deeply electrified
Result
They are positive
Polar negative
Reasons for this
Effect
produced upon the Earth
Earth filled with electricity becomes a magnet
This Terrestrial Magnetism seeks and flows out of
the Magnetic Poles
Points of the greatest cold
Both North and South
Result
Consequence of the combined action of
these forces
Explanation
Effect of these currents on the Needle
Magnetic Poles and Geographic not the same
At the

Geographic no

What

Q.

effect

on the needle Reasons why Note.

the consequence of those torrid

is

regions being

more

the Sun' s rays

directly

under the influence of

polar being negative, there

Q.

A.

other results necessarily follow

the polar regions are comparatively negative.

What

A. The

reasons can be given for this

reason

first

is,

that

the

restore

embraced between the

surface,

23|-

Q.

forty-seven

23|-

degrees of

degrees of south latitude, constitute

the Earth

A. The

amount
Earth
Q.
its

efiect is

produced

the

greatest

with

it,

receive

and, through them,

the

and becomes a magnet.

Q.

A.

A. From the negative portions of the Earth,

of the greatest cold, both

other reason

the points

North and South.

is

given

why

the one

is

A. Because the torrid regions receive the rays

Q.

What

lible rule

What

is

then the consequence of the com-

Why,

vertically than the other.

application can be

made

there will be two strong currents of

rushing

continually

with

lightning

magnetic poles, instead of the geographic poles,

Q.

Now,

will

you

magnetic attraction
It

is

evident

give us an explanation of

that

influence the needle,

currents of electricity

and the reason why the

North Pole guides the needle north of the equator and the South Pole, when south of the equator,
is,

that these currents of electricity, rushing from

the poles upward, constitute what

and the other negative.

Sun more

electricity or ciloric of

speed form the points of the greatest cold, or the

points of the Earth's surface does

especially through the magnetic poles

of the

upon the superabundant

A.

positive

the result

the equator.

out?

Q.

disturbed.

to the equator.

internal magnetism naturally radiate and flow

What

What is

electricity

regions

of electricity,

At what

what

torrid

is filled

when

bined action of the two- forces

Q. This being the case,

upon

it

A. That there are actually two forces operating

the bulkiest part of the globe, under the powerful

rays of the Sun.

that opposite properties, or a posi-

and a negative, always attract, or that coloric

always seeks to keep up an equilibrium, or to

tive

degrees, or the 3,266^ statute miles of the Earth's

north and

a mutual attraction

Upon what principle is this clearly understood?

On the immutable and universal chemical

principle, viz.

A. The equatorial regions are positive, while

Q.

is

of the positive, or the superabundant fluid of the

than either the temperate or frigid zone.

What

one and the negative of the other.

A. Tliose regions become more deeply electrified

Q.

of this infal-

A. The equatorial regions being positive and the

trial

Q.

is

called terres-

magnetism.

What

needle

effect

do these currents have upon the

A. They give direction to the needle of the compass, and, as the point of the greatest cold varies.

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

86

so these currents vary,

and as they vary, so the

Were

Q.

the geographic pole of the Earth the

point of attraction,
the needle

A.

what

it

have on

when

to

change the point of the

Why is this so

all,

but as

it

is,

it

and annually.

summer

season,

the floating icebergs or ice islands of the

Arctic are continually changing their position.

Note.

varies both diurnally

Q.

would

effect

would never vary at

It

North Pole

at the

greatest cold, particularly in the

needle varies.

There

are other hitherto mysterious

phenomena which can be

rationally and philo-

sophically accounted for only on the supposition

that such currents of electricity exist, as

A. Because there are causes always operating

we have

described.

LESSON LX.
AUROUA BOREALIS.

How produced Caloric and

the point of the greatest

same Currents within the Earth naturally
Called Aurora
illustrated Historic evidence Captains Parry and
Ross Their testimony The ultimate conclusion This clearly explained Power of Terrestrial Magnetism controls the
Moon On the principle of Attraction and Repulsion The same law by which the Sun governs the Planets and they their

AnAvsis.

Electricity the

and form a lambent waving

cold, flow out

light

seeli

Tliis

Secondaries in the Solar System.

