Environment and Ecology:

Introduction to Biomes
What is a Biome?

It is a geographical or climatic unit and the largest sub division of terrestrial

ecosystems

each biome holds specific subcontinental species

these division apply only to land masses

characterized by similar climatic conditions

A biome is defined by its:

plant structures

leaf types

plant spacing

climate

Ecozones, on the other hand, are defined by similarities of the following kinds:

genetic

taxonomic

historical

Further specifications include:

annual temperature variation

minerals available

amount of rainfall

availability of sunshine

Biodiversity:

a rule of thumb, altitude mimics latitude

a shift outward from the equator, and up from sea level, sees a decrease in
biodiversity
eg: the multitude of species present in the Amazon Rain Forests, 10 to 20 times more
than Temperate Forests, and thus the title Lungs of the Earth

Reasons for high biodiversity in tropics areas:

undisturbed environments, which means

less seasonal with an environment that is more predictable

more resources available, sunlight, increased productivity

Species Area Relationship within a region: species increase with the area, up to a certain
limit
Types of Biomes: 11 total types
1. Tropical Rainforests
o

also called Tropical Wet Forests, Tropical Moist Broad-leaf Forests, Lowland
Equatorial Evergreen Rainforests

Situated between between Cancer and Capricorn; 0-28 degree N and S. Eg.
South America (Amazonian forests)

Temperature: between 25-30 degree C, always above 19 degree C.

Rainfall: 175-200 cm annually, high humidity

this means that the terms weather and climate are interchangeable

Stratification, or layering, exists in these forests. forest floor:

receives 2% of sunlight, few species and holds all the decaying matter

understory layer

canopy layer: the primary layer of the forest, casts shade on the two
layers below it, 30-55 m in height

emergent layer: 55-80 m in height, gaps created by a disruption in this

layer

high biodiversity:

epiphytes plants that grow on other plants for support, not parasitic

despite the high diversity, the species themselves have few individuals

soil

due to high leeching, the soil is low in nutrition

selva soil, either ultisols or oxisols, the latter better drained

trees are hardwood species, eg. Mahogany, Rosewood, Cinchona

2. Tropical Deciduous

3. Temperate Deciduous
4. Temperate Coniferous

Grasslands
5. Tropical: savannas
6. Temperate: steppes
7. Desert this is a climatic term
o

deserts are not defined in terms of vegetation

to be a desert an area must have

rainfall less than 25 cm annually

evapotranspiration levels higher than precipitation in terms of water loss

adaptations in vegetation

roots are modified to increase access to moisture

taproots

higher number of rootlets

stems are fleshier and spongier to increase storage of water

these plants are called succulents, eg. cactus

leaves

harden and have a waxy coating to reduce water loss

white in color and shiny surfaces increase the reflection of light

spines for protection

reproductive cycle: lie dormant until there is sufficient water, when they go
through an entire life cycle in a matter of days

types of deserts

hot: mostly subtropical. eg. Sahara, Kalahari, Thar, Great Sandy deserts

lie between 20-30 latitude North and South in the West of continents in
the trade wind belt

high temperatures with a large daily range

get barely any rainfall, resulting in low humidity levels and extremely
high levels of evaporation

Halophytic adaptation allows for survival

cold: beyond the subtropics towards the poles. eg. Gobi, Karakum,
Patagonian deserts

8. Mediterranean
9. Tundra
10.

Temperate Monsoon type

11.

Cool Temperate East Margin type

Introduction to Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the degree of variation of life.

The term was popularized by Edward Wilson

It may also be used to refer to the totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a
region.

Levels of Biodiversity
Earth is not only unique for the presence of life but also the biodiversity. These may be
categorized as:
1. Genetic Diversity
o

Genetic diversity encompasses all the genes, its various alleles (different types
of genes) and its variations in a single species over its distributional range (total
genetic pool). For this reason, it is not advisable to marry relatives since the
genetic pool among the relatives is small thus the chances of inbreeding
depression increases.

For instance, India has thousands of rice and mango strains.

2. Species Diversity
o

The effective number of different species in a region. This kind of biodiversity is

further subdivided into two classifications as listed below:
(i) Species richness- a simple count of species.
(ii) Species evenness- it quantifies the equalness of the abundances of the
species.

3. Ecological diversity
o

Is the number of different biomes and ecosystems in a region. In the world

today, there are over 12 countries which qualify as being mega diverse.

For instance, there is more biodiversity in LOTIC (running freshwater e.g. a

river) than in a LENTIC (stagnant fresh water e.g. a pond) ecosystem.

The Bio-Sphere/Eco-Sphere

It refers to the sum total of all the ecosystems on planet earth.

It is the spot where in the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere interact and give
rise to life.

