SMALL ENGINES

Why study small engines?

Study of small gasoline engines is a good introduction to the
theory of larger engines. Theory for all engines is basically the
same.
Mechanics
Lubrication
Cooling Systems
Carburetion and Injection Systems
Electrical Systems
You will be in contact with engines in many different forms for the
rest of your life.
Definition of an Engine: mechanical device to do work
Five events of combustion engine operation - four strokecycle engine

entry of combustible mixture on inward stroke

compression of mixture on outward stroke
ignition at maximum compression
inward movement of piston by expanding fuel - power stroke
exhaust of gasses on outward stroke

Four essentials for efficient motor operation developed by

Beau de Rochas (1862)
greatest possible cylinder volume with least necessary cooling
surface
greatest possible piston speed
highest possible compression at beginning of expansion
greatest possible expansion
Significant persons in engine development
N. A. Otto (1876) patented first internal combustion engine
(Four stroke)
Dugald Clerk (1878) patented first two stroke engine
Rudolph Diesel (1892) first compression engine using
vegetable oil
Felix Wankel (1950s) after Elwin Hayes (1895) rotary engine

Four items required to make an engine run

air, fuel, and combustion

reciprocating (piston) and rotary (crankshaft) motion
compression of gasses
cycles (events must occur continuously for continued motion)

Small Engine Cycles

4-cycle engines
Stroke 1 - Intake (down) - intake valve open, fresh fuel/air
mixture forced into cylinder from the carburetor by
atmospheric pressure
Stroke 2 - Compression (up) - both valves closed, piston
rises and compresses trapped fuel/air mixture
Stroke 3 - Power (down) - both valves closed, spark plug
fires to ignite fuel/air mixture and expanding gas forces
piston down
Stroke 4 - Exhaust (up) - exhaust valve opens, allowing
rising piston to force burned gasses out of cylinder and to
exhaust
2-cycle engines
Stroke 1 - Power, Exhaust, Intake (down)
o Power - Spark occurs and drives piston down, as both
ports are covered by piston, and slight pressure builds
in crankcase as reed valve is closed
o Exhaust - Piston moves down enough to uncover
exhaust port, and pressurized burned gas begins
moving out of cylinder
o Intake - Piston moves down further to uncover intake
port, and mixture moves into cylinder after being
pressurized in crankcase
Stroke 2 - Compression (up)
o Compression - Piston moves up to cover both ports
and compress fuel/air mixture, and a new charge of
fuel and air enters crankcase as reed valve opens
Cycle can be started with any of these strokes.
Stroke: Travel of piston in cylinder in one direction
Crankshaft
converts reciprocating motion of piston to rotary motion

 ground very smooth where it connects with piston

must be properly balanced for smooth operation
Compression Ratios
8:1 for gas engines
16:1 for diesel engines
Interpreting Compression Ratios
Gasoline engine has about an 8:1 compression ratio, based on
operating conditions and fuel used
Diesel engines have higher compression, perhaps 16:1
Atmospheric pressure = 14.1 lbs./sq. in.
Pressure of burning gasses increases 3 to 4 times
(8 X 14.1) X 3 or 4 = 338 to 451 lbs./sq. in. pressure So there is
338 to 451 pounds of force on each square inch on the top of each
piston in the engine for each power stroke
Determining Compression Ratios
Compression Ratio = (Piston Displacement + Clearance
Volume) / Clearance Volume
Displacement is found by determining the volume of a cylinder,
using the bore (diameter), the stroke (height), and pi (3.14)
Piston displacement refers to that volume that is traversed by
the piston in its up-and-down movement
Clearance volume refers to the volume above the piston
travel, where the spark plug (and valves if present) enter into
the cylinder
Fuel and air within the entire cylinder is compressed into the
volume above the piston
Small engines are made to last longer by providing them with:

Larger crankshafts / HP
Larger main bearings / HP
Larger oil supply / HP
Engines designed to government standards
must last 1000 hours at top load and speed

Common Problems

 Dirt entering the engine ( > 50% of all failures)

Overloading or running engine too fast
Failure to check crankcase oil level
Lack of lubrication will cause most extensive damage
Systems must be kept clean