How

Q. What historic evidence have

positions are tenable ?

we

are the phenomena of the Aurora

and
Aurora Australis, the Northern and
Borealis
Southern Lights, produced?
A. Now, if caloric and electricity be the same,
of which there is no doubt, then these currents,

the focal point from which streams

issuing from within the Earth, naturally seek the

Aurora

point of the greatest cold, in the frigid zone.

netic attraction.

Q.

Q.

When

it

arrives at that point,

of this electric fluid

A.

It

streams

up

into the rarer regions of the

atmosphere, and, in
source,
light,

Q.

it

its

return to

its

original

spreads out into the lambent, waving

exhibited

How

what becomes

exhibits in passing

hausted tube

through an ex-

the same cause the rarity of the

atmosphere, operating in both cases, to produce a

luminous, waving cloud, which proves that they

must be

identical.

to discover the

Q.

North-west passage, ascertained that

Borealis,

What

upward the
was exactly the point of ijiag-

conclusive evidence did they obtain

A. That when drawing near that point, the dipping needle stood exactly perpendicular, while
the horizontal needle would not traverse at

would remain
Q.

A. The appearance being precisely the same as

electricity

A. Captains Parry and Ross, in their expedition

in

any position

in

all,

but

it

was

which

placed.

by Aurora.

is this illustrated

that these

cover

What

other important fact did they dis-

A. They ascertained

also,

what we have

hereto-

fore maintained, that this point of attraction

was

comparatively that of the greatest cold.

Q.

From

reasoning,

this investigation

what

is

and

this course of

the ultimate conclusion

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

A. That caloric streams down from the Sun,

deeply

electrifies

the equatorial regions, penetrates

the Earth, rendering

its

internal

it

entirely magnetic,

the points of the greatest cold, streams

as

it

and that

magnetism seeks an egress through

upwards

passes out from the magnetic poles, rises into

the rarer or thinner regions of the atmosphere,

and, like electricity in

its

passage through the

exhausted tube, spreads out into a waving, lumi-

Q.

How is

steady in

it

87

moon

that the Eartli holds the

while revolving around

its orbit,

it 1

made a magnet by
power of the great galvanic battery,
the Sun, now by its terrestrial magnetism, controls
the moon in its revolution, on the principle of
attraction and repulsion, the same law by which
the Sun governs all the planets and they their
A. The Earth, having been

the electrical

secondaries in the Solar System.

nous clond, and forms the Aurora Borealis at the

north, and the Aurora Australis at the south.

LESSON LXI.
Attraction and Repulsion.

Analysis.
Law governing Ultimate particles have opposite polarities Law manifest Laws of the whole are
Subject defined
Magnetism and Electricity considered
By this rule only can Attraction and Repulsion be accounted for
the laws of its parts
Experiment
Result from passing a current of Galvanism
Galvanism diifers only in the mode of exhibition
the same agent
This explained
Distinction of polarity
Change the polarity of the Iron
through Soft Iron change the poles of Battery
Running electricity
The
This explained
Positive and negative end to everything
manifest in the direction of the current

inward current always negative

Q.

Now, what

difficulty

A. It

is

the solution of the apparent

is this,- every

ultimate particle of electricity

is,

each end of each

or polarities, repel,

and

like

unlike ends or

polarities attract.

Q.

What

immutable truth

this position

is

clearly evident

By

the operation of this rule, what

enon can be rationally accounted for

phenom-

A. The phenomenon of Attraction and Repulsion

among both atoms and

Q. AVhat

galvanism

agent

is

Q.

What

differs

the result

is

galvanism around
horse shoe,

only in the

A.

You make

Q.

What

is

mode

of

its

to be the

bent in the shape of a

insulated copper wire

and the two

polarities.

different polarities.

negative and the other positive,

what one end attracts, the other will repel.

Q. Suppose we change the poles of the battery,
and pass the current of electricity in the opposite
direction around the spiral wire, what will be the
or,

result

A. There will be a change in the polarity of the

planets.

the diflPerence between electricity

and galvanism 1
A. They are generally conceded

you pass a current of

the iron magnetic,

meant by
is

if

soft iron,

wound with

A. That one

parts.

Q.

ends have different

A. That the laws of the whole are the laws of

its

exhibition.

individual particle has a different property

from

The outward current positive Remark.

has,opposite polarities, that

ends,

same

and make the end that was positive,

and the end that was negative, positive.
Q. How can this be clearly shown ?
iron,

negative,

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

88

A. It can be

shown by experiments

in electro-

magnetism.
Q.

