Personality and Individual Differences 75 (2015) 97101

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Fetal exposure to androgens, as indicated by digit ratios (2D:4D),

increases mens agreeableness with women
D. S. Moskowitz a,, Rachel Sutton a, David C. Zuroff a, Simon N. Young b
a
b

Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1205 Dr. Peneld Avenue, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1B1, Canada
Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, 1033 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1A1, Canada

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 19 June 2014
Received in revised form 30 October 2014
Accepted 1 November 2014

Keywords:
Agreeableness
Quarrelsome behavior
Event-contingent recording
2D:4D ratio
Fetal androgens
Social interaction
Contextualized personality

a b s t r a c t
The ratio of the length of the second nger, or digit, to the fourth nger (2D:4D) is inuenced by fetal
exposure to androgens; a smaller ratio indicates greater androgen exposure. We used event contingent
recording to investigate the relation between the 2D:4D ratio and social behavior. Participants completed
multiple records of their behavior in events in naturalistic settings; records included information about
situational features such as the gender of the person with whom the person was interacting. Men were
more agreeable towards women than men; this effect was signicantly greater in those with smaller
2D:4D ratios. Men with smaller 2D:4D ratios were also less quarrelsome towards women than towards
men. The 2D:4D ratio did not inuence social behavior in women. The hormonal environment in which
the male fetal brain develops may inuence adult social behavior in specic contexts.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Fetal exposure to androgens inuences the ratio of the length of
the second nger, or digit, to the fourth nger (2D:4D) with a larger ratio in women than in men (Manning, 2011). This ratio is associated with several sex-differentiated phenomena such as risk
taking, with a smaller ratio associated with behavior more typical
of men (Breedlove, 2010). The 2D:4D ratio is also associated with
self-rated behavioral patterns, such as smiling and irtation, which
are intended to inuence the social environment (Burton et al.,
2011). However, many results related to the 2D:4D ratio have
not replicated, and consequently, the 2D:4D ratio may not be reliably related to sex-differentiated characteristics (Putz, Gaulin,
Sporter, & McBurney, 2004). Rather than focusing on traits, the
present study considered the context-specic relation between
the 2D:4D ratio and a major dimension of social behavior, agreeableness, which inuences the social environment through its
impact on others interpersonal behaviors (Sadler, Woody, &
Ethier, 2011) and thereby may be affected by characteristics of
the other person in the situation.
Agreeableness can be conceptualized as one end of a broad
dimension anchored at the extreme opposite end by aggression

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 514 398 6127.

E-mail address: dsm@psych.mcgill.ca (D. S. Moskowitz).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.008
0191-8869/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

(Moskowitz, 2010). Given gender differences in aggression (Hines,

2004), it might be expected that aggression would be associated
with early exposure to androgens. However, ndings have been
mixed. A meta-analysis of the relation between the 2D:4D ratio
and aggression (Hnekopp & Watson, 2011) concluded that there
was no relation between the 2D:4D ratio and aggression in women
and a very small negative correlation (r = 0.06) in men. The majority of the studies used questionnaires and may be limited by a
methodology which relies on retrospective memories of a low base
rate phenomenon.
Correlates of the 2D:4D ratio may be detected more easily with
behaviors that are related to aggression but which have a higher
base rate, such as low agreeableness and high quarrelsomeness
(Moskowitz, 2010). One questionnaire study found a signicant
negative correlation between Five-Factor agreeableness and the
2D:4D ratio, but only in women (Fink, Manning, & Neave, 2004),
while two other questionnaire studies found no correlation (Lippa,
2006; Luxen & Buunk, 2005). Thus, trait agreeableness measured
using questionnaires has an inconsistent relation with the 2D:4D
ratio.
Laboratory based studies have shown surprising relations
between agreeable behaviors and the 2D:4D ratio. When participants
engaged in a game in which they could make prosocial cooperative
choices or egotistical choices, a smaller 2D:4D ratio was associated
with more cooperative behavior (Millet & Dewitte, 2006), suggesting
that early androgen exposure may be related to more agreeableness.

