Simmitcs 1430034551875 1430062717296

Overview Of
Computer
Anatomy
A computer system consists of mainly four basic units; namely input unit, storage unit, central
processing unit and output unit. Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit
and control unit, as shown in the figure:. A computer performs five major operations or functions
irrespective of its size and make. These are
it accepts data or instructions as input,
it stores data and instruction
it processes data as per the instructions,
it controls all operations inside a computer, and
it gives results in the form of output.
Functional Units:
a. Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the
user for processing.
b. Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after
processing.
c. Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer
after processing.
d. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit
and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided.
It is then sent back to the storage unit. CPU includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control
unit (CU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit: All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions
provided, are carried out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and also logical operations like greater
than, less than and equal to etc.
Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by
control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.
Memory:
Computers memory can be classified into two types; primary memory and secondary memory
a. Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.
RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a
computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in current use
are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computers processor. It is said
to be volatile since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The
contents of RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.
ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and
contents of which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically
contains manufacturers instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial
program called the bootstrap loader whose function is to start the operation of computer
system once the power is turned on.
b. Secondary Memory
RAM is volatile memory having a limited storage capacity. Secondary/auxiliary memory is
storage other than the RAM. These include devices that are peripheral and are connected and
controlled by the computer to enable permanent storage of programs and data. Secondary storage
devices are of two types; magnetic and optical. Magnetic devices include hard disks and optical
storage devices are CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.
Hard Disk
Hard disks are made up of rigid material and are usually a stack of metal disks sealed in a box.
The hard disk and the hard disk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent part of the
computer where data and programs are saved. These disks have storage capacities ranging from
1GB to 80 GB and more. Hard disks are rewritable.
Compact Disk
Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700 MB. It can
hold large amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc. CDs can be
either read only or read write type.
Digital Video Disk
Digital Video Disk (DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity and enormous
clarity. Depending upon the disk type it can store several Gigabytes of data. DVDs are primarily
used to store music or movies and can be played back on your television or the computer too.
These are not rewritable.
Peripheral devices
These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or
processing and to deliver the processed data to a user. Input/Output devices are required for users
to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring information INTO the
computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer system. These input/output
devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory of a computer
system.
Input Devices
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many input devices,
but the two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you press on the keyboard
and every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal to the
computer.
Keyboard: The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few
additional keys. The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make it easy to
use the system. The additional keys are included to perform certain special functions.
These are known as function keys that vary in number from keyboard to keyboard.
Mouse: A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen.
A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface. Its name is derived
from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the
display screen moves in the same direction.
Trackball: A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or
other electronic devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a
moveable ball on the top, which can be rolled in any direction.
Touchpad: A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a

computer display screen. It is an alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in
laptop computers, touch pads are also being made for use with desktop computers. A
touch pad works by sensing the users finger movement and downward pressure.
Touch Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the
display screen. A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely
used on ATM machines, retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical
monitors and industrial control panels.
Light Pen: Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select
objects on a display screen.
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): MICR can identify character printed with
a special ink that contains particles of magnetic material. This device particularly finds
applications in banking industry.
Optical mark recognition (OMR): Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense
reader is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark,
such as pencil mark. OMR is widely used in tests such as aptitude test.
Bar code reader: Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or
vertical zebra strips marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally
used in super markets, bookshops etc.
Scanner: Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustration printed on paper
and translates the information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner works by
digitizing an image.
Output Devices:
Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired from.
The processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit, which then
converts it into a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually produced in one
of the two ways on the display device, or on paper (hard copy).
Monitor: is often used synonymously with computer screen or display. Monitor is an
output device that resembles the television screen. It may use a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to
display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters
and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or application output.
Like the television, monitors are also available in different sizes.
Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hard copy) output. Based on
the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this
category.
Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or electrical
signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Desk jet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this
category of printers.
Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands
and makes line drawings on paper using multi colored automated pens. It is capable of producing
graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc.
Facsimile (FAX): Facsimile machine, a device that can send or receive pictures and text over a
telephone line. Fax machines work by digitizing an image.
Sound cards and Speaker(s): An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and
output sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become
commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output sound
through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to
the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.
Modern PC:
Exploded
view
In this chapter, we shall see a bird's eye view on the different

hardware parts of the basic computer.
Motherboard
As its name implies, everything inside your PC (apart from the disk drives and power supply
unit) is part of the motherboard, or sits in a socket on the motherboard, or is connected to it by
cables (e.g disk drives and power supply). So it plays an important structural role. The
motherboard is a large PCB (printed circuit board) that houses most of your computers
components and directs data traffic to and from the appropriate devices. The most popular
motherboard sizes are ATX and micro ATX.
Boiling it down to its essentials, the motherboard comprises the chipset, Super I/O chip, BIOS
ROM, communications pathways called buses and a whole lot of sockets to plug things into.
The chipset, usually a pair of chips, determines a lot of the features of your system. For example
it determines what type of CPU and memory you can use. The chipset provides controllers for
the buses and transfers data from one bus to another. These controllers are referred to as the
North Bridge and South Bridge, unless the manufacturer uses some proprietary name for
marketing purposes. The North Bridge connects to the faster buses and the South Bridge to the
slower buses.
Other functions can also be integrated into the motherboard and as I wrote at the beginning there
is a trend for motherboards to be designed in this fashion. The most common are integrated video
and audio adapters. This can save most of the cost of an adapter card, but the performance is
usually at the lower end of the spectrum.
PCI
Conventional PCI, often shortened to PCI, is a local computer bus for attaching hardware
devices in a computer. PCI is the initialism for Peripheral Component Interconnect and is part of
the PCI Local Bus standard. The PCI bus supports the functions found on a processor bus but in
a standardized format that is independent of any particular processor's native bus. Devices
connected to the PCI bus appear to a bus master to be connected directly to its own bus and are
assigned addresses in the processor's address space. It is a parallel bus, synchronous to a single
bus clock.PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) slots let peripherals communicate quickly
with the processor. You can add devices, such as modems and sound cards, to the PCI slot. PCI
device ports protrude from the back of the computer.
