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The process of electrically communicating binary

information between two or more points.


Often referred to as computer communications
due to the ever increasing use of computer and
their support equipment.

Organizations Standards of Data Communications


International Standards Organization
(ISO)
Sets the rules and standards for graphics, and
document exchange

Consultative Committee for International


Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT)
Consists of government authorities and representatives
of UN to develop rules and standards for telephony and
telegraphy

American National Standards Institute


(ANSI)
US representative to ISO

Organizations Standards of Data Communications


Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)

Electronics Industries Association (EIA)

Standards Council of Canada (SCC)

Advantages of Digital Signals over Analog Signals

Disadvantages of Digital Signals

DTE

DCE

DCE

DTE

Essential Data Communication System


Components

1. DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT


device acting as a source and data sink or
both
i. Source or Transmitter
ii. Receiver or Sink

Essential Data Communication System


Components

2. TRANSMISSION PATH / CHANNEL / MEDIUM


a. Bounded Medium
the signals are confined to the medium and
do not leave it except for small leakage
amount

Bounded Medium
i. Pair of Wire
-Made up of wire pairs stretched
between telephone sets
ii. Coaxial cable
-Used
to
transmit
higher
frequency than pair of wire
iii. Submarine Cable
-Used to overcome long spacing
between amplifiers and upper
frequency at which the cables
can be operated lower than
land cable

SUBMARINE
CABLE

Bounded Medium

iv. Waveguides
- Metal tubes that allow
high frequency radio
waves to travel

v. Fiber optic cables


- Waveguide for light
frequencies

Unbounded Medium
i. Ground or Surface Waves
ii. Space or Tropospheric
Waves
iii. Sky
or
Ionospheric
Waves

Essential Data Communication System


Components

3. DATA COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT (DCE)


> devices that provide functions required to
establish, maintain and terminate a data
transmission connection.

Information Capacity

Represents the number of independent


symbols that can be carried through the
system in the given unit of time
It is expressed in bits per second, bps

A.
B.
C.
D.

Shannons Theorem on Information


Nyquist Theorem
Hartleys Law for Noiseless Channel
Shannon-Hartley Law for a Noisy Channel

A. Shannons Theorem on Information

The Shannon theorem states that given a


noisy channel with channel capacity C
and information transmitted at a rate R,
then if there exist codes that allow the
probability of error at the receiver to be
made arbitrarily small, this means that,
theoretically, it is possible to transmit
information nearly without error at any
rate below a limiting rate, C.

CLAUDE
SHANNON

A. Shannons Theorem on Information

Source coding is a mapping from (a


sequence of) symbols from an
information source to a sequence of
alphabet symbols (usually bits) such that
the source symbols can be exactly
recovered from the binary bits (lossless
source coding) or recovered within some
distortion (lossy source coding). This is
the concept behind data compression.

CLAUDE
SHANNON

B. Nyquist Theorem

HARRY NYQUIST

The highest sampling frequency required to


propagate a signal is twice its input frequency
fs = 2fin

C. Hartleys law for Noiseless Channel


Information capacity is a linear function of bandwidth and
transmission time and is directly proportional to both
Information capacity is proportional to the product of the
bandwidth and transmission time
C = 2log2X
C = kfT

Where:

C
X
f
T

= channel capacity
= number of coding levels
= channel bandwidth
= transmission time

RALPH
HARTLEY

Shannon-Hartley Law for a Noisy Channel

C = f log2(1 + S/N)

Where:

S/N = signal-to-noise ratio


S/N = (2(C/ f) 1)

Net Data Throughput (NDT)


Usually expressed in either characters per
second or bps.
Number of usable data characters or bits that
are received per second and does not count
characters that have to be retransmitted due to
errors, characters used for control purposes and
so on.

Baud
Named after the French Data Communication
pioneer, Emile Baudot.

The number of signal events or signal elements


passing a point on the line per second.
> If each signal event or element, such as
change from 0 to 10 volts, represents one bit,
the baud rate is equal to the bit rate.
> If each signal element can represent a dibit,
the bit rate is equal to twice the baud rate.

Example:
If 1600 signals events occur each second, but
through coding techniques, each signal
element represents 3 bits, what is the baud
rate? Bit rate?

Data Network Topology


Concerns with the physical configuration of the
devices and the cable that it connects. It is the
architecture or physical layout of the network.
DATA
NETWORK
TOPOLOGY

BUS
TOPOLOGY

TREE
TOPOLOGY

STAR
TOPOLOGY

RING
TOPOLOGY

MESH
TOPOLOGY

Data Network Topology


BUS TOPOLOGY
> Consists of nodes strung together in series with each
node connected to a long cable or bus; many nodes
can tap into the bus and begin communication with
all other nodes on that cable segment.

Data Network Topology


TREE TOPOLOGY (Bus variation)
> Uses some form of wideband cable with drop-off
points as needed each drop is provided with the full
bandwidth or data rate of the cable.

Data Network Topology


STAR TOPOLGY
>
Features
a central
controller to which all
nodes are connected. All
transmissions from one
station to another pass
the
central controller
which is responsible for
managing and controlling
all communication. The
central controller acts as
a switch.

Data Network Topology


RING TOPOLOGY
Bucket or token passing.
Signals are transmitted
in a rotating fashion.
Tokens give stations the
right to transmit
messages.

Data Network Topology


MESH TOPOLOGY
> Signals pass through more than one path.

