AS unit 1

phya1
particles
quantum phenomena
electricity

GCE PHYSICS
Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

Page 1 of 34

AS Examination
Unit 1 . PHYA1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity
Written Examination . 70 marks, 6 or 7 structured questions
1 hours
40% of the total AS marks
20% of the total A-Level marks available June
Unit 2 . PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves
Written Examination . 70 marks, 6 or 7 structured questions
1 hours
40% of the total AS marks
20% of the total A-Level marks available June
Unit 3 Investigative and Practical Skills in AS Physics
PHA3X, Externally Marked Route X . 55 marks
Practical Skills Verification (PSV . teacher verification)
Externally Marked Practical Assignment (EMPA . 55 marks)
20% of the total AS marks
10% of the total A-Level marks available June only
A2 Examination
Unit 4 . PHYA4 Fields and Further Mechanics
Written Examination . 75 marks,
1 hours
Section A is 25 multiple choice questions, each worth one mark.
Section B is a written paper of 4/5 structured questions and consists of 50 marks.
20% of the total A-Level marks available June
Unit 5 . One of Units PHA5A, PHA5B, PHA5C, PHA5D
Written Examination . 75 marks.
1 hours
Section A: Nuclear and Thermal Physics . 40 marks
Compulsory section 4/5 structured questions
Section B one of the following options.
Each paper has 4/5 structured questions and 35 marks.
Options: A - Astrophysics
B - Medical Physics
20% of the total A-Level marks (Section A 10%, Section B 10%) Available June only
Unit 6 . Internal Assessment Investigative and Practical Skills in A2 Physics
PHA6X, Externally Marked Route X . 55 marks
Practical Skills Verification (PSV . teacher verification)
Externally Marked Practical Assignment (EMPA . 55 marks)
10% of the total A-Level marks Available June only

Unit 1 PHYA1
Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

Page 2 of 34

This module involves two contrasting topics in physics: particle physics and electricity. Through the study of these
topics, students should gain an awareness of the on-going development of new ideas in physics and of the
application of in depth knowledge of well-established topics such as electricity. Particle physics introduces students
to the fundamental properties and nature of matter, radiation and quantum phenomena. In contrast, the study of
electricity in this module builds on and develops previous GCSE studies and provides opportunities for practical work
and looks into important applications.
Syllabus extract:
Constituents of the atom
Proton, neutron, electron.
Their charge and mass in SI units and relative units.
Specific charge of nuclei and of ions.
Atomic mass unit is not required.
Proton number Z, nucleon number A, nuclide notation, isotopes
Stable and unstable nuclei
The strong nuclear force; its role in keeping the nucleus stable; short-range attraction to about 3
fm, very-short range repulsion below about 0.5 fm;
Equations for alpha decay and - decay including the neutrino.
Particles, antiparticles and photons
Candidates should know that for every type of particle, there is a corresponding antiparticle.
They should know that the positron, the antiproton, the antineutron and the antineutrino are the
antiparticles of the electron, the proton, the neutron and the neutrino respectively.
Comparison of particle and antiparticle masses, charge and rest energy in MeV.
Photon model of electromagnetic radiation, the Planck constant, E = hf =hc/
Knowledge of annihilation and pair production processes and the respective energies involved.
The use of E = mc2 is not required in calculations.
Particle interactions
Concept of exchange particles to explain forces between elementary particles
The electromagnetic force; virtual photons as the exchange particle.
The weak interaction limited to -, + decay, electron capture and electron-proton collisions; W+
and W- as the exchange particles.
Simple Feynman diagrams to represent the above reactions or interactions in terms of particles
going in and out and exchange particles.
Classification of particles
Hadrons: baryons (proton, neutron) and antibaryons (antiproton and antineutron) and mesons
(pion, kaon).
Hadrons are subject to the strong nuclear force.
Candidates should know that the proton is the only stable baryon into which other baryons
eventually decay; in particular, the decay of the neutron should be known.
Leptons: electron, muon, neutrino (electron and muon types).
Leptons are subject to the weak interaction.
Candidates will be expected to know baryon numbers for the hadrons.
Lepton numbers for the leptons will be given in the data booklet.
Quarks and antiquarks
Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

Page 3 of 34

Up (u), down (d) and strange (s) quarks only.

Properties of quarks: charge, baryon number and strangeness.
Combinations of quarks and antiquarks required for baryons (proton and neutron only),
antibaryons (antiproton and antineutron only) and mesons (pion and kaon) only.
Change of quark character in -and + decay.
Application of the conservation laws for charge, baryon number, lepton number and strangeness
to particle interactions. The necessary data will be provided in questions for particles outside
those specified.

Particles and Radiation

Constituents of the Atom
Basic Structure of the Atom
The structure of the atom was unknown until the early 20 th century:
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons at the
center of the atom.
Protons are (+) charged while neutrons are neutral. Both
have similar masses
Electrons are (-) charged, 1/1800 the mass of
neutrons/protons, and in motion around the nucleus.

The Nuclear Atom

Rutherford thought (Helium nuclei) particles would be the ideal particle to probe the atom.
He developed his famous gold foil experiment to investigate the inner structure of the
atom. This classic diffraction experiment was conducted in 1911 by Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden at the suggestion of Ernest Rutherford.
particles were shot at a thin gold foil.
A zinc sulfide detection screen surrounding the foil would fluorescence whenever
radiation struck the screen. The gold foil had to be as thin as possible to avoid
multiple scatterings.
Geiger and Marsden expected to find that most of the alpha particles travel straight
through the foil with little deviation, with the remainder being deviated by a percent or
two. This thinking was based on the plum pudding model.
What they found, to great surprise, was that most of the particles passed right
through the foil, implying the atom is mostly empty space.
A few particles were wildly deflected, implying a large
concentration of (+) charge in the center of the atom.
Rutherfords model of the atom included a dense,
positively charged nucleus containing protons.
Electrons were thought to orbit the nucleus like planets orbit the sun.
The Neutron
Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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In 1932, Chadwick used particles to strike Be metal. A very penetrating type of radiation was formed.
This type of radiation had no charge and had a similar mass to a
proton. It was called the neutron.
By the early 1900s, the atomic model consisted of neutrons and
protons in the nucleus.

Nucleon number and proton number.

Nucleon number (A) (mass number) is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus i.e. the
total number of nucleons.
Proton number (Z) (atomic number) is the number of protons in the nucleus.