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D. S. Moskowitz et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 75 (2015) 97101

Millet and Dewitte (2009) further demonstrated that participants

with a smaller ratio were more prosocial than those with a larger
ratio in a neutral situation, but were less prosocial after exposure to
an aggression cue, suggesting that the relation between the 2D:4D
ratio and agreeable behavior may be context specic. While there
are no other ndings about context specicity in the relation between
the 2D:4D ratio and agreeable behavior, context specicity has been
found in gender differences in agreeableness. Suh and colleagues
found that women are more agreeable towards same-sex friends
than men are, but that men are more agreeable towards romantic
partners than women are (Suh, Moskowitz, Fournier, & Zuroff,
2004). These studies suggest that it may be informative to examine
whether there are contextual moderators of the relation between
the 2D:4D ratio and social behaviors.
Agreeableness is inuential in shaping the social environment.
Agreeable behaviors such as smiling and laughing with others,
praising others, expressing agreement, and providing reassurance
are likely to be reciprocated with agreeable behaviors by others,
thereby shaping positive interpersonal encounters which forge
and maintain social connections (Sadler et al., 2011). During evolution strong social connections may have increased reproductive
success through a variety of mechanisms, including greater mating
opportunities, shared child care and protection, and access to
resources such as food and shelter. In the present, a smaller
2D:4D ratio in men has been associated with having more children
(Manning & Fink, 2008).
We used an intensive repeated measures method in which data
were collected in naturalistic settings. Event-contingent recording
was used. Participants completed a report after engaging in a substantial interpersonal interaction dened as an interaction lasting
more than ve minutes (Moskowitz & Sadikaj, 2011). Participants
reported whether they engaged in specic behaviors representing
four dimensions of social behavior: agreeable, quarrelsome, dominant, and submissive. Participants also reported about situational
characteristics of the event such as the other persons sex and
the other persons role relationship to the participant. This method
permits the examination of situational cues that affect behavior, as
well as the examination of multiple instances of situational cues
that should increase the sensitivity of the analyses.
We rst considered it possible that the relation between the
2D:4D ratio and behavior would correspond to sex differences in
behavior such that greater disagreeableness would be related to
a smaller 2D:4D ratio. We also considered the possibility that the
associations between social behavior and the 2D:4D ratio would
be specic to interactions with opposite sex interaction partners.
We predicted that men with smaller 2D:4D ratios, compared to
men with larger 2D:4D ratios, would be more agreeable towards
women than towards men. Given inconsistencies in the literature
about women, we did not make a prediction about the association
between agreeableness and the 2D:4D ratio among women.

2. Method
2.1. Participants
After the study was approved by the Research Ethics Board of
McGill University, men and women were recruited in couples from
the community using advertisements in local newspapers and free
online classieds (e.g., Craigslist.ca). For the purposes of another
study, selection criteria specied that participants had to be in a
heterosexual relationship and to have been employed in the preceding 6 months. There were 155 individuals (78 men and 77
women) who provided usable event-contingent recording data
and a readable scan of at least one hand. Participants ranged in
age between 18 and 54 years of age (M = 28.7; SD = 7.3); men