Upon

certain direction,

positive

what, then, does a positive and nega-

tive state evidently

distinction of polarity is manifest in

always

Q.

What reason

A.

It is readily

it

negative, of course,

passes

have we for

this

phenomena?

found in the admirable rule

"that the laws of the whole are the laws of

Q.

by running a current

of electricity in a

are

From

we

to

is

always leading, and the

always following.
?

the fact that the laws of the whole are

the laws of

its parts,

and the laws of

parts are

its

the laws of the whole.

RemarTc.

its

LESSON

It

would be

utterly impossible that

the whole of a thing should have a quality the

opposite of the parts of which it is composed.

LXII.

Attkaction and Repulsion

Anai.tsis.

how

Why should we naturally infer this

'a.

positive.

parts."
Q. If

distinguish the polarity

A. The positive end

always negative, and the end where

is

negative end.

A. Tlie end, where the current passes inwai^,

outward,

what must be the

Q. In the passing of the current,

the direction of the current

is

negative,

of iron

A. Each particle must have a positive and a

which the current runs.

What

and the other

polarity of each individual particle

depend ?

A. They entirely depend upon the direction in

Q.

we make one end of a bar

Continued.

Another mode of illustration Current of Galvanism passed around Steel Result A magnet Cnt the Steel in
Each arranged with the same polarity of the whole Logical inference Conclusively evident How illustrated

pieces

By

the atmosphere and ocean.

Take Another Illustration.

of the pieces will be arranged in the

Q. Suppose we pass a current of galvanism

around a bar of steel, spirally, in the same man-

ner

it is

passed around soft iron, what will be the

We make it

permanently magnetic, the end

where the current enters

that is outward

is

is

positive,

negative,

and so

it

and the end

will

remain

Now

thousand
each piece

should we cut that bar of

pieces,

steel in ten

what would be the polarity of

A. Each piece would have a positive and a negaand the positive and negative polarities

tive end,

direction

What

inference

then

is

the unavoidable and logical

which made

it

magnetic and kept

it

electricity

magnetic has

opposite polarities, as well as the whole current.

Q.

Why is this conclusively evident

A. Because the polarities of the whole are most

for years.

Q.

Q.

A. That each ultimate particle of

consequence ?
A.

same

as in the whole.

assuredly

made up

of the properties of

Q.

How may

A.

A mere thimble-full

its

this

its

be clearly illustrated

parts.

of atmosphere contains

proportion of oxygen and nitrogen, as well as

the whole mass.

drop of water contains

its

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

relative proportion of

well as the ocean

oxygen and hydrogen as

and

a hesitancy to investigate

so with every thing else.

The question

Remark.

as to

cause of attraction and repulsion

what

is

89

its

laws,

or,

if

such

investigation has been made, there has been a

reluctance to express the opinions entertained

the real

one that has

not been clearly understood, and hence has not

respecting them, for fear those opinions

heretofore been satisfactorily explained.

These laws, when fully understood, clear up the

is

Electricity has been esteemed so mysterious

complicated in

become a subject of ridicule to the

and

Scientific

would

World!

mystery.

operations that there has been

its

LESSON

LXIII.

Attraction and Repulsion

Continued.

This theory explained Two magnets Effect when Positive and Negative are presented to each other They attract
Result when like polarities are presented Entirely opposite they now Repel each other Two Positive) repel A Positive
and Negative attract each other Scientific World challenged to give a clear explanation on any other principle A body charged
with electricity has an outward current, and will attract a negative with an inward current Clearly shown by the magnets
These laws applied in the Attraction and Repulsion How accomplished.

Analysis.

Our first inquiry is,

Q.

will not the

above theory

explain the phenomena of attraction and repulsion

We

A.

think the facts above stated are true,

and can be

How

Q.

tifically

fully

and

satisfactorily illustrated.

can this principle be easily and scien-

explained

them be dipped

in iron filings until they

have

accumulated as large an amount as they can

retain

upon

repulsion ?

A.