In general a nucleus X is represented by

X
Z
Alpha particle: 4

2+

Proton: 1

He

Electron:

Neutron:

-1

n
0

Isotopes
Two atoms may have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons i.e. they have the same proton
number but different nucleon number. Each atom is said to be an isotope of the other. They are chemically
indistinguishable because they have the same number of electrons and occupy the same place in the periodic table.
Most elements are isotopic mixtures.
Hydrogen has three forms:
Hydrogen

Deuterium

Tritium

H
H
H
1
1
1
Ordinary hydrogen contains 99.99% of the Hydrogen 1 atoms. Water made from deuterium is called heavy water.

Stable and unstable nuclei.

Chemical Properties of an atom are governed by the number of protons in the nucleus (proton number Z)
Stability depends on both the number of protons and neutrons (nucleon number A)
The term nuclide is used to specify an atom with a particular proton-neutron combination.
6
7
Li and Li are isotopes and nuclides
3
3
9

10

Be and B
4
5
Stable nuclides
Unit 1 PHYA1

are nuclides (they have the same number of neutrons but a different number of protons

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

Page 5 of 34

The lightest nuclides have almost equal numbers of protons and neutrons.
The heavier nuclides require more neutrons than protons, the heaviest about 50% more.
Most nuclides have both an even number of protons and neutrons. This implies that 2p+ and 2n 0 i.e. an
alpha particle, form a particularly stable combination oxygen, silicon & iron form over of the earths crust
Unstable nuclides
Disintegrations tend to produce new nuclides near the stability line and continue until a stable nuclide is
formed.
A nuclide above the line decays so as to give an increase on proton number i.e. beta emission (neutron
changes to a proton and electron)
A nuclide below the line disintegrates so that its proton number decreases. In heavy nuclides this occurs by
alpha emission.
Number of neutrons against number
of protons
Stability Line
Actual atoms

160
140

Neutrons

120
100
80
60

Theoretical atoms
With p+ = n0

40
20
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Protons

The balancing of nuclear equations.

Alpha ( ) Radiation
Most emitters are heavy nuclei proton number greater than 82. It is believed that an particle is created some
time before its emission in the nucleus. The decay of a parent nuclide into a daughter nuclide by emission:
A
A-4
4
2+
X
Y +
He
+
Q
Z
Z-2
2
Unstable
Recoiling
High velocity
parent
daughter
particle
Q is the energy released in the decay. The nucleus loses 4 nucleons. A and Z are balanced across the equation
charge and nucleon number are conserved. Each decay results in a precise quantity of energy (Q), which is specific
to each isotope. Q appears as Kinetic energy of the daughter nucleus and the emitted particle. The particle
carries most of the kinetic energy.
A typical emitter is thorium-228 which decays to radium-224
Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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228
Th
90

224

4
Ra +

88

He

Beta ( ) Radiation
Neutron rich nuclei decay by - emission. A - particle is a high speed electron emitted from the nucleus. Negative
sign is used to distinguish it from the + particle, which is a positron (antiparticle to the electron) emitted by an
unstable, proton rich nucleus.
A - particle is produced when a neutron in the parent nucleus decays. Neutrons are normally stable when contained
in the nucleus but can decay when the nucleus has too much energy usually due to an excess of neutrons.
A Neutron decays into a proton by emitting a - particle. The nucleus changes to a different element with the same
nucleon number, but with the proton number increased by 1
1

1
n

0
p

e
+

+
-1
0
- emitted with
antineutrino
continuous range
of energies
+

A - particle is created in the nucleus at the instant of decay, when it is ejected at extremely high velocities,
approaching that of light. No overall change in nucleon mass but proton number increases by 1. Charge and mass
number are conserved.
- emission is accompanied by the simultaneous emission of an antineutrino virtually massless, highly
penetrating particle which is very difficult to detect. Each decay results in the release of a precise quantity of energy
Q which is specific to each isotope. The total energy released in decay is shared between the daughter nucleus, the
- particle and the antineutrino. The - particles are observed to have a very wide range of energies from almost
zero up to nearly the total Q value of the decay.
Al is a typical - particle emitter:
29
Al
13

29
Si
14

0
+

0
e

-1

Gamma ( ) Radiation
and decay often produce a daughter nuclide which is in an unstable, excited state. This can decay further by
emitting a photon of electromagnetic radiation of very high frequency. This is a gamma ray. It causes no change in
the proton and nucleon numbers of the parent nuclide.
Overall effect of ray emission is to reduce the energy of the nucleus. The nucleus remains unaltered physically
apart from having less energy. radiation does not consist of particles of matter as it is electromagnetic radiation of
very short wavelength ( < 1 X 10-11 m ) and very high energy. radiation is indistinguishable from X-rays or cosmic
rays of the same wavelength has a separate name because it is of a different origin. It produces very little
ionisation therefore it is very penetrating. In all cases of radioactive decay, the energy released in the decay comes
Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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from the direct conversion of a quantity of matter into energy. Such a large amount of energy is released that there is
a measurable change in the mass of the particles involved.

Particles, antiparticles and photons

Antiparticles
For every type of matter particle we've found, there also exists a corresponding antimatter
particle, or antiparticle.
Antiparticles look and behave just like their corresponding matter particles, except they have
opposite charges. For instance, a proton is electrically positive whereas an antiproton is
electrically negative. Gravity affects matter and antimatter the same way because gravity is not a
charged property and a matter particle has the same mass as its antiparticle. When a matter
particle and antimatter particle meet, they annihilate into pure energy!
On the left (in the previous picture) electrons and positrons are produced from photons. They move in opposite
directions in a magnetic field because of their opposite charge.
Neutrinos have no electrical charge they almost never interact with any other particles. Most neutrinos pass right
through the earth without ever interacting with a single atom of it.
Neutrinos are produced in a variety of interactions, especially in particle decays. In fact, it was through a careful
study of radioactive decays that physicists hypothesized the neutrino's existence.
For example: (1) In a radioactive nucleus, a neutron at rest (zero momentum) decays,
releasing a proton and an electron.

(2) Because of the law of conservation of

momentum, the resulting products of the decay must have a total momentum of
zero, which the observed proton and electron clearly do not.
(3) Therefore, we need to infer the presence of another particle with appropriate
momentum to balance the event.
(4) We hypothesize that an antineutrino
was released; experiments have
confirmed that this is indeed what
happens.
Because neutrinos were produced in great abundance in the early universe
and rarely interact with matter, there are a lot of them in the Universe. Their
tiny mass but huge numbers may contribute to total mass of the universe and affect its expansion.

Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

Page 8 of 34

Fundamental Forces (Interactions)

The universe, exists because the fundamental particles interact. These
interactions include attractive and repulsive forces, decay, and
annihilation.
There are four fundamental interactions between particles, and all
forces in the world can be attributed to these four interactions.
What's the difference between a force and an interaction?
A force is the effect on a particle due to the presence of other particles.
The interactions of a particle include all the forces that affect it, but also
include decays and annihilations that the particle might go through.
We call the particles which carry the interactions force carrier
particles.
At a fundamental level, a force isn't just something that happens to particles. It is a thing which is passed
between two particles.
You can think about forces as being analogous to the following situation:
Two people are standing on an ice pond. One person moves their arm and is pushed backwards; a moment later the
other person grabs at an invisible object and is driven backwards. Even though you cannot see a basketball, you can
assume that one person threw a basketball to the other person because you see its effect on the people.
FORCE

FORCE CARRIER
PARTICLE (Bosons)

RELATIVE STRENGTH

RANGE

STRONG

GLUONS

10-15 m

ELECTROMAGNETIC

PHOTON

10-2

infinite

GRAVITY

GRAVITON

10-39

infinite

WEAK

W+, W- , Z

10-5

10-18 m

Some facts about fundamental interaction:

Friction is caused by residual electromagnetic
interactions between the atoms of the two materials.
Nuclear bonding is caused by residual strong
interactions between the various parts of the nucleus.
The planets orbit because of the gravity that attracts
them to the sun! Even though gravity is a relatively weak
force, it still has very important effects on the world.
Weak and Gravity interactions act on neutrinos.
Weak (W+, W-, and Z) interactions have heavy carriers?
All 4 interactions act on the protons in our bodies.
Gluons are force carriers cannot be isolated.
Gravitons (Gluons have been observed indirectly.) are force carriers which have not been observed.

Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

Page 9 of 34

Grand Unified Theory (GUT)

Today, one of the major goals of particle physics is to unify the various fundamental forces in a Grand Unified Theory
which could offer a more elegant understanding of the organization of the universe. Such a simplification of the
Standard Model might well help to answer our questions and point toward future areas of study.
Physicists hope that a Grand Unified Theory will unify the strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions. There
have been several proposed Unified Theories, but we need data to pick which, if any, of these theories describes
nature.
If a Grand Unification of all the interactions is possible, then all the interactions we observe are all different aspects
of the same, unified interaction. However, how can this be the case if strong and weak and electromagnetic
interactions are so different in strength and effect? Strangely enough, current data and theory suggests that these
varied forces merge into one force when the particles being affected are at a high enough energy.
Current work on GUT suggests the existence of another force-carrier particle that causes the proton to decay. Such
decays are extremely rare; a proton's lifetime is more than 10 32 years.
Physicists believe that as you go back in time, and the universe was hotter, that the four forces separated out from
one single, simple, force. There is experimental confirmation that the electromagnetic and weak nuclear force were
once a single force we call the electroweak force.
Grand Unified Theory (GUT) and Theory of Everything (TOE)
TOE
. Current theory

.. Current knowledge

Classification of particles

Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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Ordinary matter is made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. However in high-energy collisions, many other
particles can be created. Most are very short-lived.
Matter particles can be divided into two main groups: HADRONS and LEPTONS.

st

LEPTONS

QUARKS

These particles exists on their own

These particles only exist bound together

Charge = -1
ELECTRON(e-)

Constituents
of ordinary
matter

1
Family

These
particles
existed in the
early moments
after the Big
Bang. Now
they are only
found in
cosmic rays
and at particle
accelerators

2nd
Family

MUON ( -)
A heavier relative of
the electron.

3rd
Family

TAU ( -)

Responsible for
electricity and
chemical reactions.

Charge = 0
ELECTRON NEUTRINO ( e)
Rarely interacts with other
matter.

Charge = +
UP (u)

MUON NEUTRINO ( )

CHARM (c)

STRANGE (s)

A relative of e

A heavier relative of
the up quark.

A heavier relative of the

down quark

TAU NEUTRINO ( )

TOP (t)

BOTTOM (b)

The heaviest quark

A heavier relative of the

down and strange
quarks.

A heavier relative of
the electron and
muon.

Charge = -
DOWN (d)

Protons are made up of two up quarks and one

down quark.
Neutrons are made up of one up quark and two
down quarks.

MATTER

LEPTONS

ELECTRONS (e)

NEUTRINOS ()

MUON ( -)

HADRONS
(Made from Quarks)

BARYONS
(3 Quarks)

GAUGE BOSONS
(Force carriers)

MESONS
(2 Quarks)

PHOTONS ()

PROTONS (p)

PION ()

GLUONS

NEUTRONS(n)

KAON (K)

VECTOR
BOSONS
(W, Z)

TAU ( -)

Unit 1 PHYA1

GRAVITON

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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Leptons
Leptons are fundamental particles and cannot be broken down into smaller particles. Lepton is a Greek word
meaning small coin. They do not interact via strong forces but interact with the via the other three fundamental
forces. There are 6 different types of Leptons together with their Lepton number:

Electron (e-)

Positron (e+)

Electron neutrino (e)

Electron antineutrino (e)

Muon (-)

Antimuon (+)

Muon neutrino ()

Muon antineutrino ()

Tau ( -)

Antitau ( +)

Tau neutrino ()

Tau antineutrino ()

Lepton Number:
Each Lepton is designated a Lepton Number (L) of +1 and the antileptons have a lepton number of -1.
Conservation of Lepton Number
An important conservation law is the conservation of lepton number. This rule is a little more complicated than the
conservation of baryon number below because there is a separate requirement for each of the three sets of leptons,
the electron, muon and tau and their associated neutrinos.
The first significant example was found in the decay of the neutron. When
the decay of the neutron into a proton and an electron was observed, it did
not fit the pattern of two-particle decay. That is, the electron emitted does
not have a definite energy as is required by conservation of energy and momentum for two-body decay. This implied
the emission of a third particle, which we now identify as the electron antineutrino.
The assignment of a lepton number of 1 to the electron and -1 to the electron antineutrino keeps the lepton
number equal to zero on both sides of the second reaction above, while the first reaction does not conserve lepton
number.