(M = 29.9; SD = 7.6) were approximately 2.5 years older than

women (M = 27.4; SD = 6.7), F(1, 153) = 4.84, p = .029.
Of the participants, 68.9% identied as Caucasian; the other
31.1% identied with a range of ethnic backgrounds including
9.3% Hispanic, 5.3% Black, 3.3% East Asian, 4.6% Southeast Asian,
and 1.3% West Indian. Participants varied in level of education:
0.4% did not graduate high school; 13.8% were high school or trade
school graduates; 36.4% reported one or more years of college or
university; 34.6% were university graduates; and 14.8% had a
post-graduate degree.
2.2. Procedure
Prospective participants attended an initial session where they
were briefed on the procedure, consented to participate, and provided demographic information. Participants were asked to complete an event contingent recording form following each social
interaction lasting 5 min or more for 20 days and to mail the forms
on the day following their completion. We examined the forms
upon arrival to ensure that they were completed correctly and
mailed in a timely fashion. Participants completed an average of
126 forms, about 6 per day.
Following this procedure, participants returned and consenting
participants had their left and right hands scanned by a research
assistant. Participants were then debriefed and received compensation for their participation (CAD$160).
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. 2D:4D ratio
Finger length measurements were taken from high-resolution
scans by two coders using the freeware program AutoMetric. Coders
followed the procedure described by Voracek and Offenmller
(2007) in which each digit was measured from the midpoint of
the ventral basal crease to the ngertip.
Inter-rater reliability was calculated using ICC (2, 2) (Shrout &
Fleiss, 1979) in which raters are assumed to be a random sample,
and reliability is provided for the average of the raters. The ICCs
for the average of the two raters exceeded .99 for both men and
women for both the left and right hands. Scores from the two raters were averaged.
There was a signicant difference in mens and womens left
2D:4D ratios, F(1, 152) = 4.25, p = .040. Mens ratios (M = .95;
SD = .03) were smaller than womens ratios (M = .96, SD = .02).
For the right hand, mens 2D:4D ratios (M = .96; SD = .03) were
again smaller than womens 2D:4D ratios (M = .97, SD = .02), but
the difference was not statistically signicant, F(1, 153) = 2.32,
p = .130. The correlation between the left and right ratios was similar for men, r(75) = .72, p < .001, and women, r(75) =.73, p < .001.
2.3.2. Event contingent recording measures of social behavior
For each reported interaction event, participants recorded the
gender and the role relationship of the primary person with whom
they were interacting. The social roles were supervisor, co-worker,
supervisee, parent, sibling, friend, acquaintance, and romantic
partner.
Social behaviors representing the four poles of the interpersonal
circumplex model of interpersonal behavior were measured: agreeable, quarrelsome, dominant and submissive (Moskowitz, 1994).
Participants were instructed to check behaviors in which they had
engaged on the record form for each event.
There were 12 items for each of the four scales (Moskowitz,
1994). Examples of items were I smiled and laughed with others
(agreeableness), I made a sarcastic comment (quarrelsomeness),
I asked the other to do something (dominance), and I gave in
(submissiveness).

D. S. Moskowitz et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 75 (2015) 97101

Previous work indicated that when participants were asked to

complete the same form every day, they quickly adopted response
sets. Therefore, four different versions of the form were used. Participants were given Form 1 on day 1 to complete for all interactions on that day, Form 2 on day 2, Form 3 on day 3, Form 4 on
day 4, and the rotation was repeated for the 20 days of the study.
The 12 items for each dimension of behavior (dominance, agreeableness, submissiveness, and quarrelsomeness) were divided
equally among the four forms; there were three items per dimension of behavior per form.
Four behavioral scores representing each pole of the interpersonal circumplex were constructed for each event. First, frequencies (03) of item endorsement for each behavioral scale were
calculated. Second, a score for each scale was calculated by computing the mean frequency of the behaviors corresponding to the
scale. Third, ipsatized scores were constructed by subtracting the
mean frequency for all behaviors from each scale score. Thus, an
ipsatized behavior score reects the frequency with which behaviors corresponding to the trait are checked after adjusting for a participants general rate of responding (see Horowitz, Rosenberg,
Baer, Ureo, & Villaseor, 1988). Scores for quarrelsome and submissive behaviors are typically negative, because these behaviors
are generally less frequent than the mean of all social behaviors.
Past research has established reliability and validity of the eventcontingent recording method used to measure interpersonal behavior (Moskowitz, 1994). The scales produce scores that are internally
consistent and stable across time (Brown & Moskowitz, 1998), and
the pattern of correlations between the scales corresponds to structural predictions based on the interpersonal circumplex. The scale
scores converge with conventional, one-time self-report questionnaires, are sensitive to theoretically predicted changes in response
to different situations (Moskowitz, Suh, & Desaulniers, 1994), and
are sensitive to neurochemical manipulation (Moskowitz, Pinard,
Zuroff, Annable, & Young, 2001). Moskowitz and Sadikaj (2011) provide an overview of reliability and validity evidence for the procedures. In the present study, correlations among scales (aggregated
across all events) were as expected. There were signicant negative
correlations between agreeable and quarrelsome behaviors (men:
r(76) = .68, p < .001; women: (75) = .70, p < .001), and between
dominant and submissive behaviors (men: r(76) = .52, p < .001;
women: (75) = .55, p < .001).