Life can be found everywhere on earth with some notable exceptions:

(i) Extremes of height ( >8000m above Mean Sea Level [MSL])
(ii) Extremes of poles (both north and south)
(iii) Deep trenches e.g. the Mariana
(iv) Very high in atmosphere (above the stratosphere)

Definition of Terms

Bioprospecting: It is the process of discovery and commercialization of new products

based on biological resources.
It incorporates the indigenous knowledge in focusing screening efforts for bio-active
compounds.

Bio-piracy: The exploitative appropriation of indigenous forms of knowledge by big

commercial firms, without permission from and with little or no compensation or
recognition to the indigenous people themselves.

Biodiversity Hotspot (Norman Myers)

This is a Bio-geographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is

under human threat. There are a total of 25 such places.

For a region to be termed as a hotspot, it must meet the following conditions:

(i) High species diversity
(ii) High degree of endemism

(iii) Rapid loss of biodiversity

Exact Criteria for Qualification

It must contain at least 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular plants as endemics

It must have lost 70% or more of its primary vegetation.

For instance, India has 2 hotspots: Indo-Burma and Western Ghats (including Sri
Lanka).

Mega Biodiverse Countries

These are a group of countries that have the majority of the earths species.

They are mainly found in the tropical and subtropical regions. They include:
(i) The Americas: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, USA
(ii) South East Asia: Papua New Guinea, Philippines, India, China
(iii) Others include: Australia, Madagascar, DRC, and South Africa.

Number of Species

The total number of eukaryotic species is 8.74m, of which only 20% have been
discovered and on record.

This number is affected by specialization and extinction.

Animals account for over 70% of this number, with insects numbering over 50%.

For vertebrates, the distribution is:

(i) 50% fish
(ii) 32% birds and reptiles
(iii) 9% mammals
(iv) 11% amphibians.

Importance of Coral reefs and Eco-tourism

The topic Coral reefs and Eco-tourism is essential for IAS preparation as it forms a
part of the syllabus of both Geography and Environment & Ecology for both Prelims
and Mains Examination. Polychromatic fishes, temperate climate and clear waters
constitute the quaint scenery of coral reefs. It would be surprising to know that the

coral reef is an element of a larger ecosystem. The coral community represents one of
the worlds varigated systems consisting of a collection of biological communities.
This is why coral reefs are known as the rainforests of the ocean.

Corals are nothing but tiny animals which are a part of the group called cnidaria.
Hydras, jellyfish, and sea anemones form the other cnidarians. Corals are sessile in
nature which means that they do not move and remain static. Corals feed on small
fishes and plank-tonic animals and also serve as physical barriers against the erosion
of coasts and provide protection from natural disasters like tsunami and storm
waves. Coral reefs also act as an economic support and habitations for essential
species of fishes which play a role in commercial and recreation purposes and an
entertainment venue for activities of tourism and diving. This emphasises the role of
coral reefs in eco-tourism.

According to the International Eco-tourism Society, eco-tourism has been defined as

responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the
well-being of local people. This focuses on the imperative of individuals participating
and implementing Eco-tourism activities to adhere to certain principles.

In the video titled EnE 2.4: Coral Reefs and Eco-tourism, Dr. Roman Saini explains
about coral reefs and their distribution through out the world, types of coral reefs,
various threats faced by coral reefs, eco-tourism and its principles and criticism
against eco-tourism.

World Tourism Organization has stated eco-tourism as the fastest growing market in
the industry of tourism as it has a worldwide annual growth rate of 5% and
represents 6% of the world GDP and all consumer spending is 11.4%. Some of the
marine national parks which promote eco-tourism in India are Mahatma Gandhi
Marine National Park, Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch Marine
National Park and Rani Jhansi Marine National Park.

Introduction to Biodiversity
The term biodiversity, the short form of biological diversity is used to explain all the
natural processes and variegated forms of life found on Earth. The various elements of
biodiversity have an impact on each other. Scientists state that there about 13 million
species in the world but certain estimated values range from 3 million to 100 million.
Genetic differences within every species (for e.g. between breeds of livestock and crop
varieties) is evident in biodiversity. Another important feature of biodiversity is the existence
of a number of ecosystems in rivers, lakes, agrarian landscapes, forests, mountains,
wetlands etc. It is our responsibility to protect the pillars of biodiversity which contribute to
a great extent in sustaining life. Landowners, fishermen, private firms and farmers play a
major role when it comes to determining the general health of the biodiversity in a region as
they consume the most out of it. Therefore, it is essential to focus on the sustainable
management of biodiversity from the part of Governments of nation-states, InterGovernmental Organisations and Non-Governmental Organisations.
As far as India is concerned, it is the home to 10% of the worlds species. The relationship
between the species in India and culture is strong owing to how many species were
worshipped among communities who had close ties with Mother Nature since ancient
times. It is only in the recent times that the biodiversity scenario in India has been facing
numerous threats due to increased resource extraction, climate change, desertification,
influence of development projects, invasive alien species, pollution etc. The National
Biodiversity Authority (NBA) under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government
of India which was established in 2003 is the statutory autonomous body which regulates
the implementation of the provisions under the National Biological Diversity Act, 2002. At a
time when many of the species on Earth are facing extinction, on June 5, 2015 which was
also the World Environment Day, a catalogue of new species was released by both the
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) and the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) which revealed the
discovery of 349 new species of flora and fauna. The new findings constituted 176 species
of animals and 173 species of plants. Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas accounted for

