30

And, or, but, so etc

243 Summary
We can use a conjunction to link two main clauses together in a sentence.
Tom had no food, and he had to pay the rent.
We can use an adverb or a prepositional phrase to link the meaning of two main
clauses or two sentences.
Tom had no food, and he also had to pay the rent.
Tom had no food. He also had to pay the rent.
Tom had to buy some food. Besides that, there was the rent.
Words meaning 'and' 244
and, too, as well (as), either, also, in addition (to), besides, furthermore, moreover,
both... and..., not only... but also...
Words meaning 'or' 245
or, either
...or...,
neither...

nor...

Words meaning 'but' 246

but, though, however, nevertheless, even so, all the same, although, even though,
in spite of, despite, whereas, while, on the other hand
Words meaning 'so' 247
so, therefore, as a result (of), in consequence (of)

244 Words meaning 'and'

1

We can use and to link two clauses. 239(1)

Gene Tunney was a boxer, and he lectured on Shakespeare.
The adverbs too and as well are more emphatic than and.
Gene Tunney was a boxer. He lectured on Shakespeare, too/as well.
These adverbs usually come in end position.
The negative is either.
I haven't got a car, and I haven't got a bike either.
NOT I haven't got a bike too/as well.
Also usually goes in mid position.
Gene Tunney was a boxer, and he also lectured on Shakespeare.

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We can use these forms to make an additional point, for example when developing
an argument.
I've got all my usual work, and in addition I've got to write a report.
The material is very strong. Besides, it is cheap to produce.
It's raining quite hard. What's more, I have no umbrella.
Further(more) and moreover are a little formal.
The country had suffered greatly during the war. Furthermore/Moreover, it had
no money.
These matters are giving cause for concern. Further, I must draw your attention to
a recent press report.
And then and on top of that are informal.
I'm too busy to travel all that way. And then there's the expense.
We've got workmen in the house. On top of that, my sister is staying with us.
NOTE

Plus as a conjunction is informal.

I've got all my usual work, plus I've got to write a report.

We can use the prepositions as well as, in addition to and besides with a noun or
gerund.
Gene Tunney was a university lecturer as well as a boxer.
In addition to doing all my usual work, I've got to write a report.
We can also use along with and together with before a noun.
I've got my sister to look after along with the workmen.
Together with a film crew, they are walking towards the South Pole.
To add emphasis we can use both... and or not only ...but also.
Gene Tunney was both a boxer and a Shakespeare scholar.
He was not only a boxer, but he also lectured at Yale University.

245 Words meaning 'or'

We use or to express an alternative. Either... or is more emphatic.
You can go right or left.
You can go either right or left.
I've either left my bag on the bus or at the office.
Either you do the job yourself, or we pay someone to do it.
For or in questions, 31.
NOTE

a We can also use alternatively.

We can cancel the meeting. Alternatively, we can find somewhere else to hold it.

b Or can mean 'if not'.

We'd better hurry, or (else) we'll be late/otherwise we'll be late.

In the negative we can use not ...or, but neither... nor is more emphatic and a
little more formal.
The road was closed. I couldn't go right or left.
The road was closed. I could go neither right nor left.
A deaf-mute is someone who can't hear or speak.
A deaf-mute is someone who can neither hear nor speak.
Neither the post office nor the bank was/were open.

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246 Words meaning 'but'

246 Words meaning 'but'

1

As well as the conjunction but, we can use the adverb though.

We found an Information Centre, but it was closed.
We found an Information Centre. It was closed, though.
But always comes at the beginning of the clause and though (as an adverb) in end
position. Though is rather informal.
NOTE

a We can also use though as a short form of the conjunction although. (3)
We found an Information Centre, though it was closed.
b There is a special use of may in a clause followed by but.
These pens are cheap/may be cheap, but they're useless.

We can also use the adverbs however and nevertheless.

The Great Fire destroyed much of London. However/Nevertheless, only six people
lost their lives.
These adverbs are a little formal. They often go in front or end position. They can
also sometimes go in mid position or after the subject.
Only six people, however, lost their lives.
We can also use even so and all the same. They usually go in front or end position.
She has lots of friends. Even so/All the same she often feels lonely.
NOTE

Yet and still are usually adverbs of time; 210(2). Yet can also be a conjunction meaning
'but'. It is a little formal.
There was widespread destruction, yet only six people died.
Still can be an adverb meaning 'but'.
I know flying is safe. Still, you won't find me on an aeroplane.

We can use a sub clause with the conjunction although. The sub clause comes
before or after the main clause.
Although the Great Fire destroyed much of London, only six people died.
I drank the beer although I didn't want it.

Compare the use of but.

I didn't want the beer, but I drank it.
In informal English we can use though as a conjunction.
The team lost, though/although they played quite well.
Even though is more emphatic than although.
My father runs marathons, even though he's sixty.
NOT even although he's sixty
NOTE

There is a pattern with as or though where an adjective or adverb goes in front position.
Much as I like Tom, he does get on my nerves sometimes.
Strange though it may seem, I've never been to Paris.

We can use the prepositions in spite of and despite with a noun or gerund.
In spite of/Despite the widespread destruction, only six people died.
The family always enjoy themselves in spite of having/despite having no money.
NOT despite of having

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We cannot use these words before a finite clause.

NOT in spite of the Great Fire destroyed much of London
But we sometimes use in spite of/despite the fact that, especially if the two clauses
have different subjects.
In spite of the fact that the Great Fire destroyed much of London,...
But although is usually neater.
Although the Great Fire destroyed much of London,...
In the sentence The team lost but they played well, the conjunction but expresses
the idea that playing well is in contrast with losing and is therefore unexpected.
There is also a weaker meaning of but.
I'm right-handed but my brother is left-handed.
Here but expresses the idea that something is different but not unexpected. To
express this idea of difference, we can also use the conjunctions whereas or while.
I'm right-handed whereas/while my brother is left-handed.
We can also use the adverbial on the other hand to link two sentences. It can go in
front, mid or end position or after the subject.
Birmingham is a big city. Warwick, on the other hand, is quite small.
NOTE

We use on the contrary only when we mean that the opposite is true.
Warwick isn't a big city. On the contrary, it's quite small.

247 Words meaning 'so'

1

We use so to express a result.

It hasn't rained for ages, (and) so the ground is very dry.
So is a conjunction. It comes at the beginning of a clause.
The adverb therefore is a little formal. It often goes in mid position, but it can go in
front or end position or after the subject.
There has been no rainfall for some time. The ground is therefore very dry.
NOTE

We usually repeat the subject after so.

We lost our way, so we were late.

We can also use the adverbials as a result, consequently and in consequence.

The computer was incorrectly programmed, and as a result/and in consequence
the rocket crashed.
In consequence is more formal.
As a result of and in consequence of are prepositions.
The rocket crashed as a result of/in consequence of a computer error.

The ground is so dry (that) the plants are dying.

There was so much steam (that) we couldn't see a thing.
The place looked such a mess (that) I couldn't invite anyone in.
Here a sub clause (that the plants are dying) expresses the result of the ground
being very dry, there being so much steam, and so on. So and such express degree;
212(4). We cannot use very or too in this pattern.