Cooling
Air intake
Fuel
Crankcase ventilation
Lubrication
Electrical

Crankcase breather
Four-cycle engine crankcases are vented with a one-way valve
that allows gasses out of the crankcase, but doesn't allow air or dirt
into the crankcase
Opens to let out pressure and corrosive gases on down stroke
gasses will cause breakdown of oil additives
gasses will cause metal inside engine to rust and corrode
Allows crankcase to operate at less than atmospheric pressure
keeps seals from being forced out as seals are made to keep
dirt out
reduces oil leaks by reducing pressure
Reasons for Lubrication

Oil reduces friction between moving parts

reduces heat by reducing friction
cleans engine by holding dirt in suspension
helps prevent corrosion of interior engine parts
helps seal piston rings to limit blow-by
increases power output by reducing friction
reduces engine noise by cushioning parts

Parts that must be lubricated include piston pins and cylinder

wall, main bearings, camshaft bearings, crankshaft journals, timing
gears, and governor
Importance of Proper Lubrication

 few small engines have oil filter - need to change oil often,
perhaps every 20-25 hours of use
oil runs hotter in air-cooled engines - oil oxidizes and breaks
down
small engines often run near ground - more dirt and dust enters
air cleaner
small engines rarely have oil pressure gauge - must check oil
level every time engine is used
amount of available oil is small - must keep oil level full
small engines usually operate near maximum output pressures force oil out of bearing surfaces
may have more vibration - adds to bearing load
small engines are rarely given a warm-up period before load is
applied
used for intermittent service - more cold starts which also
increases cylinder wear
4-cycle lubrication methods
Dipper lubrication system - Dipper must reach oil so it can
splash oil randomly around engine
Slinger lubrication system - Cam-gear driven slinger sprays oil
on important parts
Dipper, pump, and constant level sump - Sump contains steady
level of oil for dipper to reach so angle of engine is not as big a
problem 4-cycle engines must remain relatively upright to be
lubricated properly
2-cycle lubrication method
Special 2-cycle oil is mixed with gasoline in tank or in
carburetor
If proper oil is not used, improper operation, improper
lubrication, or fouling of spark plugs can result
You must carefully check fuel to oil ratio if mixing yourself
2-cycle engines will be lubricated properly at any angle
Lubricants (Oils)
reduce friction, heat, and wear
Three considerations in choosing an oil
oil type - mineral oil, synthetic oil

 operating conditions, including ambient and operating

temperature,
viscosity - resistance to flow
viscosity index is the rate at which viscosity changes based on
temperature
pour point is the measure of an oil's ability to flow at low
temperatures
additives help reduce engine deposits, retard wear of parts, aid
in cleaning the engine, reduce oxidation of oil particularly at high
temperatures, retard formation of varnish and acids, help keep dirt
in suspension, reduce foaming of oil, and generally help keep the
oil in good condition through its life
the oil classification is given by a number such as SG 5W-30,
where SG refers to the types of additives and service life, 5W
refers to the viscosity at low temperatures, and 30 refers to the
viscosity at engine operating temperatures
oils with a classification starting with "S" (such as SF or SG)
are for gasoline engines, and those starting with "C" (such as CC
or CD) are for diesel engines, and you should always use an oil at
least as good as recommended in the manual
remember that higher viscosity means more resistance to
flow
Refer to manufacturer's recommendations when choosing an oil
Air Cleaners on Small Engines
An engine uses about 9,000 gallons of air for each gallon of
fuel, so clean air is important to the life and operation of an engine
Polyurethane filter pad - Clean with detergent, air dry, wring a
few drops of oil through it to catch small particles and hold them
Paper element - also called dry element and uses a paper filter,
newer and more efficient, replace when dirty so air can move
through the filter properly
Fuel Filters
Glass sediment bowl - water and sediment settle out of the fuel
- Must be emptied occasionally, used on older engines
Paper element - Replace when dirty or when doing tune-up
Cooling System
Cooling system is needed to keep engine components below
break-down temperatures