A. Take two steel magnets, with equal power,

let

It shows that there is attraction in the former

and repulsion in the latter.
Q. Does not the admission of this principle and
its explanation show conclusively that electricity
must be the controlling power in attraction and

A.

case

their poles,

and the opposite poles of

each be presented within a short distance of each

We

and a

the Scientifle

Why is

appearance.

that the

Q.

and

What

will

be the consequence

let like poles be presented

A. Then the

filings will

if

we change

be blown back, as

it

were, and stand out like hair around the points of

the magnets.
Q.

Now what does this

is

World
it

can be

to give another.

that a

negative, with an

inward current ?

it has been shown by the magnets

body thus charged always presents its
end, and the body, negative, with an in-

A. Because

positive

ward current,

''two positives repel,

negative attract,^

body charged highly with

electricity, has an outward current, and will attract
Q.

one that

the filings will spin out

and a

explained on any other principle, and challenge

and fill up the

space between them, and present an oily, ropy
other,

how

cannot see

positive

is

attracted,

and presents

its

negative

end to the positive.

Q.

What is clearly

indicated

by

this representa-

tion?
indicate

A. That these two bodies, one having an out-

ELECTRO-ASTRONOMICAL ATLAS.

90

ward and the other an inward

current, present

opposite polarities to each other, and are attracted

from the immutable law, that opposite

polarities

Q.
tion

suppose we apply these laws of attrac-

and repulsion, as exhibited by the magnets,

to the planets

A.

We have a correct

difficulty.

How is

this

accomplished

A. The Sun, being positive, pouring a flood of

light

upon one

portion of a planet, soon renders

that portion positive, hence, is repulsed

attract.

Now

Q.

solution of the apparent

by

the

Sun, while the other portion, being negative,

is

by the Sun, thus clearly illustrating the

principle of repulsion and attraction, by the unchangeable law that two positives repel, and a
positive and negative attract each other.
attracted

INSTRUCTION TO TEACHERS.

91

INSTRUCTION TO THE TEACHER IN THE USE OF THE DIAGRAM AND IN

POINTING OUT AND EXPLAINING THOSE PRINCIPLES THAT

PERTAIN TO THE MOTION OF THE PLANETS.

I.

In teaching, the teacher should have the pupils recite in concert the Tabular view.
they become familiar with that, then point to any planet in the Solar System, and
ask how far that planet is from the Sun. Soon as they observe where the teacher points, and
sees the name of the planet, they will know how far it is from the Sun having learned it in
the Tabular Table, at the same time they can see the Sun, as the grand center, around which
the planets moved. This enables the pupil to associate the idea with the form, and conceive

When

in his

mind

distance.

n.

The

teacher, as he asks the questions laid

about which he

is

down

in the lesson, will point to the planet

asking questions.
III.

When
of

young

he speaks of the distance the planet

scholars a

more

clear idea of distance

is

from the Sun, he will convey to the mind

his pointer from the Sun to the

by moving

planet of which he speaks.

IV.

When

he asks how long it takes a planet to make a revolution around the Sun, he
should hold his pointer even with the axis of the planet, inclined in the same way with it
and as he moves it around the Sun from west to east, he gives an idea of yearly motion.

V.
In showing the cause of equal day and night, the teacher will show the pupil how the
Earth is represented in the Diagram on the 21st of March and the 23d of September. Show
him that the Sun then strikes vertical at the equator, and shines from pole to pole, illuminating the whole side of the Earth, while the side from the Sun is dark, as represented in the

Diagram.
VI.

show why the days grow longer and the nights shorter, he can illustrate it from
the Diagram, that as the Earth moves from her place in March to the one she occupies in
June, the north polar circle is advancing further into the light, and the south polar circle is
receding into the dark, to a corresponding extent, at the same time. Then, by liolding the
pointer parallel with the equator, the part of the Earth above the pointer will show how
Then

to

INSTKUCTION TO TEACHERS.

92

much of the Northern Hemisphere is enlightened, and the part below

how much of the Southern Hemisphere is enlightened, so that when

the pointer will

show

the days are growing

longer north of the equator, they are growing shorter south of the equator and while the
days are growing shorter in the Northern Hemisphere, they are growing longer in the
Southern Hemisphere the same may be shown of the nights.
;

VII.