Network Configuration

Categorized and identify the point or number


of location.

1. Point-to-point
> each node in the network is connected to other
nodes by individual communication lines

2. Multipoint
> several nodes in the network will share a
communication link
> Sharing Device a device that enables sharing
a single source (modem, MUX, or computer port)
among several devices

Network Configuration
POINT-TO-POINT

MULTIPOINT

Data Communication Equipment /


Processing Hardware

Device that provide the function required to


establish, maintain, and terminate a data
transmission connection

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

MODEM
A device used to convert
serial digital data from a
transmitting terminal to a
signal
suitable
for
transmission
over
a
telephone channel, or to
reconvert the transmitted
signal to a serial digital
data for acceptance at
the receiving terminal.

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

MODEM PARAMETERS
Speed or bit rate (bps)
Transmission type sync or async

Mode of transmission simplex / half duplex


/full duplex
Type of line circuit switched or leased line
Modem standard supported

MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
Refers to a technique of putting two or lower
speed transmission onto a single communication
line of higher capacity.
MULTIPLEXING
TECHNIQUES

TIME DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

SYNCHRONOUS /
STATICAL TDM

FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

ASYNCHRONOUS /
STATISTICAL TDM

Multiplexing Techniques

FREQUENCY
DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Splits
the
available
bandwidth for a given
communication link into
a number of channels
equal to the number of
different devices being
multiplexed.

Multiplexing Techniques

TIME
DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Splits up the capacity of
the line by assigning
each user a particular
time slot, during which
its data is transmitted
over the communication
link.

Multiplexing Techniques
2 Types of TDMs
1. SYNCHRONOUS / STATICAL TDM
> high speed data is divided into frames where
each channel has a fixed number of timeslots. The
number of timeslots depends on the data speed of
the terminal.

2. ASYNCHRONOUS / STATISTICAL TDM

> instead of assigning a fixed number of timeslots


to each channel, the number of timeslots is
determined by how much of the total amount of
data to be transmitted each has. Instead of
transmitting empty timeslots, ATDM transmits
channel-number and data only from active
terminals.

Open System Interconnect (OSI) Layer


The OSI model was created by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). It was
patterned after and is similar to the IBM layered
networking
scheme,
Systems
Network
Architecture (SNA).

OSI Reference Model


Provides a common basis for the coordination of
standards
development
for
systems
interconnection,
while
allowing
existing
standards to be placed into perspective within
the overall OSI Reference Model

SEVEN OSI LAYERS


APPLICATION LAYER
PRESENTATION LAYER

SESSION LAYER
TRANSPORT LAYER
NETWORK LAYER
DATA LINK LAYER

PHYSICAL LAYER

Seven OSI Layers


1. PHYSICAL LAYER
Responsible for the transmission of bit stream over a
communication channel.
Transmits the unstructured raw bit stream over a
physical medium and describes the electrical, mechanical
and functional interface to the carrier.

Performs transmission and reception on the network


medium.
Functional, electrical, physical specifications.

Seven OSI Layers


2. DATA LINK LAYER
Provide error free transmission of information between two
end stations attached to the same physical cable.
Manages the flow of the data bit stream in and out of each
network node.
Transfers units of information to other end of physical link.
Framing and synchronization.
Error control and recovery.
Message sequence control.
Message acknowledgement.
Link initialization and disconnection.
Addressing

Seven OSI Layers


3. NETWORK LAYER
Controls the operation of the network or sub-network.
Decides which physical pathway the data should take
based on the network conditions, priorities of service
and other factors.

Switches and routes information to any node .


Provides the means to establish, maintain and
terminate connections between systems

Seven OSI Layers


4. TRANSPORT LAYER

Forms the interface between the higher applicationoriented layers and the underlying networkdependent protocol layers.
Provides end-to-end data integrity and quality of
service.
Allows end users to communicate oblivious to
network constraints imposed by the lower levels

Seven OSI Layers


5. SESSION LAYER
Provides the means for two application layer entities to
synchronize and manage their data exchange.
Coordinates interaction between end-to-end application
processes.
Sets up communication channels, manages the communication
and terminates the connections.
Is the users true interface to the network.

Handles the log-on / log-off functions and describes the


authentication procedures

Seven OSI Layers


6. PRESENTATION LAYER
Formats the data to be presented to the Application
Layer.
Can be viewed as a translator for the network and
provides a common representation for data that can be
used between the application processes.

Provides code conversion and data reformatting.


Handles display functions, file formatting, code
conversion, and data compression and encryption.

Seven OSI Layers


7. APPLICATION LAYER
Serves as a window for the application process to access
the networking environment.
Represents the services that directly support users and
application tasks.

Selects appropriate service for applications (user interface).


Contains recommendations for the specific user programs.

Network Protocols
Are standards that allow computers to
communicate

Define how computers should identify one


another on a network

Sets of rules that specify precisely how


different parts of the network interact to
allow devices to communicate with one
another

A typical protocol defines the following:


How computers should identify one
another on a network

The form that the data should take in


transit

How the information should be


processed once it reaches its final
destination
Procedures for handling lost or
damaged transmission or packets

HANDSHAKING

Exchange of predetermined signals between two devices


establishing a connection; usually a part of communication
protocols.