 Heat inside cylinder is approximately 3600 F - 5000 F

This heat given off in three ways
1/3 in cooling system
1/3 in exhaust system
1/3 used for generation of power
Boundary layer: layer of stagnant gases that acts as an
insulating film; keeps outer temp. lower than inner temp.
Parts include:
fins on cylinder head to increase surface area and allow
faster cooling
blades on flywheel that force air when flywheel is rotating
baffles, shrouds, and deflectors that guide air over critical
engine parts
Process is called "forced convection", as air is forced over
engine fins by rotating flywheel, and when air carries heat,
the process is called convection
Governors

Hold engine at a constant RPM regardless of engine load

Prevent over-speeding of engine
They do this by adjusting the carburetor throttle
Two main types
air vane - a thin plastic or metal blade is located in airflow of
flywheel, as engine operates faster, flywheel spins faster and
creates more airflow
mechanical weights (centrifugal) - rotating weights are flung
outward by centrifugal force as engine rotates

Governor hunting can occur and speed will become erratic as

governor hunts to find proper speed, and is caused by improper
carburetor adjustment or governor binding
Three Tasks of Carburetor
breaks up and atomizes fuel into a fine spray that can mix with
air
regulates proportions of fuel to air based on operating
conditions
controls quantity of fuel/air mixture that goes to combustion
chamber

 A carburetor on a two-stroke is similar to that on a four-stroke

engine, only the location of mounting is different
Parts of a Carburetor
venturi - restriction in passage that speeds up the air, lowering
pressure (Bournoulli priciple), allowing fuel to be drawn into air
throttle valve - butterfly valve used to restrict air/fuel flow to
cylinder, located after venturi
choke valve - butterfly valve used to regulate airflow to
carburetor, particularly on cold starts, located before venturi; may
be manual or automatic
some carburetors use a primer bulb to put extra fuel into
carburetor, and others use an extra fuel well to hold extra
fuel for starting
high speed adjusting valve - needle valve used to regulate
maximum amount of fuel let into airstream at high engine speeds,
located before throttle valve, usually in venturi
idle mixture adjusting valve - needle valve used to regulate
maximum amount of fuel let into airstream at idle speeds, located
behind throttle valve
jets - pipes or holes into airstream that allow fuel to enter the
airstream
fuel chamber - reservoir of fuel inside carburetor that maintains
proper level of fuel to eliminate "flooding" and/or lack of fuel
float - regulates fuel level in carburetor
Basic Operating Principles (high engine speed)
A low pressure area is created in the carburetor during the intake
stroke of the engine due to piston movement, and air is drawn
through the venturi
The air must speed up to move through the restriction, and
pressure is lowered
Fuel in the fuel bowl is subjected to atmospheric pressure,
whereas air in the venturi is at a lower pressure, so fuel moves into
the airstream and mixes with the air
Turbulence and heat as the fuel/air mixture moves toward the
engine through the intake manifold results in proper mixing
Vapor lock can occur if venting system is blocked, or if gasoline
(particularly gasohol) begines to "boil" due to hot engine or high air
temperature
Types of Carburetors

 Float-type - float (sealed metal or varnished cork) controls level

of fuel in fuel bowl
Suction feed - similar to float-type, but has no fuel bowl;
carburetor set directly on top of fuel tank, and fuel tank acts as fuel
bowl; set to operate best when fuel tank is about half full; used
mostly on one-cylinder engines
Diaphragm - a flexible diaphragm controls fuel flow into fuel
bowl
Diapragm carburetor are smaller and can work at any angle,
whereas float-type and suction feed carburetors must remain
relatively upright because of the air pocket above fuel
Diaphragm carburetors are used on chainsaws, mini-bikes,
snowmobiles, and other engines that are subject to bouncing or
odd operating angles
Air/fuel Ratio (by mass)

greatest efficiency - 15 lb. air/ 1 lb. gasoline

greatest power - 13.5 lb. air/ 1 lb. gasoline
idling - 11 lb. air/ 1 lb. gasoline
acceleration - 9 lb. air/ 1 lb. gasoline
starting - 4 to 7 lb. air/ 1 lb. gasoline