RAM
Memory is temporary storage where the processor can access program code and data. It is
temporary because any information stored there is lost when the system loses power or is
rebooted.Physically, memory in a computer usually consists of 1- 4 small boards containing
special chips. These boards, characterised by the rows of "pins" along the bottom edge, are
plugged into appropriate slots on the motherboard. Each memory chip consists of an array of a
huge number of small memory circuits. The circuits can be set individually by the CPU during a
write operation which stores bits of data, or read by the CPU as the data is being retrieved.
The CPU stores temporary information,such as data relating to open programs, in RAM. When
the RAM reaches its capacity,the processor redirects the excess data to your hard drive. Because
the hard drive isnt nearly as fast as RAM, this virtual memory stores and releases data at a
slower rate. If your computer performs slowly when you have multiple programs open, you can
usually increase the performance by adding additional RAM.
BIOS
The motherboard manufacturer installs a basic OS (operating system) in the BIOS (Basic
Input/Output System) chip. The BIOS activates when you turn on the computer and performs
system checks before starting your main OS. It also lets the processor communicate with the
PCs peripherals. Many BIOSes let you configure some system activities, such as power-saving
functions. Newer BIOS chips store information in flash ROM, which lets users upgrade the
BIOS software
CPU
The CPU is the brain that carries out your computers instructions. You wont be able to see your
CPU when you open your case because a heatsink covers it .Heatsinks are metal blocks (often
copper or aluminum) that cool the processor by dissipating the heat. Many heatsinks use fans to
augment the cooling process. Inside the CPU are registers, arithmetic and logic units (ALU), a
floating-point unit (FPU), control circuitry and cache memory. Registers are circuits designed to
hold data so that it can be processed in some way by an ALU or the FPU. Cache memory is
extremely fast, but small relative to the main memory. Cache memory is used to store the current
set of working data and code. So when the processor needs to read the next bit of data or code,
usually it can retrieve it much faster from the cache. On occasions when it must recall data from
the (slower) main memory, the CPU is forced to wait instead of getting on with other operations.
AGP
The AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) houses your graphics card, which supplies the image to the
monitor. Some motherboards include an integrated graphics card. AGP graphics cards, which
often include additional RAM, generally provide better quality images than generic integrated
chips
PSU
The PSU (power supply unit) isnt the prettiest component by any means. It funnels power
through the multicolored
cables (many cables have more than one connector) to each device. Power supplies are often
overlooked, but are essential to the proper operation of your system which requires a good,
steady supply of DC power at the appropriate voltages. These voltages must be constant, right up
to the maximum current your system will draw under load. Poor quality power units, or units not
rated for the amount of power your system requires, can lead to unstable operation and computer
problems that are hard to identify.
FireWire/IEEE 1394
Current FireWire ports transfer data as fast as 400Mbps (megabits per second). (The next
generation of FireWire offers speeds as fast as 3,200 Mbps.)You can use FireWire to connect
many different types of peripherals, including digital cameras and digital video cameras. Like
USB ports, FireWire ports are hot-swappable, which means you can connect a device to the
FireWire port, unplug it, and connect another device without rebooting the computer
USB
Many peripherals, such as MP3 players, modern printers, and PDAs (personal digital assistants)
require USB (Universal Serial Bus) connections. Some devices are able to draw power from the
computer in addition to data through the USB port. USB 1.1 ports transfer data at 12Mbps
(megabits per second), while new USB 2.0 ports can transfer data at up to 480Mbps. Keep in
mind that if you have a USB 1.1 peripheral and a USB 2.0 port, data will transfer at the USB 1.1
speed.
Parallel Port
If you have an older printer or scanner, you probably connect the device to the parallel port. USB
and FireWire connections are quickly replacing parallel ports on most peripherals, including
scanners and printers. Keep that in mind the next time you buy a peripheral; youll want to be
sure that you have an available USB port and you may need to buy a USB cable.
Serial Port
Serial ports are much slower than new USB and FireWire ports. You can attach some older
keyboards, mice, and modems to the serial port, but chances are your serial port is free. The
serial port is also known as a COM (communications) port.
Sound Card
Motherboards often have integrated sound chips. If your motherboard does not have a sound chip
or if you want better sound quality, you can buy a sound card. Most sound cards attach to one of
the motherboards PCI slots
History
Computer
Personal
Computer
Storage Devices
Computer
1.1939:
Hewlett-Packard is Founded. David Packard and Bill Hewlett found Hewlett-Packard in
a Palo Alto, California garage. Their first product was the HP 200A Audio Oscillator,
which rapidly becomes a popular piece of test equipment for engineers. Walt Disney
Pictures ordered eight of the 200B model to use as sound effects generators for the 1940
movie Fantasia.
2.1940:
The Complex Number Calculator (CNC) is completed. In 1939, Bell Telephone

Laboratories completed this calculator, designed by researcher George Stibitz. In 1940,
Stibitz demonstrated the CNC at an American Mathematical Society conference held at
Dartmouth College. Stibitz stunned the group by performing calculations remotely on
the CNC (located in New York City) using a Teletype connected via special telephone
lines. This is considered to be the first demonstration of remote access computing.
3.1941:
Konrad Zuse finishes the Z3 computer. The Z3 was an early computer built by German
engineer Konrad Zuse working in complete isolation from developments elsewhere.
Using 2,300 relays, the Z3 used floating point binary arithmetic and had a 22-bit word
length. The original Z3 was destroyed in a bombing raid of Berlin in late 1943. However,
Zuse later supervised a reconstruction of the Z3 in the 1960s which is currently on
display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.
Konrad Zuse finishes the Z3 computer. The Z3 was an early computer built by German
engineer Konrad Zuse working in complete isolation from developments elsewhere.