POLLING

Permanent Master-Slave relationship


The master controls the data flow by polling and selecting the
slaves
All data are transmitted between the master and slaves selected
one at a time

CONTENTION

Neither end of the data link has permanent control over the link
To transmit data, a station must contend for the master status
Station at the other end of the data link will then become a slave
Data are transmitted from Master to Slave
The master controls flow of data along the link

PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS

PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
i. Link Control
Specifies the rules for data transfer between
two stations
a. Link Initialization data link and stations at
both ends are in idle state when there is no
data exchange

b.
c.
d.
e.

Link Termination
Link Recovery
Relationship of stations
Mode of operation

PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
ii. Synchronization
Data are sent in blocks or frames. The
beginning and end of each block must be
clearly identifiable

For character oriented protocol


- character synchronization
- message synchronization

For bit oriented protocol


- frame synchronization

PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
iii. Flow Control

To ensure that the transmitter does not


overwhelm the receiver

a. Stop and Wait Scheme

Half duplex operation

b. Sliding Window Scheme


Full duplex operation

iv. Error Control


v. Addressing

NETWORK BREADTH
A. Local Area Network (LAN)
Collection of independent computers which
can communicate with one another over a
shared medium, usually confined to a small
geographical area, such as a single building or
a college campus.

NETWORK BREADTH
B. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Are developed primarily by data carriers in
response to the demand to interconnect LANs
across metropolitan area.

NETWORK BREADTH
C. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Essentially interconnected LANs and MANs,
they can be homogenous (like networks) but
are often heterogonous (different topologies).
It can span campuses, cities, or continents.

Local Area Network (LAN)


Are a special, high speed, dedicated network
that provides data communications capability
within an office or group of offices in a campus
environment.
Provide a simple and cost effective means of
interconnecting data equipment on a single site,
permitting each user to communicate with any
other end to share central resources such as
printers and data stores.

Local Area Network (LAN)


Applications:
1. Sharing resources
2. Quick communication
3. Sharing work documents
4. Sharing applications

IEEE LAN Standard 802.3


Defines rules for configuring an Ethernet as well
as specifying how elements in a network interact
with one another.
IEEE Standard 8 0 2.3

February
year 1980

> Ethernet was chosen in honor of the undefined


substance called ether through which it was once
thought electromagnetic radiation propagated.

Types of Ethernet Media


1. Thick Wire or 10Base5

Generally used to create large backbones


A thick, hefty, coaxial cable which can support as
many as 100 nodes in a bus topology and a segment
can be up to 500 meters long
0.4 inch, RG11
Ethernet segment < 500 m. each
Transceivers attach workstations to the cable
Distance between transceivers > 2.5 m.
1,024 stations per network
Often called Thick Net

10BASE5

Types of Ethernet Media


2. Thin Coax or 10Base2

Is considerably thinner and more flexible than Thick


Wire, but it can support 30 nodes, each at least 0.5
m apart. Each segment must not be longer than 185
meters
A thin coax segment is actually composed of many
lengths of cables, each with a BNC type connector
on both ends
0.2 inch RG58 ohm cable
Thin Ethernet segment < 185 m. each
Distance between T-connectors > 0.5 m
30 stations maximum per segment
10 Mbps data transmission

10BASE2

Types of Ethernet Media


3. Unshielded Twisted Pair or 10BaseT

Uses a star topology


A computer is located at one end of the segment
and the other end is terminated in a central location
with a repeater or hub
UTP segments are limited to 100 meters
Each node is connected to a central point called Hub
Problem node can be easily isolated
Easy to add user or segment
Maximum distance to network hub < 100m

10BASE-T

Types of Ethernet Media


4. Fiber Optic or 10BaseFL

Invaluable for situations where electronic emissions


and environmental hazards are concern
Effectively insulate networking equipment since they
do not conduct electricity
Allows segments up to 2 km long

10BASE-FL

LAN Terms

repeater

hub
node
gateway

router
transceiver

bridge

LAN Terms
1. NODE

An active device connected to the network, such as


a computer or a piece of networking equipment like
a repeater, a bridge or a router

2. REPEATER

Is relatively simple LAN devices which allow longer


transmission distances along a given LAN medium
and operate at the physical layer only
Takes an incoming signal and regenerate it, boosting
its amplitude back to its original strength and
eliminating distortions
Used not to interconnect dissimilar networks but to
connect individual network segments to form a
larger extended network

LAN Terms
3. BRIDGES

Connect separate Ethernets together


Are used to interconnect physically distinct networks

4. TRANSCEIVER

Is used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet


media
Also known as Media Attachment Units (MAUs),
attach to the Ethernet cable and provide an
Application User Interface (AUI), connector for the
computer

LAN Terms
5. HUB

Is a central connection point for cables radiating out


to multiple stations
Also called Multiport repeaters or concentrator

6. ROUTER

Its primary purpose is to find the best path from one


network to another and forward packets between
them

7. GATEWAY

A LAN device which is used to interconnect networks


that may have entirely different architectures

LAN Protocols
1. TCP / IP

Used by UNIX systems


Used by the Internet
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Guaranteed delivery, handles retransmission,
connection oriented
IP (Internet Protocol)
Takes care of routing, non-guaranteed delivery,
connectionless UNIX a multitasking, multi-user
computer operating system

LAN Protocols
2. DECNetTM

Digital Equipment Corporation proprietary network


architecture
Runs on point-to-point, X.25, and Ethernet networks

3. Apple Talk

A communication protocol developed by Apple


Computer to allow networking between Macintoshes

4. LAT (Local Area Transport)

A DEC proprietary network communication protocol


based on the idea of a relatively small, known
number of hosts on a local area network sending
small network packets at regular intervals
Will not work on a WAN scale, as TCP / IP does

LAN Architectures
1. PEER-TO-PEER LAN

No single station is intended to control all LAN


operations or resources.