Fuel to air ratio controlled by adjustable needle valves

Lean mixture - hard to start, low power output, overheats, preignition and valve burning
Rich mixture - high fuel consumption, carbon build-up in the
cylinder, pollution, dilutes crankcase oil, pre-ignition and valve
burning
Backfiring indicates too lean a mixture, and dark-colored
smoke indicates too rich a mixture
black or gray smoke results from improper fuel combustion,
often from a rich mixture, whereas blue or white smoke is
created by oil or water vapor, and indicates worn piston rings
or a cracked cylinder head
Small engines are usually tuned to operate best at maximum
output, preferable under load
The carburetor requires adjustment more often than most other
parts of a small engine, based on vibration and operating
conditions
Characteristics of fuels

 reasonably high energy value

volatile - must vaporize, as liquids will not burn - affects ease of
starting and length of warm-up without being subject to vapor lock
vaporized fuel must ignite and burn rapidly in proportion with
oxygen without pre-detonation
fuels and products of combustion should not be harmful to
humans
must be able to handle, transport, and store fuel easily
Gasoline
hydrocarbon fuel - mixture of hydrogen and carbon refined from
petroleum
products of combustion should be only carbon dioxide and
water vapor
due to products in gasoline and nitrogen in air, sulfur
compounds and nitrogen oxides are also created that can damage
the atmosphere and cause acid rain
Self-ignition
tendency of fuel to knock
first added lead - causes headaches, mental retardation
cut compression ratios - less efficient engine operation
changed fuel mix - different mix, added alcohol
octane rating of gasoline - high number less likely to knock
cetane rating of diesel - high number means faster ignition
Detonation and Pre-ignition Causes

using fuel with too low an octane rating

driving habits (lugging engine)
lean air/fuel mixture
hot carbon deposits in cylinder
defects in cooling system
wrong spark plugs
sharp edges in combustion chamber
1/48" corrosion (rust) insulates as well as 1" of cast iron

Ethanol
10% ethanol (corn alcohol) added to gasoline
10% is maximum allowable amount before air/fuel ratio must be
changed to about 9:1 as alcohol has less heat energy

Diesel engines have better efficiency

higher compression
better atomization/vaporization
greater possible expansion
method of mixing fuel and air - better location, constant air
volume - perhaps most important reason
Diesel injection or fuel injection
In 1910 a non-carbureted fuel system was invented, and perfected
for compression ignition engines, and after WWII fuel injection was
adapted to spark ignition engines
Precise amount of atomized fuel is injected into cylinder where it
mixes with a fixed amount of air just before ignition
Advantages include better vaporization of fuel, more complete
burning of fuel, reduced exhaust emissions, better engine
performance and starting in cold weather, and improved fuel
economy
Five requirements of injection system

meter proper amount of fuel to be injected

start injection at proper time
control rate and length of injection
atomize fuel properly
distribute fuel evenly in combustion chamber

Two types of injection systems on spark ignition engines

Throttle-body injection - injection assembly basically replaces
carburetor, and intake manifold remains the same; fuel flow is
determined by position of a tthrottle plate in the manifold; a single
large injection nozzle is used
Port injection - fuel and air are mixed at the intake valve just
prior to their entry into the cylinder; mass of incoming air measured
by airflow sensing plate, which portions the fuel that enters the
injector
Injection systems on compression ignition engines
Must force fuel into combustion chamber at over 3,000 psi, time
the start time and length of injection properly, and inject the proper
amount of fuel

 Distributor injection system - developed in 1952, also called the

Roosa system; a single pumping unit provides fuel to all of the
cylinder nozzles, must try to maintain equal pressure to each
nozzle
advantages include quick response, lower cost, light weight,
compactness, simplicity, and ease of adaptability
In-line injector system - also called multi-plunger unit; separate
pumping unit for each cylinder, thus combining injection pump and
injector nozzle into one unit
advantages include individual replacement and elimination of
need for high rpressure fuel lines
Correct fuel quantity and metering
the same quantity of fuel must be delivered to each cylinder for
each power stroke
constant volume to cylinder each time it fires
equal volume to all cylinders
Timing
proper timing is required for injection to assure efficient
combustion and maximum power
Fuel is injected in 25/10,000 of a second
Atomization
fuel must be broken up as it enters the combustion chamber to
form a mist-like spray
must meet the requirements of the type of combustion used
facilitates the starting of the burning process and assures that
each particle is surrounded by oxygen
fuel pressure must be significantly higher than that of the
combustion chamber to overcome the compression pressure
Injection nozzles must perform the following tasks
atomize the fuel for better combustion
spread the fuel spray to fully mix with the air
nozzles in multi-cylinder engine must inject fuel equally for
smooth power
Operation of typical nozzle
metered fuel at high pressure from the pump enters the fuel
inlet