the regions from where majority of the discoveries were made which are few of Indias
major biodiversity hotspots.
In the video titled EnE Biodiversity 2.1 : An Introduction below, Dr. Roman Saini
elaborates on various concepts of biodiversity which includes the Types of biodiversity,
Biosphere, Eco-sphere, Bio-prospecting, Bio-piracy, Biodiversity Hotspot, Mega Bio-diverse
Countries, Number of Species, Species distribution and Vertebrates distribution.

Introduction to Environment and Ecology

The preparation process the for Civil Services Examination (CSE) is lengthy, dynamic and
challenging in nature. There is a lot to learn in a relatively short period of time. Imagine
how helpful it would be if only the key points are presented to you from the significant
topics of the CSE syllabus? Thanks to the High Yield Series videos from Unacademy as it
accomplishes the above mentioned goal: Learning more in a less period of time.

The High Yield Series constitutes the Environment and Ecology (EnE) portion of the CSE
syllabus which has been carrying a heavy weightage of marks in the recent years. The
major topics of the EnE portion are as follows: Ecology, Ecosystem structure and function,
Ecological succession, Population interaction, Biodiversity, IUCN Red Data Book, Biomes,
Interaction, Energy Flow, Nutrient Cycle, Ecological Pyramids, Ecosystem services etc. It is
highly imperative to familiarise oneself with the terminologies of the Environment and
Ecology portion in order to gain better clarity of the concepts discussed.
In the video titled UPSC IAS: High Yield Series: Environment and Ecology Part 1.1, Dr.
Roman Saini deals with various aspects of the Environment and Ecology portion of Civil
Services Examination Preparation. Dr. Roman provides an introduction to Environment and
Ecology (EnE) and discusses about the major topics in EnE, terminologies, graphical
representation of major biomes (where x-axis is mean annual precipitation and y-axis is
mean annual temperature), list of abiotic factors, different responses of various organisms
to these abiotic factors, definition of adaptation, its various examples and finally explains in
detail the population pyramids.

Loss of Biodiversity
It is essential to understand what the term Biodiversity means before one can analyse the
causes behind the loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity can be defined as the number of species
in an environment and the number of individuals in each species. The functions of the
biosphere depends upon a number of existing ecosystems. Every organism in the
environment plays a significant role in ensuring the balance of nature. Biodiversity could be
called as the web of life and families, nations, communities and forthcoming generations
depend upon it for their survival.

It has been estimated that human beings are currently utilising 25% more natural
resources than the Earth can actually sustain. Therefore, many of the species and
communities are under threat. As per the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) and he World Conservation Union, US$33 trillion is the estimated monetary value of
the goods and services made available by ecosystems. Apart from contributing heavily in
terms of money, Biodiversity has direct impact on saving lives. About 50,000 70,000 plant
species are utilised for both modern and traditional medicine across the world. Another
important area where the loss of biodiversity can have massive consequences is the food
security of nation states. Fishes, molluscs and crustaceans which constitute a large part of
the aquatic life amounting to 100 million metric tonnes are consumed annually. In
countries where high levels of poverty and food insecurity prevail, the food sources
constitute a major portion of meat obtained from wild animals. Do watch the video below to
learn more about the impact caused by the loss of biodiversity on various life forms.
In the video titled EnE Biodiversity Loss of Biodiversity 2.3 Unacademy UPSC IAS
Preparation Roman Saini, various important topics related to loss of biodiversity has been
dealt with in detail. Dr. Roman discusses themes such as the loss of biodiversity, major
biogeographic zones in India, extinction: definition, mass extinction and its stages like
Cretaceous and Holocene, list of prominent extinct species, Causes of biodiversity losses,
Introduction of exotic species, Conservation biology, Stable communities and Ecosystem
services.

Introduction to Environment and Ecology

Ecology (by Haeckal & Tensley)- Relationship of Organism with environment.

Ecosystem Biotic (living vi plants, animals) plus abiotic (non-living viz soil).

Ecads: Plant species with same genetic stock (genetically) but different physically.
Changes are reversible.

Ecotype: Plant species who can interfertile but are somewhat different genetically.
Changes are irreversible.

Ecological Succession (ES): Transformation from simpler species viz lichens to

complex species known as Climax species.
o

Primary succession: Ecological succession occurring in a bare area i.e. no life

was existing.

Secondary succession: occurring in an area where life already existed.

Serule: ES for micro-organisms viz bacteria, etc.

Autecology: Ecology of an individual

Synecology: Ecology of a group/community.

Edaphic: anything related to soil

Ecological niche: Physical + Functional role of a species in a community.