Using 2,300 relays, the Z3 used floating point binary arithmetic and had a 22-bit word
length. The original Z3 was destroyed in a bombing raid of Berlin in late 1943. However,
Zuse later supervised a reconstruction of the Z3 in the 1960s which is currently on
display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.
4.1942:
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) is completed. After successfully demonstrating a
proof-of-concept prototype in 1939, Atanasoff received funds to build the full-scale
machine. Built at Iowa State College (now University), the ABC was designed and built
by Professor John Vincent Atanasoff and graduate student Cliff Berry between 1939 and
1942. The ABC was at the center of a patent dispute relating to the invention of the
computer, which was resolved in 1973 when it was shown that ENIAC co-designer John
Mauchly had come to examine the ABC shortly after it became functional.The legal
result was a landmark: Atanasoff was declared the originator of several basic computer
ideas, but the computer as a concept was declared un-patentable and thus was freely open
to all. This result has been referred to as the "dis-invention of the computer." A full-scale
reconstruction of the ABC was completed in 1997 and proved that the ABC machine
functioned as Atanasoff had claimed.
5.1943:
The U.S. Navy approached the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

about building a flight simulator to train bomber crews. The team first built a
large analog computer, but found it inaccurate and inflexible. After designers
saw a demonstration of the ENIAC computer, they decided on building a
digital computer. By the time the Whirlwind was completed in 1951, the Navy
had lost interest in the project, though the U.S. Air Force would eventually
support the project which would influence the design of the SAGE program.
The Relay Interpolator is completed. The U.S. Army asked Bell Labs to design
a machine to assist in testing its M-9 Gun Director. Bell Labs mathematician
George Stibitz recommended using a relay-based calculator for the project.
The result was the Relay Interpolator, later called the Bell Labs Model II. The
Relay Interpolator used 440 relays and since it was programmable by paper
tape, it was used for other applications following the war.
6.1944:
Harvard Mark-1 is completed. Conceived by Harvard professor Howard Aiken,

and designed and built by IBM, the Harvard Mark-1 was a room-sized, relaybased calculator. The machine had a fifty-foot long camshaft that
synchronized the machines thousands of component parts. The Mark-1 was
used to produce mathematical tables but was soon superseded by stored
program computers. The first Colossus is operational at Bletchley Park.
Designed by British engineer Tommy Flowers, the Colossus was designed to
break the complex Lorenz ciphers used by the Nazis during WWII. A total of
ten Colossi were delivered to Bletchley, each using 1,500 vacuum tubes and
a series of pulleys transported continuous rolls of punched paper tape
containing possible solutions to a particular code. Colossus reduced the time
to break Lorenz messages from weeks to hours. The machines existence was
not made public until the 1970s.
7.1945:
John von Neumann wrote "First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC" in which he outlined
the architecture of a stored-program computer. Electronic storage of programming
information and data eliminated the need for the more clumsy methods of
programming, such as punched paper tape a concept that has characterized
mainstream computer development since 1945. Hungarian-born von Neumann
demonstrated prodigious expertise in hydrodynamics, ballistics, meteorology, game
theory, statistics, and the use of mechanical devices for computation. After the war, he
concentrated on the development of Princetons Institute for Advanced Studies
computer and its copies around the world.
8.1946:
In February, the public got its first glimpse of the ENIAC, a machine built by John Mauchly
and J. Presper Eckert that improved by 1,000 times on the speed of its contemporaries.
Start of project: 1943
Completed: 1946
Programmed: plug board and switches
Speed: 5,000 operations per second
Input/output: cards, lights, switches, plugs
Floor space: 1,000 square feet
Project leaders: John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert.
An inspiring summer school on computing at the University of Pennsylvanias

Moore School of Electrical Engineering stimulated construction of stored-program
computers at universities and research institutions. This free, public set of lectures
inspired the EDSAC, BINAC, and, later, IAS machine clones like the AVIDAC. Here,
Warren Kelleher completes the wiring of the arithmetic unit components of the
AVIDAC at Argonne National Laboratory. Robert Dennis installs the inter-unit wiring
as James Woody Jr. adjusts the deflection control circuits of the memory unit.
9.1948:
IBMs Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator computed scientific data in public display
near the companys Manhattan headquarters. Before its decommissioning in 1952, the SSEC
produced the moon-position tables used for plotting the course of the 1969 Apollo flight to the
moon.
10.1949:
Maurice Wilkes assembled the EDSAC, the first practical stored-program computer, at
Cambridge University. His ideas grew out of the Moore School lectures he had attended three
years earlier.
For programming the EDSAC, Wilkes established a library of short programs called
subroutines stored on punched paper tapes.
Technology: vacuum tubes
Memory: 1K words, 17 bits, mercury delay line
Speed: 714 operations per second
11.1950:
Engineering Research Associates of Minneapolis built the ERA 1101, the first
commercially produced computer; the companys first customer was the U.S. Navy. It
held 1 million bits on its magnetic drum, the earliest magnetic storage devices. Drums
registered information as magnetic pulses in tracks around a metal cylinder.
Read/write heads both recorded and recovered the data. Drums eventually stored as
many as 4,000 words and retrieved any one of them in as little as five-thousandths of
a second.
The National Bureau of Standards constructed the SEAC (Standards Eastern Automatic
Computer) in Washington as a laboratory for testing components and systems for
setting computer standards. The SEAC was the first computer to use all-diode logic, a
technology more reliable than vacuum tubes, and the first stored-program computer
completed in the United States. Magnetic tape in the external storage units (shown on
the right of this photo) stored programming information, coded subroutines, numerical
data, and output.
The National Bureau of Standards completed its SWAC (Standards Western Automatic
Computer) at the Institute for Numerical Analysis in Los Angeles. Rather than testing
components like its companion, the SEAC, the SWAC had an objective of computing
using already-developed technology. Alan Turings philosophy directed design of Britains
Pilot ACE at the National Physical Laboratory. "We are trying to build a machine to do all kinds of
different things simply by programming rather than by the addition of extra apparatus," Turing said
at a symposium on large-scale digital calculating machinery in 1947 in Cambridge, Mass.