99

(mean = 100.02) for men and 7852 events (mean = 101.97) for
women.
A separate analysis was conducted using each social behavior as
the dependent variable.
The between person variable in these analyses was the 2D:4D
ratio, treated as a continuous variable. The signicance of this
effect indicates whether the 2D:4D ratio predicted social behavior
in daily life. The within person variable was gender of interaction
partner measured at the level of each event. These main effects
were entered in the rst step in the analysis; the results are
reported for each main effect controlling for the effect of the other
main effect. In the second step of the analysis we examined the
cross-level interaction of 2D:4D ratio by gender of interaction partner which permitted us to determine whether there were contextual effects on the prediction of social behavior such that the
2D:4D ratio differentially predicted behavior towards men and
women. Analyses were conducted separately for the right and
the left hands.
3.1. Men
3.1.1. Dominant behavior and submissive behavior
For men, there was no main effect for the 2D:4D ratio on dominant or submissive behavior. Moreover, analyses did not reveal a
signicant interaction between gender of partner and the 2D:4D
ratio for dominant behavior or submissive behavior. Effects were
nonsignicant for both the right and left hands.
3.1.2. Agreeable behavior
We rst examined the 2D:4D ratio for the right hand. The main
effect for the 2D:4D ratio was not signicant, F(1, 78)=3.14,
p = .080. There was a signicant main effect for gender of partner
F(1, 7749)=113.91, p < .001 and a signicant interaction for 2D:4D
ratio by gender of partner, F(1, 7742) = 7.22, p = .007. The estimated
simple slope for the relation between the 2D:4D ratio and agreeable behavior was not signicant for male partners (slope = .003,
t(118) = .41, p = .682), but was signicant for female partners
(slope = .018, t(89)= 2.39, p = .018).
As shown in Fig. 1, men with both small and large 2D:4D ratios
were more agreeable towards women than towards men (estimate
of difference for low 2D:4D ratio = .07, t(7738) = 9.37, p < .001;
estimate of difference for high 2D:4D ratio = .0471, t(77) = 6.05,

2.4. Analyses
As men and women were recruited in couples there was potential for nonindependence of their data (e.g., assortative mating,
Voracek, Dressler, & Manning, 2007). Consequently, mens and
womens data were analyzed separately. As interpersonal events
were nested within individuals, and individuals reported differing
numbers of interpersonal events, data were analyzed using multilevel modeling with an unstructured covariance structure. Analyses were conducted using SAS Version 9.3 PROC MIXED. Degrees
of freedom were calculated using the Satterthwaite method.
Interactions were examined both by estimating simple slopes
and calculating point estimates for the dependent variable at values of 1 standard deviation from the mean for digit ratio for interactions with male partners and for interactions with female
partners. Each participants 2D:4D ratio was standardized using
the mean of the 2D:4D ratio for people of that participants gender.
3. Results
Events involving parents or siblings were omitted from the
analyses to focus the analyses on interactions with those who
were not genetically related. This left a total of 7702 events

Fig. 1. Interaction effect of right digit ratio and gender of partner for agreeable
behavior. Note. We present point estimates for the dependent variable at values 1
standard deviation from the mean for interactions with male partners and for
interactions with female partners; the error bars represent 1 standard error from
the point estimates.

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D. S. Moskowitz et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 75 (2015) 97101