Ecological equivalents: Similar niches in different geographical regions. Eg: different

grasses in different regions of world.

Therms: Classification based on temperature:

o

Mega: High Temp throughout year; Tropical Rain Forest.

Meso: Alternative high and low temperature, Tropical deciduous forest.

Micro: Low temperature throughout year, Mixed coniferous.

Hekisto: Very low temperature; Alpine forests.

Biomes: Regions with similar climate, plants& animals.

As we know, temperature & precipitation plays a major role in any biome. So,
different biomes are as under:

Desert

Biomes (D in
the image): High temperature & low precipitation.

Alpine: Low temperature & precipitation.

Tropical Rain Forest: High temperature & precipitation.

Grassland: High temperature & comparatively low precipitation.

Coniferous Forest: Low temperature & high precipitation.

Temperate: as the name suggests, both temperature & precipitation is moderate.

Abiotic Factors:
o

Temperature (most important): controls activity of enzymes, kinetics & basal

metabolic rate.

Water

Light

Soil

Responses to abiotic factors are as under:

On Y axis: internal level & on X axis: external level.

Regulators: High internal level eg. Humans.

Conformers: Line joining dots show conformers as they conform to external level.

Partial regulators: The line in red.

Migration: They migrate in case of unfavourable external levels. Eg: Bangladeshi

migration.

Suspension: happens in case of bacteria, sponges; during unfavourable conditions

they form spores & remain inactive & with favourable external conditions become
active.

Adaptation: any attribute (morphological, physical, behavioural) that facilitates in

survival & reproduction of an organism.

Examples are:

Allen Rule: If its cold then small extremities.

Taq Polymerase: Taq-bacteria who can survive in high temperature

Chaperone Protein: helps survival in cold temperature as it prevents freezing of

proteins.

Cam Pathway (photosynthesis during night time), leaves into spine: desert adaptation

Kangaroo rat: doesnt drink water for days, get water from fat oxidation + urine
concentration.

Altitude sickness: as we go in high altitude, oxygen level decreases so to compensate

that body produces more RBC so more Haemoglobin. Its dynamic and occurs only
when we go in high altitudes.

Population Pyramid

In all 3 diagrams, at the bottom is children, middle is reproductive group & top is
elderly.

1st diagram (upright pyramid): children are more, so it depicts expanding population.

2nd diagram: more or less stable, all 3 age groups in equal numbers-so depict stable
population.

3rd diagram: both children & elders are less- depicts declining population.

This video below deals with introduction to Environment and Ecology (EnE), includes all the
major topics in EnE, terminologies, graphical representation of major biomes (where x-axis is
mean annual precipitation and y-axis is mean annual temperature), list of abiotic factors,
diffrent response of various organisms to these abiotic factors, definition of adaptation, its
various examples and finally it culminates with explaining in detail the population pyramids.

Ecological Succession: Replacement of simpler species with complex or more adapted

species till climax is reached in a particular area. It is a long process & takes atleast
10-15 decades.
There are three stages:
o

Primary Succession: It starts from an area where life never existed (barren
area) i.e. uninfluenced by pre-existing communities. The species are called
Pioneer species as they first enter in a particular area.

Secondary Succession: It is a replacement of more complex species with the

existing one. So, it follows disruption of a pre-existing species. This continues
till climax is reached.

Serule: As informed in the previous article, it is Ecological Succession of microorganism like fungi & bacteria.

Succession of primary to autotrophic to climax succession takes place in a sequence,

which is as under:
1. Nudation: Barren area devoid of life (Well, there has to be any such area
available to start ecological succession)
2. Invasion (Pioneer): Successful establishment of a species in a barren area thru
three steps, as given below:

Migration: Species will come from somewhere.

Ecesis: It will start living over there.

Aggregation: it will start reproduction & thus there is increment in

number.

3. Competition & Coaction (one species action/existence is affecting other

species): After increase in number, competition for resources will take place
both inter species or intra species competition.
4. Reaction: The environment of area is getting modified under the influence of
species; most important stage.
5. Stabilisation/Climax: finally equilibrium stage is reached and final community
becomes more or less stabilised with the environment.

As for every rule there is an exception, so exception of Ecological Succession is

Retrogressive succession i.e. more complex species being replaced with the simpler
ones viz forests being replaced by shrubs & shrubs in turn are getting replaced by
grass. This may occur if there is any disruption with continuous biotic influence &
some reasons are as under:
o Human actions (we are mostly responsible for most of the changes)
o Climate, forest fires, volcanoes

Climax stage characteristics are:

o

Equilibrium stage

Harmony between species & environment

Both influencing each other.

Well drained spatial structure.

There is wide diversity & complex food chain.

Polyclimax i.e. no single climax, there is multiple climax.

Population interaction no species can live in isolation, each species interacts with
other for its survival.

Different population interaction are as under:

Sr. No.