Hadrons
Hadrons are not fundamental particles and consist of quarks. The word Hadron comes from the Greek word
meaning bulky. Hadrons interact via all four fundamental forces. Although individual quarks have fractional
electrical charges, they combine such that hadrons have a net integer electric charge.
Quarks have been discovered by deep inelastic scattering of electrons. The idea is to accelerate electrons to very
high energies, and then allow them to interact with a stationary proton, and investigate what happens. At high
energies, the wavelengths associated with the electrons are much smaller than the size of a proton. Hence the
electrons can probe distances that are small compared with the proton - that is, DEEP within the proton. However,
the high energies tend to disrupt the proton, so that it produces several new particles (hadrons). This means the
scattering is INELASTIC because the target has been changed in the process.
Baryons are any hadron which is made of three quarks (see next section). Protons are baryons because they are
made of two up quarks and one down quark (uud). So are neutrons (udd). Mesons contain one quark and one
antiquark. One example of a meson is a pion (+), which is made of an up quark and a down anitiquark. The
Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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antiparticle of a meson just has its quark and antiquark switched, so an antipion ( -) is made up a down quark and
an up antiquark.
Because a meson consists of a particle and an antiparticle, it is very unstable. The kaon (K+), which is made of an
up quark and a strange anitiquark lives much longer than most mesons, which is why it was called "strange" and
gave this name to the strange quark, one of its components. Kaons are assigned a strangeness number of S = 1.
There is partial conservation of strangeness conserved during strong force interactions, but not weak force
interactions.
Conservation of Baryon Number
Nature has specific rules for particle interactions and decays, and these rules have been summarized in terms of
conservation laws. One of the most important of these is the conservation of baryon number. Each of the baryons
is assigned a baryon number B=1. This can be considered to be equivalent to assigning each quark a baryon
number of 1/3. This implies that the mesons, with one quark and one antiquark, have a baryon number B=0. No
known decay process or interaction in nature changes the net baryon number.
The neutron and all heavier baryons decay directly to protons or eventually form protons, the proton being the least
massive baryon. This implies that the proton has nowhere to go without violating the conservation of baryon number,
so if the conservation of baryon number holds exactly, the proton is completely stable against decay.
An extremely small part of the mass of a hadron is due to the quarks in it.

Gauge Bosons
These are the exchange particles. An Exchange particle is a virtual particle, which may exists for only a short time,
and is the mediator of a force.
When two charged particles interact, they do so by exchanging a virtual photon. The exchange is impossible to
detect and hence the term virtual is used to describe the photon involved.
FEYNMAN DIAGRAM The diagram below represents two electrons approaching then repelling each other
e-

ea photon

time

e-

decay

e-

space

(e )

+ decay

+
(e +)

n
e

n
Unit 1 PHYA1

W- boson

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e
p
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W + boson
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p + e- + e

n + e+ + e

Quarks and antiquarks

There are six quarks, but physicists usually talk about them in terms of three pairs: up/down, charm/strange, and
top/bottom. (Also, for each of these quarks, there is a corresponding antiquark.) Quarks have the unusual
characteristic of having a fractional electric charge, unlike the proton and electron, which have integer charges of +1
and -1 respectively.
There are three quantum numbers associated with quarks:
Charge, expressed as the fraction of the electronic charge.
= 5.33 10-20 C
Baryon number
Strangeness number, when there are strange quarks.
Each antiquark has equal and opposite values of charge, baryon
number and strangeness.

1/3 e

Quark
Charge (Q)
Baryon number (B)
Down (d)
-1/3
1/3
Up (u)
+2/3
1/3
Antidown (<d>)
+1/3
-1/3
Antiup (<u>)
-2/3
-1/3
Baryons are made of three quarks; antibaryons of three antiquarks.
Mesons are made up of one quark and one antiquark.
Gluons bind quarks together; they are subject to the strong interaction.

Electromagnetic Radiation and Quantum Phenomena

Syllabus extract:
The photoelectric effect
Work function , photoelectric equation hf = + Ek
the stopping potential experiment is not required.
Collisions of electrons with atoms
The electron volt.
Ionisation and excitation;
understanding of ionization and excitation in the fluorescent tube.
Energy levels and photon emission
Line spectra (e.g. of atomic hydrogen) as evidence of transitions between discrete energy levels in
atoms.
hf = E1 - E2
Wave-particle duality

Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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Candidates should know that electron diffraction suggests the wave nature of particles and the
photoelectric effect suggests the particle nature of electromagnetic waves; details of particular
methods of particle diffraction are not expected.
de Broglie wavelength: = h/mv, where mv is the momentum.

The photoelectric effect

Light as a Particle?
Historically there had been a lot of controversy about the wave nature of light, as proposed by the Dutch physicist
Hans Huygens, against the corpuscular model as proposed by the headstrong Isaac Newton. The concept of
wave-particle duality was the start of modern physics in the middle to late Nineteenth Century.
We know that light shows wave properties such as:
Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
Polarisation
However it can also be shown to have particulate
properties as well. Consider this model:
If we spray just a short burst, we get just a few spots
on the screen:

The longer we spray, the more spots appear until the whole area is covered in paint:
When using a spray can, we dont notice any diffraction effects as the particles pass through the stencil. Hardly
surprising as the paint droplets are particles, not waves.
Now, if we expose a piece of photographic paper to a short burst of light we will
see:

Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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The intensity of the image on a photographic plate increases the longer the paper is exposed for. That intensity is
determined by the number of silver grains deposited. We see that the pattern of silver grains deposited is random.
It seems that the light that deposited the grains was actually made of particles.
The debate raged on until the discovery in the late nineteenth century with the discovery of the photoelectric effect.

The Photoelectric Effect.

The concept of wave-particle duality was the start of modern physics in the middle to late Nineteenth Century.
We can show the photoelectric effect with apparatus like this:
1. We charge the electroscope with a negative charge.
2. We expose the reactive metal to light of a long
wavelength, e.g. red.
3. We observe that there is no effect, however bright the
light.
4. We then expose the metal to short wavelength light, e.g.
UV.
5. This time we see that the gold leaf drops down, showing
that the electroscope is losing charge.
6. It does not matter how bright or dim the UV light is.
7. No effect was observed when the electroscope was
positively charged.

The results were:

Metal
X-rays
P
Magnesium
P
Zinc
P
Sodium
P
Caesium

Ultra-Violet
O
P
P
P

Blue Light
O
O
P
P

Red Light
O
O
O
P

This led to the conclusion that:

Electrons were being knocked off. Reactive metals have outer shell electrons that can be removed easily.
Red light would not show this effect however bright it was. So the amplitude of the light wave was not
important. Red light only worked for caesium, which is a very reactive metal.
There was a threshold frequency at which this phenomenon started to occur. Light waves with a
frequency higher than this (shorter wavelength) always showed the effect, whatever the brightness; light
waves with a lower frequency never showed it.
The more reactive the metal, the lower was the threshold frequency.
This indicated a particle behaviour to light.