p < .001). The difference was greater for men with smaller 2D:4D
ratios than larger 2D:4D ratios, .03, t(7742)= 2.69, p = .007.
A similar interaction effect was found for the left hand,
F(1, 7677) = 5.58, p = .018. The slope for the relation between the
2D:4D ratio and agreeable behavior was not signicant for male
partners (slope = .003, t(125) = .47, p = .640), but was signicant
for female partners (slope = .017, t(88)= 2.31, p = .023). Men
with both small and large 2D:4D ratios were more agreeable
towards women than men (estimate of difference for low 2D:4D
ratio = .07, t(7660) = 9.01, p < .001; estimate of difference for high
2D:4D ratio = .04, t(7702) = 6.21, p < .001). The difference was
greater for men with smaller 2D:4D ratios than larger 2D:4D ratios,
.02, t(7677)= 2.36, p = .018.
3.1.3. Quarrelsome behavior
For the right hand, there were main effects for the 2D:4D ratio,
F(1,79) = 7.46, p = .007, and gender of interaction partner,
F(1,7748) = 10.34, p = .001. There was also a signicant interaction,
F(1,7740) = 10.34, p = .001. The slope for the relation between the
2D:4D ratio and quarrelsome behavior was not signicant for male
partners (slope = .007, t(121) = 1.01, p = .315), but was signicant
for female partners (slope = .022, t(90.4) = 3.46, p = .000).
As shown in Fig. 2, men with smaller 2D:4D ratios were less
quarrelsome with women than with men, estimate of difference
for low 2D:4D ratio = .03, t(7735)= 4.55, p < .001. There was no
difference in quarrelsomeness with respect to gender of partner
for men with larger 2D:4D ratios, estimate of difference for high
2D:4D ratio = .00, t(7749) = .20, p = .844.
For the left hand, there were also main effects for the 2D:4D ratio,
F(1, 78) = 6.84, p = .010, and gender of interaction partner,
F(1, 7700) = 11.86, p < .001. There was also a signicant interaction,
F(1, 7677) = 10.37, p = .001, similar to the interaction effect previously described for the right hand. The slope for the relation
between the 2D:4D ratio and quarrelsome behavior was not significant for male partners (slope = .005, t(126) = .81, p = .417), but was
signicant for female partners (slope = .021, t(88.7) = 3.34, p = .001).
Men with smaller 2D:4D ratios were less quarrelsome with
women than with men, estimate of difference for low 2D:4D
ratio = .03, t(7659) = 4.71, p < .001. There was no difference in
quarrelsomeness with respect to gender of partner for men with
larger 2D:4D ratios, estimate of difference for high 2D:4D
ratio = .00, t(7702) = .34, p = .734.

Fig. 2. Interaction effect of right digit ratio and gender of partner on quarrelsome
behavior. Note. We present point estimates for the dependent variable at values 1
standard deviation from the mean for interactions with male partners and for
interactions with female partners; the error bars represent 1 standard error from
the point estimates.

Additional post hoc tests indicated that men with smaller

2D:4D ratios were less quarrelsome to women than were men with
larger 2D:4D ratios. Estimate of difference for right 2D:4D ratio
was .04, t(90.4) = 3.46, p = .001. Estimate of difference for left ratio
was .04, t(89) = 3.34, p = .001.
3.2. Women
There were no signicant main or interaction effects involving
the 2D:4D ratio and social behavior for female participants. The
absence of effects occurred for the 2D:4D ratio on both the left
and the right hands.
For agreeable behavior, the 2D:4D ratio main effect was nonsignicant for both the right (F(1, 77) = .17, p = .679) and left hands
(F(1, 78) = .05, p = .815), as were the respective interactions,
F(1, 7844) = .03, p = .852 and F(1, 7841) = .45, p = .500. For quarrelsome behavior, the 2D:4D ratio main effect was nonsignicant
for the right (F(1, 76) = .04, p = .836) and left hands (F(1, 78) = .15,
p = .696), as were the respective interactions, F(1, 7847) = .12,
p = .724 and F(1, 7845) = 1.35, p = .244.
For dominant behavior, the 2D:4D ratio main effect was nonsignicant for both the right (F(1, 76) = .24, p = .623) and left hands
(F(1, 78) = .00, p = .979), as were the respective interactions,
F(1, 7852) = .38, p = .538 and F(1, 7852) = 1.24, p = .265. For submissive behavior, the 2D:4D ratio main effect was nonsignicant for
the right (F(1, 76) = .64, p = .427) and left hands (F(1, 78) = .00,
p = .950), as were the interactions, F(1, 7851) = .55, p = .458 and
F(1, 7849) = .81, p = .366.
4. Discussion
In the present study we considered context specic behaviors
that might illuminate how individuals with varying digit ratios
use their behavior to shape their social environments. We found
that men generally were more agreeable and less quarrelsome
towards women than towards men. However, this difference was
especially large for men with smaller 2D:4D ratios, who presumably were exposed prenatally to more androgens. Among women,
there were no signicant associations between interpersonal
behavior and the 2D:4D ratio. Our results suggest that greater
exposure of the fetal male brain to androgens may produce
changes that enhance how agreeable adult men are to women,
but not to men.
These results are notable in an area which has been characterized by inconsistent results in which effects found with one measure are not replicated with another measure of a similar
construct, and results found with the 2D:4D ratio on one hand have
often not been replicated with the other hand. The present results
are robust and not subject to these criticisms. Results were replicated with two different sets of items, one focused on agreeable
behavior and the other focused on quarrelsome behavior, and
results were the same for both hands.
These robust results illustrate the power of collecting data during numerous social interactions during normal daily life, compared to studying social behavior on one occasion in the
laboratory or by assessing social behavior with a questionnaire.
The ECR methodology used obtains information about the range
of events that people ordinarily have in everyday life, such as
events with their partner and with their co-workers. Moreover,
participants were asked to report on an event close in time to when
the event occurred which reduces the retrospection that often
occurs in self-report measures.
Engaging in agreeable and quarrelsome behaviors has powerful
effects on the social environment. Agreeableness evokes agreeable
behavior in others while quarrelsomeness evokes quarrelsome