Completed: 1950
Add time: 1.8 microseconds
Input/output: cards
Memory size: 352 32-digit words
Memory type: delay lines
Technology: 800 vacuum tubes
Floor space: 12 square feet
Project leader: J. H. Wilkinson
12.1951:
MITs Whirlwind debuted on Edward R. Murrows "See It Now" television series. Project director
Jay Forrester described the computer as a "reliable operating system," running 35 hours a week at
90-percent utility using an electrostatic tube memory.
Completed: 1951
Add time: Approx. 16 microseconds
Input/output: cathode ray tube, paper tape, magnetic tape
Memory size: 2048 16-digit words
Memory type: cathode ray tube, magnetic drum, tape (1953 - core memory)
Technology: 4,500 vacuum tubes, 14,800 diodes
Floor space: 3,100 square feet
Project leaders: Jay Forrester and Robert Everett
Englands first commercial computer, the Lyons Electronic Office, solved clerical
problems. The president of Lyons Tea Co. had the computer, modeled after the EDSAC,
built to solve the problem of daily scheduling production and delivery of cakes to the
Lyons tea shops. After the success of the first LEO, Lyons went into business
manufacturing computers to meet the growing need for data processing systems.
The UNIVAC I delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau was the first commercial computer to attract
widespread public attention. Although manufactured by Remington Rand, the machine often was
mistakenly referred to as the "IBM UNIVAC." Remington Rand eventually sold 46 machines at
more than $1 million each.F.O.B. factory $750,000 plus $185,000 for a high speed printer.
Speed: 1,905 operations per second
Input/output: magnetic tape, unityper, printer
Memory size: 1,000 12-digit words in delay lines
Memory type: delay lines, magnetic tape
Technology: serial vacuum tubes, delay lines, magnetic tape
Floor space: 943 cubic feet
Cost: F.O.B. factory $750,000 plus $185,000 for a high speed printer
Project leaders: J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly
13.1952:
John von Neumanns IAS computer became operational at the Institute for Advanced
Studies in Princeton, N.J. Contract obliged the builders to share their designs with
other research institutes. This resulted in a number of clones: the MANIAC at Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory, the ILLIAC at the University of Illinois, the Johnniac at
Rand Corp., the SILLIAC in Australia, and others.
14.1953:
IBM shipped its first electronic computer, the 701. During three years of production,
IBM sold 19 machines to research laboratories, aircraft companies, and the federal
government.
15.1954:
The IBM 650 magnetic drum calculator established itself as the first mass-produced
computer, with the company selling 450 in one year. Spinning at 12,500 rpm, the 650
s magnetic data-storage drum allowed much faster access to stored material than
drum memory machines.
16.1956:
MIT researchers built the TX-0, the first general-purpose, programmable computer
built with transistors. For easy replacement, designers placed each transistor circuit
inside a "bottle," similar to a vacuum tube. Constructed at MITs Lincoln Laboratory,
the TX-0 moved to the MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics, where it hosted some
early imaginative tests of programming, including a Western movie shown on TV, 3-D
tic-tac-toe, and a maze in which mouse found martinis and became increasingly
inebriated.
17.1958:
SAGE Semi-Automatic Ground Environment linked hundreds of radar stations in
the United States and Canada in the first large-scale computer communications
network. An operator directed actions by touching a light gun to the screen.
The air defense system operated on the AN/FSQ-7 computer (known as Whirlwind II
during its development at MIT) as its central computer. Each computer used a full
megawatt of power to drive its 55,000 vacuum tubes, 175,000 diodes and 13,000
transistors. Japans NEC built the countrys first electronic computer, the NEAC 1101.
18.1959:
IBMs 7000 series mainframes were the companys first transistorized computers. At
the top of the line of computers all of which emerged significantly faster and more
dependable than vacuum tube machines sat the 7030, also known as the "Stretch."
Nine of the computers, which featured a 64-bit word and other innovations, were sold
to national laboratories and other scientific users. L. R. Johnson first used the term
"architecture" in describing the Stretch.
19.1960:
The precursor to the minicomputer, DECs PDP-1 sold for $120,000. One of 50 built,
the average PDP-1 included with a cathode ray tube graphic display, needed no air
conditioning and required only one operator. Its large scope intrigued early hackers at
MIT, who wrote the first computerized video game, SpaceWar!, for it. The SpaceWar!
creators then used the game as a standard demonstration on all 50 computers.
20.1961:
According to Datamation magazine, IBM had an 81.2-percent share of the computer
market in 1961, the year in which it introduced the 1400 Series. The 1401 mainframe,
the first in the series, replaced the vacuum tube with smaller, more reliable transistors
and used a magnetic core memory.
Demand called for more than 12,000 of the 1401 computers, and the machines
success made a strong case for using general-purpose computers rather than
specialized systems.
21.1962:
The LINC (Laboratory Instrumentation Computer) offered the first real time laboratory
data processing. Designed by Wesley Clark at Lincoln Laboratories, Digital Equipment
Corp. later commercialized it as the LINC-8.
Research faculty came to a workshop at MIT to build their own machines, most of
which they used in biomedical studies. DEC supplied components.
22.1964:
IBM announced the System/360, a family of six mutually compatible computers and 40
peripherals that could work together. The initial investment of $5 billion was quickly
returned as orders for the system climbed to 1,000 per month within two years. At the
time IBM released the System/360, the company was making a transition from
discrete transistors to integrated circuits, and its major source of revenue moved from
punched-card equipment to electronic computer systems.
23.1965:
Digital Equipment Corp. introduced the PDP-8, the first commercially successful
minicomputer. The PDP-8 sold for $18,000, one-fifth the price of a small IBM 360
mainframe. The speed, small size, and reasonable cost enabled the PDP-8 to go into
thousands of manufacturing plants, small businesses, and scientific laboratories.