These findings led to the notion of light being tiny little packets of wave energy called photons.
Further work by Max Planck in 1900 produced the Photon Model of Electromagnetic Radiation. We can sum this
up in the following points:
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Light and other electromagnetic radiation is emitted in bursts of energy. We say that it is quantised.
The packets of energy, photons, travel in straight lines.
When an atom emits a photon its energy changes by an amount equal to the photon energy.
The energy changes are discrete amounts or quanta.
The frequency of the light and the energy are related by a simple equation:
E = hf

[E energy in J; h Plancks Constant; f frequency of the radiation in Hz]

The constant h is Plancks Constant with the value 6.6 1034 Js (joule seconds, NOT joules per second).
We can combine the equation above with the wave equation:
E = hf and
c = f
E = hc

The joule is the SI unit for energy. However atomic physicists find the joule far too big and clumsy. (You would not
measure the width of your desk in kilometres.) So they use a unit called the electron volt (eV). The electron volt is
the amount of energy used when a charge of electronic charge passes through a potential difference of 1 volt.
The charge on an electron is 1.6 10 -19 C, so 1 eV = 1.6 10-19 J.

Collisions of electrons with atoms

Albert Einstein developed the theory further to study how atoms interacted with photons. He produced the notion of
quantum physics, in which electromagnetic radiation has a particulate nature. The essential points of quantum
theory are:
All electromagnetic radiation is emitted in tiny bursts of energy called photons
Photons travel in one direction only and in a straight line
When an atom emits a photon its energy changes by the energy of the photon.
Energy contained in a photon is given by E = hf.
Details of this experiment are NOT needed for the AQA Module 1 exam. However to understand the results, we
need to be aware of what goes on in the experiment:

The photocathode is given a positive voltage, and the photoanode a negative voltage.
This means that photoelectrons (electrons released by interaction with a photon. One photon releases one
electron) are repelled from the anode.
If the electrons have lots of kinetic energy, they can overcome the repulsive force.

We turn up the reverse voltage until the electrons with the most kinetic energy are just repelled. The voltage is
called the stopping voltage. We can see what is happening in this diagram

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The totally unexpected result is that the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is exactly the same
regardless of the intensity of the illumination. However dim or bright the light, the maximum kinetic energy is the
same.
How can we explain these observations? Look at the diagram

Although the diagram is a simplification as to what really happens, we can see that the photoelectrons are released
with a range of kinetic energies. The lowest kinetic energy is where the electron just manages to crawl out. It will
be hauled back pretty quickly by the electrostatic forces.
We can summarise these findings in three rules, the laws of photoelectric emission.
1. The number of electrons emitted per second depends on the intensity of the radiation.
2. The photoelectrons have a range of energy, from zero to a maximum value. The maximum value is determined
by the frequency of the radiation, not the intensity.
3. A minimum value for the frequency is needed, the threshold frequency.
The maximum kinetic energy has the same value in eV as the stopping voltage. This stands to reason. We
know that energy = charge voltage, and that the electron carries a single electronic charge (1e = 1.6 10 -19 C). So
if that charge moves through a potential difference, that amount of work is done.

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The graph shows how the energy of

the photoelectrons depends on the
frequency (colour) of the light:
There has to be a threshold
frequency below which no
photoelectrons are emitted, regardless
of brightness. Therefore radio waves,
however strong, will NEVER affect
A photon with a long wavelength
carries less energy than one with a
short wavelength. So if the
wavelength of a photon is longer than
the wavelength suggested by the
threshold frequency, photoelectrons
will not be ejected.

Einsteins Photoelectric Equation

When photoelectrons are removed from a metal surface, a certain amount of work has to be done in removing them.
Therefore the photoelectrons will lose some of their kinetic energy in order to escape the attractive field of the
positively charged nuclei. The work required to remove the photoelectron is called the work function. It is given the
physics symbol (Phi - a Greek capital letter Ph) and is measured in joules, or electron volts.
The energy received from a photon is split into:
The work necessary to separate the electron from the metal (the work function)
The kinetic energy.
Energy of Photon = work done to remove electron + kinetic energy of the electron
E = + Ek
E = + mv2
We must note the following:
Ek is the maximum kinetic energy (the charge stopping voltage), i.e. the kinetic energy of the fastest electrons.
We are not interested in slower electrons.
The maximum kinetic energy is dependent only on the frequency, NOT the intensity. A more intense beam produces
more photons per second, but each photon has the same energy.
We can work out the work function of any metal by plotting the maximum energy against the frequency

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We find that the gradient of this graph is constant, regardless of the metal. The equation of the graph is:
Ek = hf -
So the gradient is Plancks constant, h.
Also

= hf0 = hc

hf = + Ek

Energy Levels in Atoms

Atoms can interact with photons of lower energy than is required to remove electrons from them. The photons we
looked at in the photoelectric effect could remove the electrons from very reactive metals like caesium. Photons can
interact with other atoms to give them extra energy, which makes them excited.
When we heat a gas or pass an electric current through it we can make it glow. We have ionised the gas. If we
look at the glowing gas through a spectrometer, we see the spectrum of the gas which is distinctive for that gas.
There are three principal types of spectra
which appear when the light from an object
is broken up into its component wavelengths
or "dispersed":

a continuous spectrum or
continuum; the emission of a
thermal spectrum is one type of
continuum.
an absorption spectrum or
sometimes an absorption-line
spectrum.
an emission spectrum or emissionline spectrum.

An absorption spectrum is produced when a continuum passes through "cooler" gas. Photons of the appropriate
energies are absorbed by the atoms in the gas. Although the photons may be re-emitted, they are effectively
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removed from the beam of light, resulting in a dark or absorption feature. The atmospheres of stars act as a cooler
blanket around the hotter interior of a star so that typical stellar spectra are absorption spectra.
Unlike the spectrum of the Sun, in which we see all the colours of the rainbow, we only see certain colours, while
others are absent. We call this kind of spectrum a line emission spectrum. The colours are discrete wavelengths

When a gas is ionised, one or more outer electrons are ripped off. The molecule has become positive. It will
recombine with an electron and lose energy, giving that energy in the form of a photon. Other atoms may not have
been ionised, but are still in a very excited state. The atoms have interacted with the photon and the electrons have
moved to a higher energy level.
About a microsecond later, the electrons lose their energy as a photon and return to the stable state, called the
ground state. The important thing to remember is that electrons can only exist at permitted energy levels. Its
like a person standing on a ladder; he can exist at one rung up, two rungs, etc., but NOT at a height of 1.5 rungs.
As we consider energy levels in atoms, we will look at hydrogen which fits this model well. (Hydrogen has one
electron.) More complex atoms with several electrons do not.
If we look at a spectrum of hydrogen, we find lines at several discrete wavelengths.