Description

Species 1

Species 2

Mutualism

Competition

Amensalism

Predation

Parastitism

Commensalism +

+ -> Positive influence; ->negative influence; 0- no

Ammensalism: Some plants releasing chemicals which is toxic for other plants so the
others are negatively affected.

Predation
o

There is fixed energy present. Predation helps in checking population. Eg: In

Australia, prickly pear cactus was imported as it is an imported plant no
predator was available, so they grew in large numbers. Thus, to check its
population, its predator moth was also introduced from the same country.

If Predator is too efficient then prey will vanish & eventually it will also vanish.
So, predator needs to be prudent.

In order to save life, preys have developed various modification, some of them
are listed below:

Camouflage: Chameleon takes color of its surroundings so as to save

from being seen.

Monarch butterfly has developed to be distasteful to its predator.

Some plants like acacia, cactus has developed spines so that

phytophagus insects (plant eating) couldnt eat them.

Calotropis produce cardiac glycosides(toxic)

Extract like nicotine, caffeine, opium (used in morphine), quinine

(malarial medicine), strychnine (artificial sweetener) are all defence
mechanism.

Competition:

Old Definition by Darwin Survival of the fittest, closely related species

competing for the same resources.

Exception: even unrelated species viz flamingos & fish compete for
zooplankton. Further, feeding efficiency of species may interfere
even if sufficient resources are available.

New Definition: fitness (r ) of one species is significantly lower in presence

of other species. For eg. In Galapagos island, Abingdon tortoise got
extinct when goats were introduced, as goats eat all grass leaving nothing
for tortoise.

Competitive release: There is an increase in geographical area or

ecological niche if competitor is removed. Scotland Balanus dominates &
removes smaller barnacles Chatamus.

Gauses Competitive Exclusion Principle: If there is a competition for

same resource then the same cannot last indefinitely & one or the other
species will disappear. Exception- Resource partitioning eg: Warbles
inhabiting in the same tree coexist by changing their foraging activity i.e.
some eat in the night & others in the day.

Parasitism

Parasite gets free residence/home, food & transport. They are available in
huge variety from plants to higher vertebrates.

Co-evolution of host & parasites: If there is any change in host then

parasite has to adapt otherwise it will perish. So, some modifications
adopted by parasite are as under:

No sensory organs

Presence of adhesive organs suckers to cling to host.

No digestive system as they receive digested food.

High reproductive capacity.

They have complex life cycle. Eg: Human liver fluke lives in human liver,
trematode has 2 intermediate hosts i.e. fish & snail.

They are of 3 types viz:

Ectoparasites: Living outside host body. Eg: Lice, ticks, Copepods

in marine fish, Cuscuta (plant with no chlorophyll) on hedge
plants.

Endoparasites: Living inside hosts i.e. in liver, RBC, kidney, lungs,

etc.

Brood Parasite: Cuckoo put eggs in nest of crow.

Parasites harm hosts, reduce its survival, growth, reproduction,

population density of hosts but usually do not kill hosts.

Female anopheles mosquito is a vector & not a parasite.

Commensalism

One getting benefitted & other is unaffected. Some examples are as

under:

Orchid or other epiphytes growing on other tress for support.

Cattle egret getting benefitted when cattle moves on ground as they

lift up the soil, so egrets feed on microbes present in soil.

Sea anemone has stingy tentacles, so clown fish hide among them.

Mutualism- both getting benefitted.

Mycorrhizae, fungi helps roots of higher plants in absorbing

essential nutrients & plants in turn provide energy yielding
carbohydrates as fungi cannot make its own food.

Lichen = fungi (provides support)+ algae (produces food)

Pollination- Pollinators help in pollination & in turn receive nectar.

Eg: Fig pollinate by wasp. Wasp feeds plus lay egg & larvae also
feed on seed of fig.

Mediterranean Orchid Ophyrus Petal resembles female of species and when that male
species pseudo copulate with 2 or more petals, pollination occur.

Ecosystem (term coined by Tansley): Smallest structural & functional unit of nature,
consisting of both biotic (i.e. living) and abiotic (i.e. non-living) having close
interaction.

This interaction is conducted through

o

Energy flow (solar energy) in the system &

Thru cycling of nutrients (nutrient cycles a.k.a Biogeochemical cycles)

Biosphere is sum total of all local ecosystems. Its a global ecosystem.

Structure of ecosystem includes:

o

Input (productivity viz Primary

Productivity, Secondary productivity,
Net primary productivity, etc.)

Transfer of energy (thru Food

chain/web, biogeochemical cycles)

Output (degradation through detritivores, energy loss through respiration etc)

Characteristics of ecosystem are as under:

o

Boundaries are indistinct and overlapping occurs. Ecosystem may be

temporary or permanent.

It may be small (as small as drop of water may consists of bacteria, viruses,
etc.) or as large as entire earth.

Can be self sustaining or not.

Type of Ecosystems are as under:

Ecosystem on the basis of size are as

listed below:
o

Megaecosystem: Entire biosphere

(Mega is 106 in maths)

Macro ecosystem: major biomes

like tropical rain forests, etc.