24.1966:
The Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency contracted with the
University of Illinois to build a large parallel processing computer, the ILLIAC IV, which
did not operate until 1972 at NASAs Ames Research Center. The first large-scale array
computer, the ILLIAC IV achieved a computation speed of 200 million instructions per
second, about 300 million operations per second, and 1 billion bits per second of I/O
transfer via a unique combination of parallel architecture and the overlapping or "pipelining" structure of its 64 processing elements.
25.1968:
The Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency contracted with the
University of Illinois to build a large parallel processing computer, the ILLIAC IV, which
did not operate until 1972 at NASAs Ames Research Center. The first large-scale array
computer, the ILLIAC IV achieved a computation speed of 200 million instructions per
second, about 300 million operations per second, and 1 billion bits per second of I/O
transfer via a unique combination of parallel architecture and the overlapping or "pipelining" structure of its 64 processing elements.
26.1971:
The Kenbak-1, the first personal computer, advertised for $750 in Scientific American.
Designed by John V. Blankenbaker using standard medium-scale and small-scale
integrated circuits, the Kenbak-1 relied on switches for input and lights for output from
its 256-byte memory. In 1973, after selling only 40 machines, Kenbak Corp. closed its
doors.
27.1972:
Hewlett-Packard announced the HP-35 as "a fast, extremely accurate electronic slide
rule" with a solid-state memory similar to that of a computer. The HP-35 distinguished
itself from its competitors by its ability to perform a broad variety of logarithmic and
trigonometric functions, to store more intermediate solutions for later use, and to
accept and display entries in a form similar to standard scientific notation.
28.1973:
The TV Typewriter, designed by Don Lancaster, provided the first display of
alphanumeric information on an ordinary television set. It used $120 worth of
electronics components, as outlined in the September 1973 issue of Radio Electronics.
The original design included two memory boards and could generate and store 512
characters as 16 lines of 32 characters. A 90-minute cassette tape provided
supplementary storage for about 100 pages of text.
29.1974:
Researchers at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center designed the Alto the first work
station with a built-in mouse for input. The Alto stored several files simultaneously in
windows, offered menus and icons, and could link to a local area network. Although
Xerox never sold the Alto commercially, it gave a number of them to universities.
Engineers later incorporated its features into work stations and personal computers.
30.1975:
The visual display module (VDM) prototype, designed in 1975 by Lee Felsenstein,
marked the first implementation of a memory-mapped alphanumeric video display for
personal computers. Introduced at the Altair Convention in Albuquerque in March
1976, the visual display module allowed use of personal computers for interactive
games.
31.1976:
Steve Wozna young American electronics expert, designed the Apple-1, a single-board computer for hobbyists.
With an order for 50 assembled systems from Mountain View, California computer store The Byte Shop in
hand, he and best friend Steve Jobs started a new company, naming it Apple Computer, Inc. In all, about 200 of
the boards were sold before Apple announced the follow-on Apple II a year later as a ready-to-use computer for
consumers, a model which sold in the millions.
32.1977:
The Apple II became an instant success when released in 1977 with its printed circuit
motherboard, switching power supply, keyboard, case assembly, manual, game paddles,
A/C powercord, and cassette tape with the computer game "Breakout." When hooked up
to a color television set, the Apple II produced brilliant color graphics.
33.1978:
The VAX 11/780 from Digital Equipment Corp. featured the ability to address up to 4.3
gigabytes of virtual memory, providing hundreds of times the capacity of most
minicomputers.
34.1979:
Atari introduces the Model 400 and 800 Computer. Shortly after delivery of the Atari VCS
game console, Atari designed two microcomputers with game capabilities: the Model
400 and Model 800. The two machines were built with the idea that the 400 would serve
primarily as a game console while the 800 would be more of a home computer. Both sold
well, though they had technical and marketing problems, and faced strong competition
from the Apple II, Commodore PET, and TRS-80 computers.
35.1981:
IBM introduced its PC, igniting a fast growth of the personal computer market. The first
PC ran on a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 microprocessor and used Microsofts MS-DOS operating
system..
36.1982:
Commodore introduces the Commodore 64. The C64, as it was better known, sold for
$595, came with 64KB of RAM and featured impressive graphics. Thousands of software
titles were released over the lifespan of the C64. By the time the C64 was discontinued
in 1993, it had sold more than 22 million units and is recognized by the 2006 Guinness
Book of World Records as the greatest selling single computer model of all time.
37.1983:
Compaq Computer Corp. introduced first PC clone that used the same software as the
IBM PC. With the success of the clone, Compaq recorded first-year sales of $111 million,
the most ever by an American business in a single year.
With the introduction of its PC clone, Compaq launched a market for IBM-compatible
computers that by 1996 had achieved a 83-percent share of the personal computer
market. Designers reverse-engineered the Compaq clone, giving it nearly 100-percent
compatibility with the IBM.
38.1984:
IBM released its PC Jr. and PC-AT. The PC Jr. failed, but the PC-AT, several times faster
than original PC and based on the Intel 80286 chip, claimed success with its notable
increases in performance and storage capacity, all for about $4,000. It also included
more RAM and accommodated high-density 1.2-megabyte 5 1/4-inch floppy disks.
39.1985:
The Amiga 1000 is released. Commodores Amiga 1000 sold for $1,295 dollars (without
monitor) and had audio and video capabilities beyond those found in most other
personal computers. It developed a very loyal following and add-on components allowed
it to be upgraded easily. The inside of the case is engraved with the signatures of the
Amiga designers, including Jay Miner as well as the paw print of his dog Mitchy.
40.1986:
Daniel Hillis of Thinking Machines Corp. moved artificial intelligence a step forward when
he developed the controversial concept of massive parallelism in the Connection
Machine. The machine used up to 65,536 processors and could complete several billion
operations per second. Each processor had its own small memory linked with others
through a flexible network that users could alter by reprogramming rather than rewiring.
The machines system of connections and switches let processors broadcast information
and requests for help to other processors in a simulation of brainlike associative recall.