D. S. Moskowitz et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 75 (2015) 97101

behaviors in others (Sadler et al., 2011). The current results thus

suggest that the 2D:4D ratio is an indicator of differences among
individuals in how they act which elicit predictable responses from
others. Men with smaller digit ratios act in ways that can be presumed to elicit more agreeable and less quarrelsome behavior from
women. Agreeableness often indicates that the person cares about
the other and is willing to invest in the relationship. These results
then suggest that men with smaller 2D:4D ratios engage in behaviors that indicate their willingness to invest in relationships which
may obtain complementary responses from women, creating a
social environment conducive to the formation and maintenance
of relationships. These relationships may include mateships, but
appear to extend to other categories of relationships as well.
A lower ratio in men is associated with having more children
and with being sexually excited more easily (Manning & Fink,
2008). Whether the lower ratio is associated with agreeableness
towards all women or those who want more children or who are
more sexually available, could be explored in future research.
Dominance-submissiveness is another major dimension of
social behavior whose relation to the 2D:4D ratio has been examined with inconsistent results. Some studies with questionnaires
have found no relation between the 2D:4D ratio and dominance
among university students or adolescents (Putz et al., 2004;
Vermeersch, TSjoen, Kaufman, & Vincke, 2008), while a study with
a large sample with over 150,000 participants found a signicant
inverse correlation indicating that greater self-rated dominance
scores were associated with a smaller 2D:4D ratio in both men
and women (Manning & Fink, 2008). A subsequent study of male
university students found that the inverse relation between the
2D:4D ratio may be specic to factors termed aggressive dominance, which emphasize putting the persons own needs and goals
ahead of other considerations (van der Meij, Almela, Buunk, Dubbs,
& Salvador, 2012). This study raises the issue that the relation of the
2D:4D ratio with dominance may be context specic but that the
relevant contexts may not have been identied in the present
study. Future research might consider other context specic cues
that might interact with the 2D:4D ratio to inuence dominance,
such as competitive situations for obtaining valued resources.
In conclusion, the present results indicate that variation in prenatal androgen exposure, as reected in the 2D:4D ratio, appears
to affect context specic features of personality, namely the extent
to which men engage in agreeable and quarrelsome behaviors
towards women. This suggests that men with greater prenatal exposure to androgens are more engaged in forging social connections
with women. Future work should try to identify contexts that may
affect the relation between the 2D:4D ratio and other dimensions
of social behavior, such as dominance and contexts involving competition for resources. More broadly, this study suggests that differential endocrine exposure may not only affect personality traits that
are consistent across situations but may also affect context specic
features of personality.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by a grant from the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council Canada to the rst author. Many

101

thanks also to Kayleigh-Ann Clegg for her help in preparing the

manuscript.
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