Micro ecosystem: Pond,

aquarium, etc. (Micro is 10-6 in
maths)

Nanoecosystem: Drop of water

(Nano is 10-9 in maths).

Ecosystem components are:

o

Biotic component: include all living components viz bacteria, fungi, microbes to
large plants, animals.

Abiotic component: all non-living components viz inorganic substances

(Carbon, Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water, etc) involved in biogeochemical cycles,
ari, water & other physical factors, organic compounds (carbohydrates, protein,
humus). The important ones in this category are Temperature, Light, water and
soil.

Lets start with Temperature

o

It is the most important environmental factor.

It is responsible for spatial distribution of species. Temperature is highest on

equator so maximum species are found on equator and on either side of
equator temperature decreases so is species. Same goes for Mean Seal Level
(MSL). Maximum species are found on MSL & they decreases with increasing
height as temperature decreases with increasing height.

Temperature limits biodiversity by causing desiccation (drying out), chilling and

freezing injuries.

Further, if temperature increases relative humidity also increases which is

measured by an instrument called psychrometer while anemometer is sued for
measuring wind speed.

On the basis of temperature, there is zoning of water bodies which is also known as
thermal stratification in lakes
o

Ephilimnion There is a vertical gradient of gradually decreasing temperature

from surface.

Metalimnion: a thin layer of rapidly declining temperature.

Hypolimnion: deep zone of cold temperature with no further gradation.

2nd in the list is Water

o

It is second most important abiotic component after temperature as life started

in water about 3.5 billion years ago.

Precipitation is the major source of soil water.

Different forms of precipitation drizzle (v. Light rain), rain, snow, sleet (type of
snow), hail (big balls of snow).

On the basis of water requirement, organisms are classified as under:

Hydrocoles: Aquatic animals needing large quantity of water. Eg: Fish.

Mesocoles: Needing moderate amount of water; includes most of

terrestrial animals.

Xerocoles: Terrestrial animals who can tolerate extreme dry conditions

and can survive days without consuming water. Eg: Kangaroo, rat,
camel.

Euryhaline: Organisms who can tolerate wide range of salinity. Average salinity
of sea is 35 ppm.

Stenohaline: Organisms who can survive limited range of salinity.

Halophytes: Salinity loving plants.

Neritic zone: It is a shallow shore region of marine areas.

Oxbow lake: Part of a water body which has been cut from a river.

Estuaries: Region where river enters sea. It is a high biodiversity region.

3rd on list is SOIL.

Soil also known as Edaphic factors.

Generally, soil composition = 45% minerals + 25% water + 25% air & other
gases + 5% organic matter + innumerable organisms. But this composition
varies widely depending upon type of soil.

Pedogenesis is the process of soil formation. It is a very slow process & takes
100-1000 yrs.

Study of soil is known as pedology.

Loamy soil (40% sand + 40% silt + 20% clay) is the best soil for growth of
plants. It has high water holding capacity, high aeration & root penetration.

Organic matter in soil: freshly fallen plant/dead animals a.k.a litter.

Litter (freshly fallen organic matter) - Duff (partially decomposed organic

matter) - Humus (fully decomposed organic matter).

Formation of humus takes place in 4 steps

Fragmentation break down into small particles by detritivores (eg.

Earthworm- for this reason it is known as Farmers friend)

Leaching: Water soluble nutrients move into soil depth/horizon.

Catabolism: Bacterial & fungal degradation by enzymes.

Humification & mineralisation- leads to the formation of humus.

Mor raw humus form in acidic soil.

Mull: real humus i.e. fully decomposed litter.

Type of Soil are:

Residual Soil weathering i.e. breaking of parent rock & pedogenesis i.e.
soil formation occur at same place.

Transported Soil weathering & pedogenesis occur at different place.

Colluvial soil transported by Gravity.

Alluvial soil transported by Water

Glacial Soil- transported by Snow

Eolin Soil transported by wind.

Best pH of soil for plant growth is 5.5-6.5

Excess water logging in soil imparts salinity to it.

Availability of nutrient depends on pH of soil.

Alkaline soil can be corrected by adding gypsum(CaSO4) to it.

Main type of soils in India are:

Laterite soil

Red soil

Black soil

Alluvial soil

Forest & hill soil

Peaty & marshy soil

Desert soil

Salline & alkaline soil.