Using this system, the machine could work faster than any other at the time on a
problem that could be parceled out among the many processors.
41.1987:
IBM introduced its PS/2 machines, which made the 3 1/2-inch floppy disk drive and video
graphics array standard for IBM computers. The first IBMs to include Intels 80386 chip,
the company had shipped more than 1 million units by the end of the year. IBM released
a new operating system, OS/2, at the same time, allowing the use of a mouse with IBMs
for the first time.
42.1988:
Apple cofounder Steve Jobs, who left Apple to form his own company, unveiled the NeXT.
The computer he created failed but was recognized as an important innovation. At a
base price of $6,500, the NeXT ran too slowly to be popular.
The significance of the NeXT rested in its place as the first personal computer to
incorporate a drive for an optical storage disk, a built-in digital signal processor that
allowed voice recognition, and object-oriented languages to simplify programming. The
NeXT offered Motorola 68030 microprocessors, 8 megabytes of RAM, and a 256megabyte read/write optical disk storage.
Personal Computer
The Programma 101 was the first commercial "desktop personal computer", produced by the
Italian company Olivetti and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto, inventor of
the magnetic card system. The project started in 1962. It was launched at the 1964 New York
World's Fair, and volume production began in 1965, the computer retailing for $3,200.
NASA bought at least ten Programma 101s and used them for the calculations for the 1969
Apollo 11 Moon landing. Then ABC used the Programma 101 to predict the presidential election
of 1969, and the U.S. military used the machine to plan their operations in the Vietnam War. The
Programma 101 was also used in schools, hospitals, government offices. This marked the
beginning of the era of the personal computer.
In 1968, Hewlett-Packard was ordered to pay about $900,000 in royalties to Olivetti after their
Hewlett-Packard 9100A was ruled to have copied some of the solutions adopted in the
Programma 101, including the magnetic card, the architecture and other similar components.
The Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from 1965 to 1969 in a group headed by
Victor Glushkov. It was designed as a relatively small-scale computer for use in engineering and
scientific applications and contained a hardware implementation of a high-level programming
language. Another innovative feature for that time was the user interface combining a keyboard
with a monitor and light pen for correcting texts and drawing on screen.
In what was later to be called the Mother of All Demos, SRI researcher Douglas Engelbart in
1968 gave a preview of what would become the staples of daily working life in the 21st century:
e-mail, hypertext, word processing, video conferencing and the mouse. The demonstration
required technical support staff and a mainframe time-sharing computer that were far too costly
for individual business use at the time.
Another seminal product in 1973 was the Xerox Alto, developed at Xerox's Palo Alto Research
Center (PARC), it had a graphical user interface (GUI) which later served as inspiration for
Apple Computer's Macintosh, and Microsoft's Windows operating system. Also in 1973 Hewlett
Packard introduced fully BASIC programmable microcomputers that fit entirely on top of a desk,
including a keyboard, a small one-line display and printer. The Wang 2200 microcomputer of
1973 had a full-size cathode ray tube (CRT) and cassette tape storage.These were generally
expensive specialized computers sold for business or scientific uses. The introduction of the
microprocessor, a single chip with all the circuitry that formerly occupied large cabinets, led to
the proliferation of personal computers after 1975.
Early personal computersgenerally called microcomputerswere often sold in a kit form and
in limited volumes, and were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians. Minimal
programming was done with toggle switches to enter instructions, and output was provided by
front panel lamps. Practical use required adding peripherals such as keyboards, computer
displays, disk drives, and printers. Micral N was the earliest commercial, non-kit microcomputer
based on a microprocessor, the Intel 8008. It was built starting in 1972 and about 90,000 units
were sold.
The first successfully mass marketed personal computer was the Commodore PET introduced in
January 1977, but back-ordered and not available until later in the year.] At the same time, the
Apple II (usually referred to as the "Apple") was introduced (June 1977), and the TRS-80 from
Tandy Corporation / Tandy Radio Shack in summer 1977, delivered in September in a small
number. Mass-market ready-assembled computers allowed a wider range of people to use
computers, focusing more on software applications and less on development of the processor
hardware.
Eventually, due to the influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market, personal
computers and home computers lost any technical distinction. Business computers acquired color
graphics capability and sound, and home computers and game systems users used the same
processors and operating systems as office workers. Mass-market computers had graphics
capabilities and memory comparable to dedicated workstations of a few years before. Even local
area networking, originally a way to allow business computers to share expensive mass storage
and peripherals, became a standard feature of personal computers used at home.
In 1982 "The Computer" was named Machine of the Year by Time Magazine.
In the 2010s, several companies such as Hewlett-Packard and Sony sold off their PC and laptop
divisions. As a result, the personal computer was declared dead several times during this time.
Storage
Source
Manufacturer
W
y
Capacity
Price of
Drive
Cost per
megabyte
5 megabytes
U$50,000
U$10,000
26 megabytes
U$5000
U$193
18 megabytes
U$4199
U$233
5 megabytes
U$3500
U$700
5 megabytes
U$1700
U$340
6.3 megabytes
10 megabytes
10 megabytes
19 megabytes
20 megabytes
26 megabytes
26 megabytes
U$2895
U$2999
U$2949
U$5495
U$3829
U$3949
U$3599
U$460
U$300
U$295
U$289
U$191
U$152
U$138
1956
Note 0
Note 34
Note 31
Note 32
Note 33
Note 31
Note 33
Note 33
Note 32
Note 35
Note 35
Note 35
Note 35
Note 35
Note 35
Note 35
Note 37
Note 38
Note 37
IBM
1980 January
Morrow Designs
1980 July
North Star
1981 September
Apple
1981 November
Seagate
1981 December
VR Data Corp.
Morrow Designs
Morrow Designs
VR Data Corp.