LAN Architectures
2. CLIENT SERVER LAN

One computer will have control of the network,


running the network operating system software.

LAN Hardware
1. NETWORK ADAPTER BOARD

2.
3.
4.
5.

Provides the physical and


electronic connection between
the computer and the network
Provides the interface to the
I/O bus and to the LAN cable

CABLING
SERVERS
REPEATERS
HUBS AND CONCENTRATORS

NETWORK ADAPTER
BOARD

Servers
FILE SERVER
A network computer with a
large hard disk drive where
files or applications are saved
from the entire LAN

DATA BASE SERVER


Could
be
physically
implemented in the same
way as a file server, but with
a specific responsibility of
serving
a
data
base
application and data base
files to the LAN

Servers
COMMUNICATION SERVER
A networked PC or other
computer connected to one or
more communication devices
such as modem, multiplexer or
other transmission equipment

PRINT SERVER
A networked PC connected to
a printer
Should be centrally located
where it can be easily shared
by a workgroup

BASEBAND TRANSMISSION

A transmitting station uses the entire capacity or


bandwidth of transmission medium
Each device gets its own turn to transmit
Its advantage are lower components cost and
simplicity of installation and maintenance

BROADBAND TRANSMISSION

Provides relatively higher capacity transmission


technique in which one cable can simultaneously
carry signals from several devices
Have the benefit of being able to support many
stations over a long distance and to carry voice,
video, and data simultaneously but they are
expensive in very difficult to set up and test

Baseband Transmission

Broadband Transmission

Available Networks
1. ETHERNET

Strikes a good balance between speed, price and


ease of installation
Wide acceptance into the computer marketplace
Ability to support virtually all popular network
protocols

2. TOKEN RING
3. FDDI (FIBER DATA DISTRIBUTED INTERFACE)
4. CDDI (COPPER DATA DISTRIBUTED INTERFACE)

ETHERNET

FDDI

TOKEN
RING

LAN Components
1. COMPUTERS
2. FILE SERVER

A computer that centrally stores the data to be


shared
It is where shared equipment (hard disk, printers,
modems) are connected

3. NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

The software that runs on the file server and


provides the functions for data and equipment
sharing

LAN Components
4. NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS

Devices installed in a computer that provide the


physical connection to the LAN through the cabling

5. CABLES / TRANSMISSION MEDIA


6. EXTENSION DEVICES

Devices like repeaters and bridges that extend the


range of the LAN

7. APPLICATION SOFTWARE

INTERNET

A global computer network


that connects thousands of
networks together allowing
them to exchange files, sent
messages, download graphics
and text, and share other
resources.

ARPANET

Advanced Research Projects


Agency Network
Computer network which broke
information into small chunks
known as packets

Internet Terms
WORLD WIDE WEB
A menu based search tool that
enables users to access the Internet
resources world wide while using
links embedded documents
This linked documents allow users
to move easily from place to place
within the Internet in a nonlinear
fashion

CYBERSPACE
A term coined by William Gibson in
his fantasy novel, Neuromancer to
describe the world of computers
and the society that gathers around
them

Internet Terms
GOPHER

A menu based program used to


explore and access the Internet
resources

NETSCAPE NAVIGATOR
Essentially a tool or program
that makes Internet surfing a
lot easier
Capable of showing graphics
and movies, producing audio or
music and best of all, you can
download it all for free, if the
author of the webpage permits
you to do so

Internet Terms
TELNET
A program that allows
Internet nodes to log-in
and access program and
other data on another
Internet node
Enables you to connect
outside your server, for
example, outside the
country

MINIMUM SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS


386 or better CPUs
At least 40 MB free hard disk space

At least 8 MB RAM
Video Graphics Adapter monitor
Modem

Windows 3.1 or higher

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)


Send messages back and forth between
computers that are electronically connected

Procedure

1. User types a message onto the computer while


signed on the Internet or an online service.
Message may include:
a. Text
b. Graphics
c. Files
d. Multimedia

2. User then tells the system where to send the


message.
3. The message is sent over the Internet until it
reaches its final destination.

Functions of E-mail
1.
2.
3.
4.

Creation
Sending
Reception
Storage

E-mail Address Basic Structure


1. Username
2. Organizations name
3. Domain
4. Suffix

E-mail Address Basic Structure


Format: Username@organization.[domain].suffix
Domain could be:
com
commercial
edu
educational
net
network
org
organization
mil
military
gov
government
ngo
non-governmental organization

Public Data Network


A switched data communication network similar
to the PSTN except that a PDN is designed for
transferring data only.
Combines VANs and packet switching network.

VAN Value Added Network


Adds value to the services or facilities provided
by a common carrier to provide new types of
communications services

PACKET SWITCHING
Involves dividing data messages into small bundles of
information and transmitting them thru communications
network to their intended destination.
Is a switching technique wherein the message is divided
into blocks called packets preceded and followed by
control characters which allow the network to decide on
the final destination. Switching is done on a packet-bypacket basis.