Continuing with the last article, types of soil as per ICAR (Indian Council of Agriculture
Research) are as under:
1. Red Soil:
a. It is light textured with porous and friable structure;
b. Absence of lime, kankar & free carbonates;
c. Neutral to acidic in nature
d. Deficient in nitrogen, humus & phosphoric acid.
e. Found in Periyar & Salem districts of Tamil Nadu, MP, Andhra Pradesh, East
Rajasthan, etc.
2. Laterite & Lateritic Soil:
a. Red to reddish yellow in color
b. Deficient in N,P,K, Lime & magnesia
c. This is made in situ under conditions of heavy rainfall with alternate wet &
drying periods
d. It is porous so results in leaching i.e. essential material move down.
e. Found in almost entire India Eastern Ghats, entire South India, Satpura,
VIndhyan Plateau, Maikal & Mahadeo range in MP.
3. Black Soil/Indian Regur Soil/Black Cotton Soil:
a. It is originated from vulcanism.

b. Dark brown in colour & suitable for growing cotton

c. Lime accumulation is seen.
d. Deficient in Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid & organic matter
e. Rich in Calcium, Potash & Magnesium.
f. Found in Deccan Plateau (Maharashtra) & MP Plateau, Saurashtra & Malwa.
4. Alluvial Soil:
a. Soil material deposited by river during floods.
b. Sometimes deficient in N,P and Humus.
c. Highly productive soil.
d. Found in Great northern gangetic plains, along valleys of Narmada, Tapi,
Cauvery & Godavari.
5. Forest & Hill Soils:
a. Occur at high/low elevation if rainfall is sufficient to support trees.
b. Soil is very shallow, steep & slony.
c. It is infertile for production of field crops but produce timber & fuel.
d. Found in Himalayan regions, valley basins, less steeply inclined slopes,
depressions.
6. Desert Soils:
a. Mostly sandly soils occurring in low rainfall region
b. Well supplied with soluble soil but deficient in nitrogen & organic matter.
c. It has high pH value
d. Quite productive soil
e. This is subjected to wind erosion
f. Found in Western Rajasthan & adjoining regions of Gujarat.
7. Saline & Alkaline Soils
a. Occur in area having a little more rainfall than in areas of desert soil.
b. They show incrustation of salts of calcium, magnesium & sodium on the
surface.
c. These are poor in drainage & are infertile.
8. Peaty & Marshy Soil:

a. Found in Kerala (where it is known as Kari Soil), coastal track of Orissa,

Sunderban area of West Bengal.
b. When vegetation dies in wet areas, it decompose very slowly due to extreme
wetness leading to accumulation of partly decomposed organic matter, giving
rise to peaty & marshy soil
c. These are black colored, heavy & highly acidic soil.
d. When properly drained & fertilized, suitable for rice cultivation.

Soil Erosion:
o

Removal, transportation & deposition of soil from one place to another. It is a

natural phenomenon but increases by 30-40 times due to anthropogenic
activities.

It may lead to decrease in productivity, eutrophication occurs in water bodies,

desertification, ecological collapse.

Causes

Water water causes erosion in the form of Sheet/Gully/Rill erosion.

Wind-Saltation, suspension & surface creep.

Special Phenomenon: Soilfluction- Soil flow age occurs in Tundra region

as due to permafrost melted water cannot percolate below, giving soil
particle a saturated, saggy & heavy appearance. Soilfluction & wind
erosion together is responsible for 84% of global extent of degraded land.

Slip erosion/Landslides- Water & gravity together move large amount of

matter down the slope.

Stream bank erosion- Rivers during flood splash their water against the
banks & cut through them.

Soil Conservation Methods

1. Agronomic Methods (Agriculture methods)
a. Contour Farming- Alternative furrows & ridges.
b. Mulching- Stalk, base, stem is left on the field to form protective layer
called mulch. Eg: Sugarcane, maize, cotton, potato

c. Crop rotation: Preventing depletion of material by growing alternating

crops esp leguminous crops like pulses.
d. Strip cropping- Planting crops in strips/rows to prevent flow of water.
2. Agrostological methods Grasses are used for preventing erosion. Eg Lay
farming- Grasses grown in rotation with field crops.

4th abiotic factor is Light

o

It is needed for photosynthesis.

Based on light penetration, stratification in water body occurs as under:

Littoral zone: shallow water found near the banks.

Limnetic zone: Neither too deep nor too shallow, well-lit, open surface
water away from shore, main photosynthetic body producing oxygen &
food for lakes consumers.

Profundal/Abyssal zone: very deep zone iwth no penetration of light.

Light intensity is measured with Luxmeter/photometer. SI unit is candle

Electromagnetic spectrum increasing order of wavelength/ decreasing order of

energy is as under:

Gamma radiation

X-ray radiation

Ultra violet radiation 100-400 nm

Visible radiation 400-700 nm

Infrared radiation

Tetrahertz radiation

Microwaves radiation

Radio waves

UV radiation is of 3 types:

V-C (100-280 nm) most carcinogenic & absorbed by ozone layer.

UV-B (280-320 nm) partially absorbed by ozone layer.

UV-A (320-400 nm) not much absorbed by ozone layer, carcinogenic.

Visible spectrum (400-700 nm) VIBGYOR (Violet is 400 & red is 700 nm)
Photosynthetic Active Radiation.

Infrared is beyond 700 nm

Albedo value (reflection coefficient) ratio of reflected radiation to incident radiation.

o

Albus meaning white, so white body reflect all incident radiation so albedo
value will be 1 (100%) & 0 albedo value for no reflection of a black body.