Morrow Designs
Morrow Designs
Morrow Designs
1982 March
Xebec
1983 December
Corvus
Corvus
Xcomp
Corvus
Davong
Xcomp
Davong
1984 March
Percom/Tandon
not known
Percom/Tandon
U$260
6 megabytes
10 megabytes
10 megabytes
20 megabytes
10 megabytes
16 megabytes
21 megabytes
U$1895
U$2695
U$1895
U$3495
U$1650
U$2095
U$2495
U$316
U$270
U$190
U$175
U$165
U$131
U$119
5 megabytes
5 megabytes
10 megabytes
U$1399
U$1349
U$1699
U$280
U$270
U$170
Note 38
Note 37
Note 38
Note 37
Note 38
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 36
Note 30
Note 30
Note 39
Note 39
Note 39
Note 1
Note 1
Note 1
Note 1
Note 1
Note 56
Note 56
Note 11
Note 11
Note 11
Note 11
not known
10 megabytes
U$1599
U$160
Percom/Tandon
15 megabytes
U$2095
U$140
not known
15 megabytes
U$1999
U$133
Percom/Tandon
20 megabytes
U$2399
U$120
not known
20 megabytes
U$2359
U$118
1984 May
Tecmar
5 megabytes
U$1495
U$299
Corvus
6 megabytes
U$1695
U$283
Corvus
11 megabytes
U$2350
U$214
Comrex
10 megabytes
U$1995
U$200
CTI
11 megabytes
U$1995
U$181
Davong
10 megabytes
U$1645
U$165
Corvus
20 megabytes
U$3150
U$158
Davong
15 megabytes
U$2095
U$140
Davong
21 megabytes
U$2495
U$119
Pegasus (Great Lakes)
10 megabytes
U$1075
U$108
Pegasus (Great Lakes)
23 megabytes
U$1845
U$80
1985 July
First Class Peripherals
1
10 megabytes U$710.00
U$71
"Can I really get a 10 megabyte hard disk that's reliable for only $695?"
1987 October
Iomega
10 megabytes
U$899
U$90
Iomega
20 megabytes
U$1199
U$60
Iomega
40 megabytes
U$1799
U$45
1988 May
20 megabytes
U$799
U$40
30 megabytes
U$995
U$33
45 megabytes
U$1195
U$27
60 megabytes
U$1795
U$30
250 megabytes
U$3995
U$16
1989 March
Western Digital
20 megabytes
$899.00
$53
Western Digital
40 megabytes
$1199.00
$36
1989 September
$12
1990 September
$9
1991 September
$7
1992 September
$4
1993 September
Note 11
$2
1994 September
Note 11
Note 2
Note 2
Note 2
Note 2
95
1995 January
Seagate
Seagate
Seagate
Seagate
1995 April
5
5
5
5
1.0 gigabyte
1.7 gigabytes
2.1 gigabytes
2.9 gigabytes
$849
$1499
$1699
$2899
85
88
81
99
240 megabytes
420 megabytes
520 megabytes
850 megabytes
1.0 gigabyte
1.2 gigabytes
$250.00
$320.00
$380.00
$470.00
$625.00
$680.00
$1.26
92.2
88.4
66.9
75.6
68.6
1.6 gigabytes
$399.99
29.5
1.76 gigabytes
2.0 gigabytes
$379.99
$439.99
26.3
25.9
2.5 gigabytes
3.2 gigabytes
$440.00
$469.00
20.7
17.3
Note 24
Note 24
Note 24
Note 24
Note 24
Note 24
Note 3
Note 4
Note 4
Note 5
Note 5
Source
Note 6
Note 6
Note 6
Note 7
Note 7
Note 7
Note 7
Note 7
1996 June 10
Western Digital
1996 August 14
IBM
Maxtor
1996 September
Quantum
Quantum
Manufacturer
1997 August 13
Western Digital
Western Digital
Western Digital
1997 August 24
Western Digital
Western Digital
Maxtor
Maxtor
Western Digital
1997 September 5
W
y
3
3
3
3
3
Capacity
Price of
Drive
Cost per
megabyte
2.1 gigabytes
3.1 gigabytes
4.0 gigabytes
$329.99
$399.99
$490.99
18.1
14.8
14.1
2.1 gigabytes
3.1 gigabytes
3.5 gigabytes
4.3 gigabytes
5.1 gigabytes
$279.99
$329.99
$359.99
$439.99
$459.99
15.3
12.2
11.8
11.8
10.4
Note 8
Note 9
Note 9
Note 9
Note 9
Note 9
Note 9
Note 10
Note 10
Note 10
Note 10
Note 10
Note 12
Note 12
Note 12
Note 12
Note 13
Note 13
Note 14
Note 14
Note 14
Note 14
Note 17
Note 15
Note 16
Note 16
Note 17
Note 18
Note 18
Note 18
Note 19
Note 20
Maxtor
1997 November 29
Western Digital
Quantum
Quantum
Western Digital
Quantum
Western Digital
1997 December 3
Western Digital
Quantum
Maxtor
Maxtor
Maxtor
1998 January 16
Western Digital
Quantum
Quantum
Maxtor
1998 February 3
not known
not known
1998 April 2
Maxtor
Maxtor
Western Digital
Quantum
1998 April 4
not known
Maxtor
not known
not known
not known
1998 April 17
Fujitsu
Fujitsu
Fujitsu
1998 May 2
Seagate
1998 May 9
Seagate
1998 May 11
7.0 gigabytes
$669.99
11.0
3.2 gigabytes
3.2 gigabytes
4.3 gigabytes
4.3 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
$289.00
$285.00
$379.00
$365.00
$475.00
$445.00
10.4
10.2
10.1
9.76
8.54
8.00
3
3
3
3
3
5.1 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
5.2 gigabytes
7.0 gigabytes
8.4 gigabytes
$449.99
$549.99
$438.99
$579.99
$679.99
10.1
9.88
9.71
9.53
9.31
3
3
3
3
6.4 gigabytes