Each line represents the energy of a photon as the electron makes a transition from a higher energy level to a
lower. This we can show in a diagram below:
The electron does a job of work in releasing a photon; it has lost potential energy. Therefore we start at the highest
level which we give a value of zero. Therefore the electron falls from the zero point to the 3.41 eV level. The more
negative the level, the lower the energy level.
The highest energy level is where ionisation occurs. The lowest level is the ground state.
Electrons can make transitions from any energy level to any other:
These transitions give us photons in the visible spectrum. In fact,
the ground state is at 13.6 eV. This is the ionisation energy of
hydrogen, the energy required to strip an electron from the atom.

We need to be aware of the following points:

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The lowest level (-13.6 eV) is the ground state. This is the normal configuration of the atom. Energy must
be put in to raise the electron to other levels.
The highest level is the ionisation energy.
Energy levels are not evenly spaced.

We can quantify this in an equation. If an electron is at an excited level (E 1) and makes a transition to a lower level
(E2), then the energy of the photon given out can be worked out with the equation:
E = E1 E2

Since E = hf, we can rewrite this as:

hf = E1 E2

Electron energy levels in Hydrogen

Fluorescent lamps
The central element in a fluorescent lamp is a sealed glass
tube. The tube contains a small bit of mercury and an inert
gas, typically argon, kept under very low pressure. The
tube also contains a phosphor powder, coated along the
inside of the glass. The tube has two electrodes, one at
each end, which are wired to an electrical circuit. The
electrical circuit, which we'll examine later, is hooked up to
an alternating current (AC) supply
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When you turn the lamp on, the current flows through the electrical circuit to the electrodes. There is a considerable
voltage across the electrodes, so electrons will migrate through the gas from one end of the tube to the other. This
energy changes some of the mercury in the tube from a liquid to a gas. As electrons and charged atoms move
through the tube, some of them will collide with the gaseous mercury atoms. These collisions excite the atoms,
bumping electrons up to higher energy levels. When the electrons return to their original energy level, they release
light photons.
The electrons in mercury atoms are arranged in such a way that they mostly release light photons in the ultraviolet
wavelength range. Our eyes don't register ultraviolet photons, so this sort of light needs to be converted into visible
light to illuminate the lamp.
Phosphors are substances that give off light when they are exposed to light. When a photon hits a phosphor atom,
one of the phosphor's electrons jumps to a higher energy level and the atom heats up. When the electron falls back
to its normal level, it releases energy in the form of another photon. This photon has less energy than the original
photon, because some energy was lost as heat. In a fluorescent lamp, the emitted light is in the visible spectrum -the phosphor gives off white light we can see. Manufacturers can vary the colour of the light by using different
combinations of phosphors.

Wave Behaviour of Particles

The Belgian physicist de Broglie reasoned that if waves have a particulate properties, it was reasonable to suppose
that particles had wave properties. He devised the relationship, which states that particles have wave properties. It
is the logical extension of the particulate nature of electromagnetic wave phenomena.
He combined the following equations:
Energy of photons:
E = hf
Einsteins mass equivalence:
E = mc2
2
Therefore hf = mc
Now f = c/
So mc = h/
The term mc is mass X velocity, which is momentum. We give momentum the symbol p
We can rewrite the equation as
= h/p
or
= h/mv
Therefore every particle with a momentum has an associated de Broglie wavelength, even something as absurd as
a car travelling at 20 m/s.
Electrons can be shown to have wave properties by the simple use of an electron diffraction tube. A slice of carbon
is placed in a beam of electrons so that the electrons diffract.

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We need to note a couple of points:

is the de Broglie wavelength
The wave properties of electrons have led to the development of the electron microscope, which allows
magnifications much bigger than was ever possible with the light microscope. A good light microscope can magnify
up to 1000 times. The electron microscope can magnify up to about 1 million times, and can reveal the existence of
individual atoms. The electron beams are focused by magnets just like the lenses on a microscope.

Current Electricity
Syllabus extract:
Charge, current and potential difference
Electric current as the rate of flow of charge;
potential difference as work done per unit charge.
I =Q/t, and V = W/Q
Resistance is defined by R = V/I
Current / voltage characteristics
For an ohmic conductor, a semiconductor diode and a filament lamp;
Candidates should have experience of the use of a current sensor and a voltage sensor with a
data logger to capture data from which to determine V I curves.
Ohms law as a special case where I V.
Circuits (part)
Energy E = I V t, P = IV, P = I2R; application, e.g. Understanding of high current requirement for
a starter motor in a motor car.
Resistivity
= RA/L
Description of the qualitative effect of temperature on the resistance of metal conductors and
thermistors. Applications (e.g. temperature sensors)
Superconductivity as a property of certain materials which have zero resistivity at and below a
critical temperature which depends on the material. Applications (e.g. very strong
electromagnets, power cables).
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Circuits (part)
Resistors in series: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 +
Resistors in parallel: 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +
Conservation of charge and energy in simple d.c. circuits.
The relationships between currents, voltages and resistances in series and parallel circuits,
including cells in series and identical cells in parallel.
Questions will not be set which require the use of simultaneous equations to calculate currents or
potential differences.
Potential divider
The potential divider used to supply variable pd e.g. application as an audio volume control.
Examples should include the use of variable resistors, thermistors and LDRs.
The use of the potentiometer as a measuring instrument is not required.
Electromotive force and internal resistance
= E/Q
= I(R + r)
Applications; e.g. low internal resistance for a car battery.
Alternating currents
Sinusoidal voltages and currents only; root mean square, peak and peak-to-peak values for
sinusoidal waveforms only.
Irms = Io/2; Vrms = Vo/2
Application to calculation of mains electricity peak and peak-to-peak voltage values.
Oscilloscope
Use of an oscilloscope as a d.c. and a.c. voltmeter, to measure time intervals and frequencies and
to display a.c. waveforms. No details of the structure of the instrument is required but familiarity
with the operation of the controls is expected.