CIRCUIT SWITCHING (TRANSPARENT SWITCH)


Used for making a standard telephone call on the PSTN.
A switching technique wherein a direct connection has to
be set up through the network as in a telephone
exchange but in a higher speed to avoid long delays.
Switching is done on a call-by-call basis.

MESSAGE SWITCHING (TRANSACTIONAL SWITCH)


A form with store and forward network
Data are transmitted into the network and stored in a
switch
The network transfer the data from switch to switch
when it is convenient to do so

X.25
Defines the structures contents and sequencing
procedures for the transmission of data among
DTE, DCE and a public data network.

X.25 Packet Format


1. Call request packet
2. Data transfer packet
3. Call clearing
Note:

An X.25 packet contains 5 bytes of


header and 128 bytes of user data.

X.25 Operation
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.

Data is taken from the source device and is stored for processing and to make
retransmission possible.
Packet envelope is then placed around the data. This envelope contains the address
of the destination and information for error detection.
Based on the packet envelope information, the network makes a determination as
to where the data should now be sent.
A frame envelope is placed around the packet envelope which is responsible for
ensuring data integrity across a single physical line.
The data is then sent, via the physical layer, over the appropriate copper or fiber or
satellite facility to the next node in the network
In the next node, the data is once again stored.
It is examined for errors. If error is found, the faulty data can be retransmitted
from the previous node, where it was stored before transmission.
If no error is found, the network strip off the frame envelope and look at the packet
within the frame to determine the destination of this data.
If necessary, it will then route it to yet another node. This process will continue
until the ultimate destination node is reached.
When the final node is reached, all envelopes are examined, and then removed,
and the data is delivered to the endpoint device.

X.25 Layers
1. Link layer (frame level)
2. Network layer (packet level)
3. Physical layer

PAD Packet Assembler / Disassembler


Assembles and disassembles data packets for
X.25 network communications

VIRTUAL CIRCUIT
Permit communications between distinct network
elements through any number of intermediate node
without the dedication of portion of the physical circuits.

Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC)


Logically equivalent to a 2-point dedicated
private line circuit except that it is slower
Switched Virtual Circuit
Logically equivalent to making a telephone call
thru the DDD network except that no end-to-end
connector is made
A one to many arrangement
A virtual circuit set up on a call-by-call basis

FRAME RELAY
A wide area network
technology that uses
fast packet switching
technique to meet the
demands of high speed
bursty traffic.
A technique used in
data transport network
where error checking is
performed end-to-end
instead of on each
individual link.

Frame Relay Network

Frame Relay Operation


1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

6.

In frame relay technology, an intelligent endpoint, such as LAN, will


send its data to the link layer.
No more storing of data before sending to another node. When each
node receives the beginning of a frame, it may immediately transmit
that frame to the next node without waiting for the whole frame to be
received and stored, therefore, a much faster transmission and
switching.
An envelope (specifically, LAPD frame) is added. Alternatively, the
intelligent endpoint may send the data to the network already
encapsulated in the LAPD frame.
The LAPD frame contains routing information, eliminating the need for
the network to examine level three. Instead, the frame itself is
examined for a destination and the routing takes place at the
networks frame layer.
No error correction in the frame relay nodes because frame relay relies
on low bit error rate lines to minimize errors, and on intelligent
endpoints running an end-to-end protocol across the network to
recover from the few errors that do occur.
After reaching its destination node, the envelope is removed and the
data is delivered to the endpoint.

TWO TYPES OF CONGESTION IN FRAME RELAY


1. Receiver Congestion
2. Line Congestion

FECN - Forward Explicit Congestion Notification


BECN - Backward Explicit Congestion Notification

Error Control in Frame Relay

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) error detection


Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) error correction
DE Discard Eligibility

Definition of Terms
1. CIR Committed Information Rate
The average rate (in bps) at which the network
guarantees to transfer information units over a
measurement interval.
2. Bc Committed Burst Size
The maximum number of information units that
can be transmitted during the time interval.
3. Be
The maximum number of uncommitted
information units that the network will attempt
to carry during the time interval

Frame Relay Equipment


1.
2.
3.
4.

Bridge
Router
Host
Frame Relay Access Device
Frame Sizes
(variable lengths)

Maximum number of
bytes
Per frame

Ethernet

1500 bytes

Token frame

4.096 Mbps

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)


A cell-based, connection oriented, switching and
multiplexing technology that allows voice, video
and data to be sent along the same network.
A high speed, connection oriented switching and
multiplexing technology that uses 53 byte cells
(5-byte header, 48-byte payload) to transmit
different types of traffic simultaneously, including
voice, video and data. It is asynchronous in that
information streams can be sent independently
without a common clock.