In reality, 90% for snow & 4% for charcoal

Albedo of earth is 0.3 as most of radiation reflected by clouds.

Albedo of moon is 0.12 as no atmosphere.

Fresh snow has maximum albedo.

Structure & Function of Ecosystem: vertical distribution of different species

occupying different layers is called stratification (i.e. layering). For eg: Trees occupy
the top layer of forest, shrubs -2nd, herbs-3rd & grasses occupy bottom layers.

Components of ecosystem are:

o

Productivity

Decomposition

Energy Flow

Nutrient Cycling

Pond ecosystem- micro ecosystem & self sustainable ecosystem

o

Abiotic components Light, temperature, water, soil

Solar input, temperature cycle, day length & other climatic conditions regulate
rate of function of entire pond.

Autotrophs are phytoplanktons (planktons mean passive drifters), algaefloating/submerged & marginal plants.

Consumers are zooplanktons, free swimming (nektons are active swimmers

who can swim independent of current), bottom dwelling forms (b for bottom, b
for benthos)

Decomposers are the fungi, bacteria & flagellates.

Functions include conversion of inorganic matter into organic material by

autotrophs i.e. in presence of sunlight, N,P,K,C,H,O converts into
carbohydrates, proteins & fats.

Consumption of autotrophs by Heterotrophs

Decomposition & mineralisation of the dead matter to release them back for
reuse.

There is unidirectional movement of energy towards higher trophic levels (i.e. 1>2->3) & its dissipation & loss as heat to the environment & respiration.

Productivity
o

Biomass mass of living biological organisms in a given area at a given time. It

is measured in terms of dry weight or organically bound carbon.

Species biomass biomass of one species.

Community biomass- mass of all species in the community (including

microorganisms, plants & animals). Sometimes, mass of bacteria are not
considered. It is measured in terms of dry weight or organically bound carbon.

Standing crop: total dried biomass of all the organisms at a particular trophic
level (autotrophs) present in a given area. So, biomass of plants in a given area.

Primary Production total amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit
area. Units weight/area (g/m2) or energy (kcal/m2).
Note: rate of production is called productivity. Units weight/area time (gm-2 year-1) or
in terms of energy (kcalm-2 year-1).

Primary Productivity: amount of biomass or organic matter (in terms of dry weight)
produced per unit area over period of time by plants during photosynthesis.

Expressed in terms of weight/area time (gm-2 year-1) or in terms of energy (kcalm2

year-1).

Primary Productivity is of two types:

o

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): rate of production of organic matter during

photosynthesis.

Net Primary Productivity (NPP) = GPP (R ) i.e. Gross Primary Productivity

minus respiration losses & it is the biomass available for consumption to
heterotrophs (herbivores & decomposers).

Secondary Productivity- Rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers. It is

always less than primary productivity.

Factors influencing Primary Productivity are as under:

o

Plant species

Environmental factors

Availability of nutrients

Photosynthetic capacity of plants

The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approx 170 billion
tonnes of organic matter or 104.9 Giga or Billion tonnes Carbon per year (Gt C yr-1).
Of this, 56.4 Gt C yr-1 (53.8%) was the product of terrestrial organism while the
remaining 48.5 Gt C yr-1 was accounted for oceanic production even though they
occupy 70% of earths surface.

Hence, productivity on land is far higher as compared to oceans. It is 426 gC/m2/yr

for land excluding areas which is permanently covered with snow while for oceans it
is 140 gC/m2/yr.

Max productivity per unit area is of Tropical rain forest.

In water, least productive area is deep lake which is known as

abysmal/pelagic/benthic/profundal/hadelic/aphotic zone and the most productive
area is coral reefs.

Nitrogen is the limiting factor for oceans & phosphorus is for lakes.

This is about Productivity.

Moving on to Decomposition

Decomposers break down complex organic matter (Detritus- leaves, bark, flowers,
dead remains of animals, faecal matter) into inorganic substances like CO2, water &
nutrients & this process is called decomposition (thru 5 steps fragmentation,
leaching, catabolism, humification & mineralisation).
o

Fragmentation Detritivores (earthworm aka farmers friend) loosens the soil

& break down detritus into smaller particles.

Leaching Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon &
get precipitated as unavailable salts.

Catabolism- Bacterial & fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic
substances.

All the above steps operate simultaneously.

Humification- Accumulation of humus (dark colored amorphous substance

acts as a reservoir of nutrients); it is highly resistant to microbial action &
decomposition.

Mineralisation Humus is slowly degraded by some microbes & release of

inorganic nutrients occurs. This is a very slow process as less oxygen is
available.

Decomposition is faster if detritus is rich in nitrogen & water soluble

substances like sugar & environment is warm, airy & moist.

On the contrary, if detritus is rich in lignin & chitin & environment is cold &
anaerobic then decomposition is very slow.