Current and Charge

The base electrical quantity is current, the flow of charge. All other electrical quantities are derived from it. Current
is measured in ampres, or amps (A). Charge is measured in coulombs (C), which is defined as:
1 coulomb is the quantity of charge carried past a given point if a steady current of 1 amp flows for 1
second.
1 electron carries a charge of 1.6 10-19 C. 1 coulomb is equivalent to 6.2 1018 electrons.
Charge and current are linked by a simple formula:
Charge (C) = current (A) X time (s)

Q = It

I = Q
t

There are some important multipliers for current:

1 microamp (1A) = 1 X 10 -6 A
1 milliamp (mA) = 1 X 10 -3 A
Cells and Batteries
Chemical reactions inside a cell help to create a small POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE between the terminals and
this makes the electrons flow along any conducting path that connects them.
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A current (flow of charge) will flow through an electrical component (or device) only if there is a voltage or potential
difference (p.d.) across its ends. The bigger the potential difference across a component, the bigger the current that
flows through it.
The conducting path through the bulbs, wire and battery is called a circuit.
Energy from a Cell
The cell is a source of Chemical potential energy. It does work on electrons and the electrons gain Electrical
potential energy (we call it just potential energy).
P.D. (Potential difference or Voltage) across battery terminals. The p.d. or voltage across the terminals of the
cell indicates the potential energy given to each coulomb (approximately 1018 electrons) of charge.
If 1 Joule of energy is given to 1 Coulomb of electric charge by the battery then we say that the p.d. across the cell
is 1 Volt.
When the charges move through the wire they do not lose any of the potential energy they are carrying. When they
pass through something that resists their flow, they will have to do work.

V=w
Q
Potential Difference
Potential Difference is defined as energy per unit charge.
The unit of potential difference is the volt (V). Using the definition, we can define the volt as Joules per Coulomb.
1 V = 1 JC-1 Potential difference is often referred to as voltage.

Resistance
Resistance is defined by the following equation:
Resistance =

p.d. across conductor

Current through conductor

A conductor has a resistance of 1 if a current of 1A flows through it when a p.d. of 1V is applied across its ends.
Potential difference, current and resistance are related as shown:
potential difference = current x resistance
(volt, V)
(ampere, A) (ohm, )
V =IR
The current through a resistor (at constant temperature) is proportional to the voltage across the resistor.
The resistance of a conductor increases
as the temperature of the conductor increases.
as the thickness of the conductor decreases
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as the length of the conductor increases

Energy and Power in Circuits

When energy changes from one form to another in a resistor, the power indicates the rate (how quickly) at which
this takes place.
Power = energy change
time taken
Suppose a current I flows for t seconds in a component. The charge that flowed led to E joules being dissipated in
the component.
We know that:
Q = It , E = QV
So if we substitute Q out of the second equation, we get: E = ItV
Now
Power = energy
time
So we can write:
P = ItV
t
The power output of a cell depends on the p.d. across its terminals and the current it supplies.
Power =
(Watts, W)

potential difference x current

(Volts, V)
(Amps, A)

P = VI
Power is measured in watts (W). 1 watt = 1 joule per second
The Heating Effect of a Current
We know that: V = IR and P = IV

P = I2R

So we can write: P = I x IR

We know that: I = V/R and P = IV So we can write: P = V x V/R

P = V2/R

Ohms Law
Resistance is the ratio of the voltage to the current, described in the simple equation R = V/I. In a metallic
conductor, we find that if we alter the voltage or the current, the other variable changes in such a way that the ratio
remains constant.
This is Ohms Law, which states: The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between its ends provided that the temperature and other physical conditions are the same.
A conductor that obeys Ohms Law is called an ohmic conductor.
Voltage Current Characteristics
We can easily measure voltage and current, using the data to plot voltage current
graphs. We use the following circuit:
From this circuit we take readings of voltage and current plotting them as a graph
called a VI characteristic.
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We normally put the voltage on the y-axis and current on the x-axis. This allows us to determine the resistance from
the gradient. This is a voltage current graph for an ohmic conductor:
The straight line shows a constant ratio between voltage and
current, for both positive and negative values. So when the
voltage is negative, the current is negative, i.e. flowing in the
opposite direction. Ohms Law is obeyed. We call this an
Ohmic
conductor.

For a filament lamp we see: The resistance rises as the filament gets
hotter, which is shown by the gradient getting steeper.
A thermistor (a heat sensitive resistor) behaves in the
opposite way. Its resistance goes down as it gets hotter.
This is because the material releases more electrons to be
able to conduct.
Although it looks similar to the graph above, notice how the
gradient is decreasing, indicating a lower resistance. As the
current goes up, the thermistor gets hotter. As it gets hotter,
it allows more current to flow; therefore it gets hotter and so
on.
This is called thermal runaway, and is a feature of many semi- conductor components. At the extreme the
component will glow red-hot, then split apart.
Diodes are semi-conductor devices that
allow electric current to flow one way only.
The diode characteristic graph looks like
this:
The diode starts to conduct at a voltage of
about +0.6 V. We call this forward bias.
Then the current rises rapidly for a small
rise in voltage. If the current is reversed
(reverse bias) almost no current flows until
the breakdown voltage is reached. This
usually results in destruction of the diode.

Resistivity
The resistance of a wire depends on three factors:
the length; double the length, the resistance doubles.
the area; double the area, the resistance halves.
the material that the wire is made of.

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Resistivity is a property of the material. It is defined as the resistance of a wire of the material of unit area and unit
length.
The formula for resistivity is:
Resistivity ( m ) = Resistance ( ) x Area ( m2 )
Length ( m )
Remember: 1 mm2 = 1 x 10-6 m2

Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Circuits
In a series circuit, the electrons in the
current have to pass through all the
components, which are arranged in a
line. Consider a typical series circuit in
which there are three resistors of value
R1, R2, and R3. The values may be the
same, or different.

The current throughout the circuit is the same

The voltages add up to the battery voltage.

Therefore:
Thus:

VT = V1 + V2 + V3

From Ohms Law we know: VT = IRT;

IRT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

RT = R1 + R2 + R3

Therefore:

By adding resistors in series, the total resistance of the circuit increases. If two or more resistors are connected in
series, they give a higher resistance than any one of the resistors by itself.
Parallel Resistors
Parallel circuits have their
components in parallel
branches so that an individual
electron can go through one of
the branches, but not the
others. The current splits into
the number of branches there
are. Look at this circuit:
In this case, the current will
split into three.
The voltage across each branch is the same
The currents in each branch add up to the total current.
From this we can write: IT =

I1 + I2 + I3 From Ohms Law, IT = V/RT , we can write:

V = V + V + V
RT
R1
R2
R3

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1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT
R1 R2 R3
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By adding resistors in parallel, the total resistance of the circuit decreases. If two or more resistors are connected
in parallel, they give a lower resistance than any one of the resistors by itself.