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

ATM Components
1. Routers and switches to connect carrier on a
global basis
2. Backbone devices to connect all the LANs
within a large organization
3. Switches and adapters which link desktop
computers to high speed ATM connection for
running multimedia applications

ATM Media

1. Coaxial cables
2. Twisted pair cables
3. Fiber optic cables

Constant bit rate:


Variable bit rate:

voice and video


data

ATM LAYERS

ATM LAYERS
1. Physical Layer
Responsible for the electrical or optical
transmission and reception along the physical
media between two devices.
2. ATM Layer (Network Layer)
Deals with moving cells from source to destination
Involves routing algorithms and protocols within
the ATM switches
3. ATM Adaptation Layer
Adapts user traffic to a cell format
4. ATM Services and Application Layer

ATM INTERFACES
1. User to Network Interface (UNI)
Boundary between a host and an ATM network

2. Network to Network Interface (NNI)


A line between two ATM switches

3. Data Exchange Interface (DXI)

4. Intercarrier Interface (ICI)

ATM INTERFACES

ATM APPLICATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Home working
Home shopping
Video on demand
Interactive multimedia games
Distance learning

ATM Speeds:
FR Speeds:
Bit Error Rate:
ATM: 10-12
X.25: 10-6

2.4 Gbps
1.024 Gbps

ISDN (INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK)

A digital telecommunications technology that


can simultaneously transmit voice and data over
the same pair of telephone wires.

ISDN Channels
1. B-channel (Bearer Channel)

Used to carry the digital information


Building block of the ISDN
64 kbps

Used to carry signaling and supervisory information to the


network
Kbps (BRI) or 64 kbps (PRI)

Provided for user information at higher bit rates


Combination of several B channels

2. D-channel

3. H channel
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

H0
H11
H12
H21
H22
H4

384 kbps (6 B channels)


1.536 Mbps (24 B channels)
1.92 Mbps (30 B channels)
32 Mbps (512 B channels)
44 Mbps (690 B channels)
135 Mbps (2112 B channels)

TYPES OF ISDN ACCESS INTERFACES


1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
2B + D
For individual users

2. Primary rate Interface (PRI)


For business with large data needs

American 23B + D (T1 = 1.544 Mbps)


European 30B + D (E1 = 2.048 Mbps)

3. Broadband ISDN
150 Mbps
For future HDTV projects
H channels

CUSTOMER PREMISES EQUIPMENT

NTE (Network Termination Equipment)


Draws the demarcation line between the
ISDN network and your equipment
Device responsible for converting the 2-wire
line from your local exchange into a 4-wire
line configuration to couple with the ISDN
equipment

CUSTOMER PREMISES EQUIPMENT

TA (Terminal Adapter)
Allows a non-ISDN equipment to be
connected to the ISDN line
Analog signal are digitized and put into ISDN
format before entering the network

ISDN APPLICATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Digital telephony
Video communications
Leased line overflow or Back-up
LAN and WAN
Internet access

36. Redundancy means the ________


a.
b.
c.
d.

Transmission rate of the system


Symbols are to be repeated
Time between failures
Time between successes

37. The digital information is contained in


both the amplitude and phase of the
modulated carrier.
a.
b.
c.
d.

PSK
FSK
QAM
ASK

38.The input signal is a binary data signal


and a limited number of output phases
are possible.
a.
b.
c.
d.

PSK
FSK
QAM
ASK

39.A radio channel is composed of _____ VB


channels.
a.
b.
c.
d.

1800
900
10800
8064

40.What equation defines the composition


of an ISDN basic access line?
a.
b.
c.
d.

2B + D
B+D
B + 2D
2B + 2D

41.A digital network where voice,, video,


text and data are multiplied into as ingle
network
for
processing
and
are
transmitted prior to use.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Frame delay
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
ISDN
Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)

42.Non-ISDN equivalent can be connected


to ISDN line by the use of _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Terminal equipment
Terminal adapter
Modem
Network adaptor

43.A special voice encoder / decoder used in


digitizing speech signal only is
a.
b.
c.
d.

PCM
PWM
Vocoder
PFM

44.Equation used to determine the number


of Hamming bits in the Hamming code.
a.
b.
c.
d.

2
n
2
n
2
2n

<

m
m
m
m

+
+
+
+

n
n
n
n

+
+
+
+

1
1
1
1

45.What
determine
which
network
configuration is most appropriate?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Application layer
Presentation layer
Network layer
Data link layer

46.Ethernet is a baseband system using


CSMA/CD operating at _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.

10
20
30
40

Mbps
Mbps
Mbps
Mbps

47.Used of coaxial cables in interconnecting


networks is limited to an overall length of
_______.
a.
b.
c.
d.

1500
1500
1500
1500

ft
m
km
kft

48.What identifies how the stations are


interconnected in a network?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Topology
Architecture
Topology or architecture
Topology and architecture

49.________ is a data communications


network designed to provide two-way
communications between a large varieties of
data communication terminal equipment
within a relatively small geographic area.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Private area network


Local area network
Wide area network
Ethernet

50._______ is the mode of transmission in


public data network in which data are
transferred from source to the network
then to the destination in an asynchronous
data format.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Synchronous mode
Start / stop mode
Packet mode
Circuit mode

51.A seven digit character can represent one


of ________ possibilities.
a.
b.
c.
d.

7
14
64
128

52._______ is defined to be the maximum


rate at which information can be
transmitted through a channel.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Bit rate
Baud rate
Coding
Channel capacity

53.Who developed the fixed-length binary


code for telegraphy?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Samuel Morse
Emile Baudot
Alexander Graham Bell
Guglielmo Marconi

54.Inventor of pulse code modulation for


the digital encoding of speech signals.
a.
b.
c.
d.

R. V. L. Hartley
J. R. Carson
H. Nyquist
Alex Reeves

55.Serial binary data interchange between


DTE and DCE at rates up to 20 kbps. RS
232 is its EIA equivalent.
a.
b.
c.
d.

V.26
V.24
V.42
V.32

56.RS 232 is normally an interface between


DTE and DCE. What is its signal rate?
a.
b.
c.
d.