The teacher will give a correct idea to the pupils why it is winter in the Southern
Hemisphere while it is summer in the Northern, by placing his pointer parallel to the equator, so as to show that a great part of the Northern Hemisphere iS continually in the light
of the Sun, while at the same time so little of the Southern Hemisphere is enlightened.
VIII.

Again, he can show by placing his pointer on the equator in the same way as before,
that the inhabitants south of the equator have the same season of the year that we have
north, when the Earth arrives in the exact opposite point of the orbit.
For instance, on
the 2l8t of December they have the same season that we do when the Earth reaches that
point of her orbit designated as on the 21st June, for in every opposite point of the Earth's
orbit, the same is represented in the Diagram, showing as much enlightened north of the
equator as is enlightened in the opposite point of the equator.

ECLIPSE.
In explaining the causes of an eclipse, the teacher can show by his book or his pointer,
shadow. The pupil will perceive that a body always casts its shadow in the opposite
direction from the light.
its

Then as the Sun is the great source of light, the Earth

shadow in the opposite direction from the Sun.

is

represented as casting her

IX.

The Diagram represents the moon in the Earth's shadow, which causes it to be eclipsed.
The teacher will be particular to show the pupils the manner in which the Moon is enlightened by the Sun, and that the rays of incidence and reflection are in equal angles so that
rays of light from the Sun that strike upon the moon are reflected to the Earth in like angles,
causing the side of the moon toward the Earth to show a constantly expanding crescent
from new till full moon, then a continuoiis wane, till no rays from the Sun can be reflected
to the Earth from the moon, as she is at new moon, between the Earth and the Sun.
;

X.

The teacher will point out the path or orbit in which the Earth moves around the Sun,
and show them that its circumference is 600,000,000 miles, and as the Earth flies through
this space once every year, in the period of one month she will move one-twelfth of 600,000,000 miles, which is 50,000,000, and the north polar circle has advanced a little further into
and by holding
the light, from the 21st of March, as represented in April on the Diagram
his pointer just as the axis of the Earth is inclined, and passing it along round toward June,
can show how many million miles the Earth moves from her place in March, before the north
polar circle is wholly in the light and the south polar circle is entirely in the dark, which is
;

INSTRUCTION TO TEACHERS.

and as the axis points always in the same direction in the heavens, of
course the south pole will remain in the dark while the Earth moves 150,000,000 miles still
further, showing why we have six months- day at the north pole, and night during the same
time at the south pole. Then the soutli pole begins to come into tlie light, and remains in
it from the 2Bd of September until the 21st of March, and the north pole is in the dark during the same time, showing why we have in turn six months day at the south pole, and night
during the same time at the north pole.
150,000,000 miles,

XI.
Reference to the diagram should be made whenever the teacher can associate an idea
with the form, especially with the beginner in the study of Astronomy, for nothing is better
calculated to call forth and develop the reasoning faculties of the young scholar than to associate ideas with forms.
XII.

Again, these principles that pertain to the motions of the Earth are principles that
prompt the first inquiry of the pupil, and are most difiicult of explanation by the teacher.
XIII.
It is not only important that the education the youth receives should be virtuous and
purely moral, flowing from well cultivated minds, but it is equally important that it should
be correct, and an occular demonstration will render those principles clearer to young
scholars, without whicli their imagination cannot be stretched to make them understand
without going beyond their capacity.

93

...

APPENDIX.
TABLE I. ELEMENTS OP THE SOLAR SYSTEM (Sun's
com-

Mean
Nahb.

Water.

Diameter.

Sun

5
O

852,900

being one.

nsity

Sidereal Period.

Mean Distance

with

Mass, Earth
ired

in

Years.

fS"-

1.42

Days.

.063

6.86

35.4

.205

Venus

7,510

.885

6.84

66.15

.0069

3i

5.67

91.5

.017

3.97

139.3

.093

l^fJl'

322

475.75

.048

119'

11

23 h. 66 m.

224f

684

23 h. 21 m.

75

24 h.

23 28'

780

24 h. 37 m.

28 42'

315

399

378

10 h. 29 m.

Mars.

4,300

TSV

Jupiter

85,000

301.

1.37

Saturn.

70,100

x\

90.

.74

872.

.056

230'

29

167

Uranus

33,247

12.65

.97 1,754.

.047

46i'

84

369i

Neptune

36,806

16.8

.91 2,746.