Kirchhoff's Laws
These two simple laws were drawn up in the Nineteenth Century by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff. They explain all
observations we see in electric circuits. We can explain everything we have looked at in series and parallel circuits
in terms of the two laws. They can also be used to explain more difficult circuits which cannot be explained in terms
of simple series and parallel circuits.
Kirchhoff I : The algebraic sum of currents at a junction is zero.
This states that the total current flowing into a point is equal to the
current flowing out of that point.
In other words, the charge does not leak out or accumulate at that point.
Charge that flows away must be replaced. It is conserved.
From this diagram we can easily see that I3 = I1 + I2.
Mathematically we can write this as: I1 + I2 + (-I3) = 0
Or I = 0
Kirchhoff II: Around a closed circuit loop, the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s is equal to the algebraic sum of
the p.d.s. The potential differences around a circuit add up to zero.
Provided the charge returns to the same place as it started, the gains and losses are equal, no matter what route
is taken by the charge. The battery in this circuit has an emf (electromotive force or open terminal voltage) of .
The curly is the battery voltage.

EMF and Internal Resistance

Batteries (or more strictly speaking cells) convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Generators turn kinetic
energy into electrical energy. In doing so, they keep the negative terminal with an excess of electrons and the
positive terminal with a deficiency of electrons. A battery does a job of work in pumping the electrons around the
circuit. Positive charges do not move.
The early day physicists got it wrong when they said that electric current flows from positive to negative. They didn't
know about electrons. When the mistake was discovered, they decided to stick to the positive to negative, so all
conventional current flows from positive to negative.
A battery is said to produce Emf (electromotive force) which is defined as the energy converted into electrical
energy when unit charge passes through the source. () It represents the total energy that can be supplied to a
circuit. EMF is a voltage.
A good working definition of emf is the open circuit terminal voltage of the battery, i.e. when there is no current
flowing. Although the old text books had a complex method for measuring emf using a metre bridge, nowadays a
digital multimeter will give you a good reading as it takes a very small current indeed.
The energy supplied to a circuit by a battery is given by:

Where
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W is the energy in J
Q is the charge in C
, curly E is the physics symbol for emf.
No circuit at all is 100 % efficient. Some energy is dissipated in the wires, or even in the battery itself.
Internal Resistance
All batteries and generators dissipate heat internally when giving out a current, due to internal resistance. A
perfect battery has no internal resistance, but unfortunately there is no such thing as a perfect battery. NickelCadmium and Lead-Acid batteries have very low internal resistance, and we can regard these as almost perfect.
These batteries can provide very high currents.
Suppose we connect a cell to a high resistance voltmeter. (A perfect voltmeter has infinite resistance. A digital
multimeter has a very high resistance, so needs a tiny current; it is almost perfect. An ordinary moving coil
voltmeter has a relatively low resistance, so it takes a small but appreciable current.)
In this circuit the voltmeter reads (very nearly) the emf.
Suppose we now add a load. We will assume the wires have negligible
resistance.
This time we find that the
terminal voltage goes down to
V. Since V is less than , this
tells us that not all of the voltage is being transferred to the outside
circuit; some is lost due to the internal resistance which heats the
battery up.
Emf = Useful volts + Lost volts

= Vext + Vlost

So we can represent the circuit as:

So our cell is now a perfect battery in series with an internal
resistor, r. You cannot open up the battery to find the internal
resistor; it is part and parcel of the battery.
We can now treat this as a simple series circuit and we know that the
current, I, will be the same throughout the circuit. We also know the
voltages in a series circuit add up to the battery voltage.
Emf = voltage across R + voltage across the internal resistance
We also know from Ohms Law that V = IR and v = Ir, so we can write:

= IR + Ir

or

= I (R + r)

All you have to do is turn the cell with the internal resistance into a perfect battery in series with its internal
resistor, and treat it as a simple series circuit.

Alternating Currents

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Direct current from a battery moves in one direction only, from positive to negative. In alternating current the
direction is changing all the time. The charge carriers are moving forwards and backwards many times a second. In
Europe it is 50 Hz (cycles per second); in the USA 60 Hz.
AC and DC are equally good at heating, lighting, or running motors. AC is much more easily distributed than DC.
This is because transformers use AC only. So electricity is distributed at very high voltages (275 kV) at relatively low
currents. As a result only a small proportion of the transmitted energy is lost as heat in the wires.
The graph below shows the difference between AC and DC.
One complete alternation is called a cycle
The frequency is the number of cycles per second. Units are Hertz (Hz).

The period is the time taken for one cycle. It is measured in seconds.

The current follows exactly the same wave form as voltage.

The graph is called a sinusoidal waveform or a sine wave.

f = 1/T.

These features are shown on the graph:

Root Mean Square Value

The values of voltage and current are constantly changing in AC, unlike in DC in which they are steady. We can
measure AC voltages in two ways:

Measure the peak to peak voltage, easily done on a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO).
Measure the root mean square (rms) value, or the effective value.
We use the rms value because its use allows us to do electrical calculations as if they were direct currents.

Irms = I0
2

Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Vrms = V0
2

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

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How Does the Power Vary?

Notice that power varies from a
maximum of +2P to a minimum
of 0. Therefore the average
power is P. We never get a
negative power, since that would
imply that the component was
creating energy.
The Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope
The CRO is connected in exactly
the same way as a voltmeter,
i.e. in parallel with a component.
The input resistance is very high
and the electron beam acts as a
pointer of negligible inertia. It is also robust and not
easily damaged by overloading. The CRO can be used
a DC voltmeter. We get a horizontal line or a dot,
depending whether the time base is on. If it is used as
AC voltmeter, it will show the sinusoidal waveform

as
an

The most important controls that we use are:

The vertical sensitivity or y-gain setting, calibrated in V/cm.

The time base, in s/cm.

The CRO is a perfect voltmeter as its input resistance is very high.

Remember:

We measure the voltage on the vertical axis. We can adjust the sensitivity by turning the knob marked ygain or voltage gain.
The horizontal direction is determined by the time base setting. We can change this by using the time
base knob.

As well as analysing the waveform, there are two measurements we can make with the CRO:

We can determine the peak voltage of the AC waveform shown below.

We can also read the period, which in turn allows us to work out its frequency.

Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

Page 33 of 34

Notice that:

The peak to peak voltage is 12.8 V. Often engineers read the peak to peak voltage off the CRO as the
determination of the 0 level is not always easy. The peak voltage is half of the peak to peak voltage.
The root mean square voltage, which we use in electrical calculations, is the peak voltage divided by 2

Therefore the Vrms = 6.4 X 2 = 4.5 V

Unit 1 PHYA1

Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Dr. MB Cuthbert

(20/04/2015)

Page 34 of 34