20
30
40
50

kbps
kbps
kbps
kbps

57.What is multiplexing?
a. The process of increasing bandwidth on a channel
b. A technique that enables more than one data source
to share the use of a common line
c. Mailing letter at the post office
d. The ability to share frequency by time

58.In ______ modulation the carrier is a


periodic rain pulses.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Amplitude
Analog
Digital
Pulse

59.Which of the following pulse modulation


techniques is a digital transmission
system?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Pulse
Pulse
Pulse
Pulse

duration modulation
position modulation
width modulation
code modulation

60.A process where the higher amplitude


analog signals are compressed prior to
transmission then expanded at the
receiver.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Compressing
Expanding
Encoding
Companding

61._______ uses a single bit PCM code to


achieve a digital transmission of analog
signal.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Quadrature amplitude modulation


Frequency shift keying
Delta modulation
Phase modulation

62.The line speed of Bell system T1 carrier


system is
a.
b.
c.
d.

64 kbps
3.152 Mbps
1.544 Mbps
6.312 Mbps

63.How many channels does a super group


have?
a.
b.
c.
d.

60
600
1800
10800

64.The output frequency at the channel


combiner of channel 7 is
a.
b.
c.
d.

76
80
84
88

80
84
88
92

kHz
kHz
kHz
kHz

65.______ was the first fixed-length 5-bit


character code.
a.
b.
c.
d.

EBCDIC
ASCII
Morse code
Baudot code

66.Amplitude shift keying is also known as


________.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Up / down keying
On / off keying
Front / back keying
I / O keying

67.PCM system require ________.


a.
b.
c.
d.

Analog signal
Large bandwidth
Digital signals
Fiber optics cable

68.Which theorem sets the limit on the


maximum capacity of a channel with a
given noise level?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Nyquist theorem
Hartley theorem
Shannon-Hartley theorem
Shannon theorem

69._______ is the difference between the


original and reconstructed signal.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Quantizing noise
Fade margin
Noise margin
Noise figure

70.What are the steps to follow to produce a


PCM signal?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Sampling, coding and quantizing


Sampling, quantizing and coding
Quantizing, sampling and coding
Coding, quantizing and sampling

71.______ identifies how the different


stations in a multipoint system are
interconnected.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Network topology
Star network
Ring topology
Bus network

72.A transmission where data are inputted


directly on the cable.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Broadband
Baseband
Digital
Analog

73.Synchronous modems cost more than


asynchronous modems because
a.
b.
c.
d.

They are larger


They must contain clock recovery circuits
The production volume is larger
They must operate on a larger bandwidth

74.When one station is designated as


master and the rest of the stations are
considered slaves, message handling is
______.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Store and forward


Polling
CSMA / CD
Token passing

75.A store and forward switching.


a.
b.
c.
d.

Circuit switching
Packet switching
Message switching
PSTN

76.A timing signal generated by


oscillating circuit that is used
synchronize data transmission.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Clock
Star bit
Quantizing
BCC

an
to

77.Which system allows different types of


networks to be linked together?
a.
b.
c.
d.

OSI
CCITT
Bell system
AT&T

78.A ______ that interconnects LAN having


identical protocols at the physical and
data link layers.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Bridge
Router
Gateway
Hub

79.A _____ that interconnects LAN that has


totally different protocols and format.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Bridge
Router
Gateway
Hub

80.All bits in a character can be sent /


received simultaneously.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Serial data
Parallel data
Full duplex
Half duplex

81.A system that perform parallel-to-series


conversion of a data link.
a.
b.
c.
d.

DTE
DCE
Modem
FEP

82.Which mode of transmission achieves


less than full duplex but more than half
duplex?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Full/full duplex
Echoplex
Isochronous
Synchronous

83.Rules governing the transmission of


digital information.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Data communications standard


Line protocol
Isochronous
Digital communications

84.Codes must be
a. Eight bits per character
b. Either seven or eight bits per character
c. Agreed upon in advance between sender and
receiver
d. The same in all modem computers

85.Clear to send is a signal passed from the


local modem to the local terminal when
data port is ready to transmit data. It
usually occurs in response to
a.
b.
c.
d.

Data set ready


Request to send
Data terminal ready
Data carrier detect

86.Digital
to
analog
converter
in
synchronous modems send signals to the
a.
b.
c.
d.

Modulator
Transmission lines
Terminal
Equalizer

87.What is the data rate of the ISDN Basic


access B channel?
a.
b.
c.
d.

32 kbps
64 kbps
144 kbps
192 kbps

88.How many bits are there to present 8


combinations?
a.
b.
c.
d.

3
4
2
5

89.How many number of equiprobable


events are there for 8-bits of information?
a.
b.
c.
d.

256
132
2400
512

90.Which character code is used without


parity bit?
a.
b.
c.
d.

CCITT number 2
ASCII
CCITT number 5
EBCDIC

91.The percentage of bit errors relative to a


specific number of bits received; usually
expressed as a number referenced to a
power of ten.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Bit error rate


Transmission rate
Distortion
Parity check

92.The process of one type of device


imitating another via a hardware /
software package.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Conversion
Emulation
Imitation
Simultation

93.A digital modulation technique that


results in two different frequencies
representing binary 1 and 0.
a.
b.
c.
d.