 fuel surrounds the nozzle valve and forces valve from its seat
at preset pressure
measured amount of fuel sprays out the tip into engine
combustion chamber at high velocity
as fuel is injected, pressure drops and spring is able to close
the valve very rapidly
a small amount of fuel leaks past the nozzle valve and
lubricates the working parts
excess lubricating fuel is removed from the top of the nozzle at
the fuel leak-off and returns to the tank
Turbocharger is special type of supercharger

runs at 30X engine speed

increase horsepower
reduce engine weight for given horsepower
less dollar cost for engine and fuel per horsepower
no high altitude high power loss

Higher horsepower from turbocharged engine

more air/fuel mixture in chamber
more turbulence in chamber
Spark Plugs
Hot plug - heat travels farther to dissipate
good for short-running engines
Cold plug - heat travels less to dissipate
good for long-running engines and high load conditions
Must be concerned with reach of spark plug - how far it
reaches into cylinder
too much reach - piston may hit plug at top of stroke,
changing plug gap and causing damage, exposed threads
can collect deposits that enter cylinder when plug is removed
too little reach - spark does not occur in proper place and
combustion is slower, threads may fill with deposits that enter
cylinder when proper spark plug is used
Do not use abrasive cleaning to remove deposits from spark
plugs, as abrasive left in plugs can enter engine and damage it
Spark has two important requirements

must be of sufficient strength - if too weak, will not ignite

fuel/air mixture, and if too strong, it will burn the spark plug
electrode
must occur at exact proper time - just before the piston
reaches top dead center (TDC) on the compression stroke

Can use a spark tester, which consists of an adjustable metal

opening, to determine if the electrical system is able to provide a
proper spark
A common problem with the electrical system is having a
sheared flywheel key, an aluminum piece designed to protect the
engine; electrical timing will be off if the key is sheared
Ignition System
Battery or magneto supplies primary voltage
Points allow current to ground when closed which develops
magnetic field in coil
As points open, induced voltage causes current in the primary
circuit to flow into condenser creating a voltage difference
High charge on condenser forces current back through coil and
magnetic field collapses faster
Secondary voltage is directed from distributor to spark plugs ( ~
20,000 volts)
Three types of ignition systems used on small engines
magneto system produce electricity without aid of a battery
or generator, and may use flywheel magnets or an external
magneto
solid-state ignitions use a magneto-type system to generate
electricity, but use an electronic switch rather than breaker
points, as the electronic switch is more reliable and requires
less adjustment
battery ignition systems require a battery to provide the
electricity, and an alternator or generator to charge the
battery
an alternator is used more often today because it can supply
greater current flow at low engine speeds vs. a generator; both
types generate A.C. current, and they differ in the method used to
convert this to D.C. to charge the battery
Batteries

 Cold-cranking capacity is the current (amps) the battery can

deliver for 30 seconds at 0 degress F. without dropping below 1.75
volts per cell; indicates the ability of the battery to start engine in
winter; as a general rule, allow one amp cold-cranking capacity for
each cubic inch of engine displacement
a battery has about 65% of capacity at 32 degrees, and
about 40% of capacity at 0 degrees, compared to 80 degrees
Reserve capacity is the number of minutes a battery can
deliver 25 amps at 80 degrees F without dropping below 1.75 volts
per cell, and tells how long a battery could run accessories of the
vehicle if the charging system failed
Check the specific gravity of the electrolyte in the battery and
add water (or sulfuric acid) if needed; should be about 64% water,
36% sulfuric acid
Engine Troubleshooting
Compression testing - use compression guage to determine
compression of each cylinder; test for minimum compression, and
difference between compression pressures of each cylinder
if compression between cylinders varies more than
recommended, cylinders, rings, or valves are likely defective
if placing oil in cylinder increases compression, problem is
likely with rings
if that does not help, problem is likely with valves
if adjacent cylinders have low compression, problem is likely
a blown head gasket