.0087

i4r

164

226

367i

.055

sr

Moon

2,162

3.4

.2388

7 20'

116

7,912 TTV

.118

8 h.

88

Earth..
.

Axis.

Days.

25 d.

2,962

1.

Inclination
of

Rotation.

Millions.

315,000

8.94").

Time of

Mercury
.

Parallax,

365i

27i

ll.

55i m.

27id.

29i

6'

26 49'

6 39'

TABLE IL ELEMENTS OF THE MINOR PLANETS.

NAxa.

1
a

8
is

3 1

sa

Trs.

Dys.

53
28
24

3
3

97
99
150

16
9

3'

151

3
3

174
175
207
217
229
223
323
225
240
251
356

Eartli's

Flora
AUIADNE
Feronia

Melpomene
Sappho
Victoria.

Euterpe

Vest.v

Urania
Nemausa.
Clio
Iri8

Metis

Echo

71

Harmonia..

8
43

40
18
80
13
27
4
30
52
84
7

9
63

2.2014
2.2034
2.2661
2.2677
2.3956
3.2963
2.3344
2.3467
2..3733

.157
.168
.12
.046
.217

.09

3.36.55

.126
.066
.238
.331
.123
185

2
9

2.3657
2.3675
2.3862
2.3866
2.393

.2

.219
.173

3
5

4
10
8
8
1

9
5
5

87
33
35

8
6

57
22
28
36
34

3
3
3
3

Dlscoyerer.

Hind
Pogson

...

C. H. F. Peters
Goldschmidt.
.

Hind
Pogson
Hind
Hind
Olbers

Hind
Laurent
Luther

Hind
Graliam
Ferguson

1847
1857
1861
18.56

1852
1864
ia50
1853
1807
1854
1858
1865
1847
1848
1860

.. ...
..

..... . ..

APPENDIX.

95

TABLE II. ELEMENTS OP THE MINOR PLANETS Continued.

8

NAVE.

1 i

so

Karth'8

AUSONIA

63
25
20
67
44

PUOCEA
Massilia
Asia

Nysa

Hebe
Beatrix
LUTETIA

83

21

Isis

...

FOKTDNA
Edrynome
Pakthenopk
.

Thetis
Hestia

43
19
79
11
17

46
89
29

Ampuitrite
Egeria

13

ASTR^A

5
14
33

Irene

Pomona

91

Melete
Panopea

Calypso

Diana
Thalia
Fides

EUNOMIA

15
51
GO

Virginia

Maia
lo

Proserpine
Clytib
JUKO
eurydice
Frigga
Angelina
Circe
Concordia
Alexandra.
Olympia
.

85
26
73

3
75

77
64
34
58
55

Eugenia
Leda
Atalanta.
NiOBE
Pandora
Alcmene
Ceres

60
45
38
36
72

56
83
1

L.BTIT1A

39
41

Daphne
Pallas

2
88
74
28

Tiiisbe

Galatea
Bellona
Leto
Terpischore.

Polyhymnia
Aqlaia
Calliope

Psyche
Hesperia
Dan.\e

47
70
54
78
23
87

....

69
81
33

48

32
16
68
59

2.395
2.4008
2.4097
3.4317
2.432
2.4259
2.4287
3.4354
3.44
2.4411
3.4431
2.4519
2.4735
3.5265
2.5498
2.554
2.5766
2.5771
2.586
2.5873
2.5958
2.5959
2.6133
2.6197
3.6338
2.6371
2.6414
2.6437
2.6491
3.6513
2.6536
2.6561
2.6666
2.6684
2.6698
2.6719
3.6809
3.0803
2.7003
3.7123
2.7131
2.7213
3.7401
3.7461
2,7554
2.7591
2.7603
2.7667
2.7671
2.7691
2.7696
3.7703
2.7777
2.7785
2.7804
2.8563
3.8641
2.8812
2.9107
2.9237
2.9717
2.9848

Yrs.

.126
.254
.144
.185
.151
.203
.084
.162
.235
.158
.195
.099
.138
.164
.18
.074
.087
.187
.106
.083

5
31
5
3
14

5
3
8
1

4
4
5

2
16
6
16
5
9
5

47
35

41
59

42
47
3
5
34
33
37
37
36

8
3
3

3
3
3

3
3
3
3

4
4

18
11

Discoverer.