FSK
QPSK
ASK
DPSK

94.One dit is equal to ____ bits.


a.
b.
c.
d.

3
3.5
3.32
4

95.A quadratic signaling


possible states.
a.
b.
c.
d.

16
4
8
32

has

______

96.What is the smallest unit of information


in binary transmission system?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Byte
Digit
Bit
Nibble

97.The lowest layer in the ISO protocol


hierarchy.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Network layer
Physical layer
Transport layer
Data link layer

98.Modem is referred to as
a.
b.
c.
d.

Universal asynchronous receiver transmitter


Universal synchronous receiver transmitter
Data terminal equipment
Data communication equipment

99.A signaling method relating to a


multiplicity of circuits is conveyed over a
single channel by labeled messages.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Code signaling
Synchronous
Common channel signaling
Asynchronous

100._______ is a network operating system


within several buildings in compound.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Internet
Novell netware
10Base-T
Intranet

101.What is the Nyquist sample rate for a


voice input of 10 kHz?
a.
b.
c.
d.

10
20
30
40

kHz
kHz
kHz
kHz

102.What is the minimum number of bits


required in PCM code for a range of
10,000?
a.
b.
c.
d.

12
9
14
8

103. How many levels can be represented in


PCM transmission system if the binary
numbers 00000000 to 11111111 are used
to represent signal levels?
a.
b.
c.
d.

256
64
128
512

104.A symbol to represent a data


communications facility within the wide
area network.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Hub
Cloud
Server
Gateway

105.All bits in a character are sent and


received _______ in serial port.
a.
b.
c.
d.

One at a time
Simultaneously
In group of 2 bits
In group of 3 bits

106.Message switching is ______ network.


a.
b.
c.
d.

Hold and forward


Forward
Hold
Store and forward

107.Packet switching is ______ network.


a.
b.
c.
d.

Hold and forward


Forward
Hold
Store and forward

108.Polling is an invitation by the primary to


secondary equipment to _______ a
message.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Store
Receive
Transmit
Read

109.An 8-bit character code.


a.
b.
c.
d.

EBDCDIC
BAUDOT
ASCII
HOLLERITH

110. Equipment that interfaces the data


terminal equipment to the analog
transmission line.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Modem
Muldem
Multiplexer
Codec

111.A communication network design for


transferring data from one point to
another.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Public Telephone Network


Public Data Network
Value Added Network
Packet Switching Network

112.A conceptual network in which all


transmission lines handle digital or
digitized data.
a.
b.
c.
d.

LAN
WAN
ISDN
PSTN

113.A data communications component that


provides control or supporting services
for other computers , terminals or
devices in a network.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Host
Communication controller
Cluster controller
Interface equipment

114.Which data network configuration let


computers share their resources?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Peer to peer
Hierarchical
PVC
LAN

115.A means of improving the quality of a


private-line circuit by adding amplifiers
and equalizer to it.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Line
Line
Line
Line

equalizer
amplifying
conditioning
encoding

116.Direct distance dialing (DDD) network is


commonly called
a.
b.
c.
d.

Private-line network
PT network
Dial-up network
Trunk network

117.A type of server that allows multiple


users to take advantage of a single
printing device.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Print
Client
Network
File

118.______ ensures that the transmitter


and the receiver agree on a prescribed
time slot for the occurrence of a bit.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Bit or clock synchronization


Modem or carrier synchronization
Character synchronization
Message synchronization

119.Characters that must be transmitted


other than the data are called
a.
b.
c.
d.

Parity
Error
Overhead
Hamming bits

120.The generating power polynomial x +


5
4
2
1
x + x + x + x + x is equivalent
a.
b.
c.
d.

101101110
101101111
010010001
10110111

121.A central device into which each node


of a star network is directly connected
a.
b.
c.
d.

Hub
Central pointer
Router
Repeater

122.To _____ is to send a file to a remote


computer.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Upload
Download
Call
Transmit

123.A microcomputer attached to a network


requires a
a.
b.
c.
d.

NIC
RS 232
Software
Protocol

124.Digital telephones and integrated voicedata workstations are examples of what


type of ISDN equipment?
a.
b.
c.
d.

TE
TA
NT2
TP

125.How many OSI layers are covered


under the X.25 standard?
a.
b.
c.
d.

3
4
7
2

126.With ______, a station monitors the line


to determine if the line is busy.
a.
b.
c.
d.

CSMA/CD
CSMA/CA
Token passing
PDDI

127.CCITT standard concentrating on data


communications over the telephone
network.
a.
b.
c.
d.

V series
X series
I series
T series

128.Broadband uses
a.
b.
c.
d.

TDM
Space multiplexing
FDM
Statistical multiplexing

129.______ uses the connecting medium as


a single-channel device.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Broadband transmission
Digital transmission
Base band transmission
Analog transmission

130.Which is considered as the fastest LAN


topology?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Ring
Bus
Star
Tree

131.What is the most widely used data


communications code?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Gray
EBCDIC
Baudot
ASCII

132.Mark and space refer respectively to


a.
b.
c.
d.

1 and 0
Dot and dash
Message and interval
On and off

133.What is the other name for parity?


a.
b.
c.
d.

BCC
LRC
VRC
CRC

134.A device that performs routing functions


and protocol translation from one
network to another.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Gateway
Bridge
Router
Repeater

135.Not important characteristic of the


physical layer.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Electrical
Mechanical
Logical
All of them

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