Dys.

358
363
270
280
281
284
287
293
396

397
399
306
335
6
36
30
50

31
19
8
29

4
4
4

58

59

11
5

38

8
10

38

13

11

44
48
4
53
36
35

67
83
88
90
94
107
109
114
116
118
120

51

De Gasparis
Cliacornac

De Gasparis

Pogson
Goldschmidt

Hencke

De

Gasparis..

Goldscliuiidt.

Pogsou
Hind
Watson

De Gasparis

Luther
Pogson
Stepliau

Marth
De Gasparis
Hencke
Hind
Goldsclimidt
St(!plian

!237
.183
.204
.205
.232
.177
.187
.287
.158
.191
.087
.043
.357
.307
.136
.138
.107
.042
.197
.117
.08
.155
.301
.174
.145
.226
.08
.115
.266
.24
.165
.238
.15

.188
.312
.339
.132
.098
.135
.174
.163

2
3
11

13
5
3

4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

38
30
26

8
6
6
18

47
37
35
58
43

23

19

14
51

5
5
11

2
10
10
15
34
5
3
9
7
7
1

86
22
59
43
15
59
21
57
55
56

5
13
3
8
18

139
131
133
134

Goldschmidt..
Lutlier.

Hind
Lutlier

De Gasparis
Ferguson..
H. P. Tuttle..
Peters
,

Lutlier

Tuttle

Harding
Peters

143
147
160

Chacornac
Luther

171

Goldscluuidt

173
179
196
201
309
213
214
330
331
333
323
334
231
233
333
302
309
325
353

Chacornac
Goldschmidt
Chacornac
Goldschmidt
Luther

4
4
4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4
4

Tempel
.

1801
1855

1800
1858
1860
1857
1850
1855
1861

Searle

Luther
Piazzi

Chacornac
Goldschmidt.
Gibers
.

Peters

Tempel
Luther

Tempel

Chacornac
Luther

44
4
28

'45

Schiaparelli..

15

57

Goldschmidt.

1861
1853
1852
1861
1857
1847
1865
1852
1856
1853
1803
1850
1853
1857
1866
1854
1850
1845
1851
1854
1866
1857
1801
1858
1863
1853
1855
1851
1857
1801
1865
1853
1803
1804
1803

Hind

1858
1864
1801
1850
1803
1866
1863
1854
1861
1864
1854
1857
1853

De Gasparis

1861
1860

'

APPENDIX.

96

TABLE II. ELEMENTS OF THE MINOR PLANETS Continued.

TXua.

35
50
86
53
49
90

Edtiopa

DOUISPB
Antto
ATO
Th RMTS

61

Kt)

24

Hygeia

10
31

Mnemosyne
Freia
Cybele
MilJEBVA

Un
AllKTHTlRA
P.T.OTHO

JJpT.'R'.'WA
r

1-

57
76
65
87
93
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106

t.

Earth's

Ledcothea
Pales
Semele

Discoverer.

SO

3.0060
8.0835
3.0908
3.0999
3.1094
3.1188
3.1397
3.1431
3.1511
3.1537
3.1565
3.3877
3.4205
3.4937

.217
.237
.205

.004
.077
.148
.169
.117
!33
.104
.188
.13

8
3

4
7

13
9

6
3

48
35
29
16

13

3
26

49
49
27
8

15
2
3

2
28

Yre.

5
5
5

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6

6
6

Dtb.

78
150
158
168
176
186
196

209
217
218
222
86
119
193

1855
1857
1866
1858
1857
1866
1860
1853
1849
1854
1859
1862
1861
1866
1867

Tietjen

QoldBchmidt

Luther
Forster
De Gasparls

Ferguson
Lutiier
D' Arrest

Tempel
Pogson

Watson
Peters

Watson
Lutlier

...
1868

Tempel
Peters ....

Tempel
Watson
Peters

ti

Watson
"
tt

PLATE XX

WEED. PARSONS a

C?.ALBAlgY.

A.TOLLE, PHOTO. LITH.

THE GREAT EQUATORIAL

(PARIS OBSERVATORY.)

3975

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE

CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSiry OF

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S66

P&ASci.

TORONTO LIBRARY

(Joseph W.)
Electro astronomical atlas

Spoor, J.V/.