4.3 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
8.4 gigabytes
$529.99
$349.99
$479.99
Note 12
9.52
9.36
8.63
8.39
3
3
5.2 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
$355.00
$435.00
7.85
7.82
3
3
3
3
5.1 gigabytes
4.3 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
$379.99
$319.99
Note 14
$339.99
8.57
8.56
7.43
6.11
3
3
3
5.2 gigabytes
4.3 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
5.2 gigabytes
9.0 gigabytes
$349.00
Note 15
$370.00
$300.00
$499.00
7.72
7.63
6.65
6.63
6.38
4.3 gigabytes
5.2 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
$282.00
$331.00
$368.00
7.54
7.32
6.61
6.4 gigabytes
$349.99
6.29
6.4 gigabytes
$329.99
5.93
Note 21
Note 21
Note 21
Note 21
Note 22
Note 23
Note 23
Fujitsu
Fujitsu
Fujitsu
Fujitsu
1998 June 6
Maxtor
1998 June 12
Quantum
Quantum
1998 July 15
Note 25
Note 26
Note 26
Note 26
Note 26
Note 26
Note 27
Note 28
Note 29
Note 40
Note 41
Note 41
Note 42
Note 43
Note 44
Note 45
Note 46
Note 47
Note 48
Note 48
1998 July 31
Western Digital IDE
Fujitsu IDE
Western Digital IDE
Western Digital IDE
Fujitsu IDE
1998 August 1
Western Digital EIDE
1998 August 6
1998 August 14
Fujitsu
1998 August 26
Seagate
1998 September 1
Maxtor UDMA
Maxtor UDMA
1998 September 10
1998 October 1
Quantum
1999 February 12
Quantum
1999 February 26
Maxtor
Quantum
1999 February 27
Quantum
1999 March 1
Fujitsu Ultra DMA
Fujitsu Ultra DMA
3.2 gigabytes
4.3 gigabytes
5.2 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
$227.00
$257.00
$299.00
$328.00
8.16
6.87
6.61
5.89
5.7 gigabytes
$299.99
6.05
4.3 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
$228.00
$298.00
6.10
5.35
5.2 gigabytes
$249.00
5.51
5.1 gigabytes
5.2 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
8.4 gigabytes
6.4 gigabytes
$262.00
$252.00
$294.00
$382.00
$291.00
5.91
5.57
5.28
5.23
5.23
4.0 gigabytes
Note 27
5.46
5.1 gigabytes
Note 28
4.64
6.4 gigabytes
$289.00
5.19
6.4 gigabytes
$279.99
5.03
8.4 gigabytes
6.8 gigabytes
$379.99
$279.99
5.20
4.74
5.1 gigabytes
Note 42
4.79
6.4 gigabytes
Note 43
4.26
3
3
8.0 gigabytes
$299.99
4.31
8.4 gigabytes
8.0 gigabytes
see note 45
see note 46
3.77
3.65
19.2 gigabytes
$512.46
3.07
8.4 gigabytes
10.2 gigabytes
$253.00
$299.00
3.46
3.37
Note 49
Note 49
Note 50
Note 50
Note 103
Note 104
Note 51
Note 52
Note 52
Note 52
Note 53
Note 54
Note 55
Note 57
Note 109
Note 109
Note 109
Note 58
Note 58
Note 58
Note 58
Note 58
Note 59
Note 59
Note 60
Note 59
Note 59
Note 60
1999 March 3
Fujitsu Ultra DMA
Fujitsu Ultra DMA
1999 April 1
Fujitsu UDMA
Fujitsu UDMA
1999 April 14
Maxtor IDE UDMA
1999 May 3
Maxtor IDE UDMA
1999 May 21
Fujitsu UDMA
1999 May 27
Fujitsu UDMA
Fujitsu UDMA
Fujitsu UDMA
1999 May 28
Maxtor UDMA
1999 July 21
Maxtor Ultra DMA
1999 July 30
Fujitsu UDMA
1999 September 25
Not known
1999 September 30
Fujitsu
Quantum KA 7200rpm
Fujitsu
1999 October 1
Quantum CX UTA 66
Quantum KA
7200rpm
Western Digital
Western Digital 7200rpm
Quantum CX UTA 66
1999 December 1
Western Digital IDE
Quantum IDE
Mfgr? UDMA
Fujitsu IDE
Fujitsu IDE
Mfgr? UDMA
3
3
8.4 gigabytes
10.2 gigabytes
$235.00
$285.00
3.22
3.21
10.2 gigabytes
8.4 gigabytes
$279.00
$229.00
3.15
3.14
10.2 gigabytes
$262.20
2.96
10.2 gigabytes
$250.80
2.83
6.4 gigabytes
$179.99
3.23
10.2 gigabytes
8.4 gigabytes
17.3 gigabytes
$245.00
$198.00
$369.00
2.76
2.71
2.45
10.0 gigabytes
$249.99
2.88
8.4 gigabytes
$199.99
2.74
6.4 gigabytes
$139.99
2.63
3
3
10.2 gigabytes Note 57
1.85
13 gigabytes
20 gigabytes
17.3 gigabytes
$239.00
$359.00
$299.00
2.11
2.06
1.99
10.2 gigabytes
13.6 gigabytes
$199.00
$249.00
2.24
2.11
20.0 gigabytes
27.3 gigabytes
13.6 gigabytes
$359.00
$489.00
$219.00
2.06
2.06
1.85
20.5 gigabytes
18.2 gigabytes
10.2 gigabytes
10.2 gigabytes
13.0 gigabytes
13.0 gigabytes
$398.00
$348.00
$189.00
$189.00
$208.00
$195.00
2.23
2.20
2.13
2.13
1.84
1.73
Note 59
Note 59
Note 59
Note 60
Source
Note 61
Note 62
Note 62
Note 64
Note 63
Note 61
Note 62
Note 62
Note 63
Note 61
Note 64
Note 69
Note 69
Note 70
Note 70
Note 70
Note 70
Note 68
Note 70
Note 70
Note 70
Note 68
Note 70
Note 70
Note 70
Fujitsu IDE
Fujitsu IDE
Fujitsu IDE
Mfgr? UDMA
Manufacturer
2000 February 1
Mfgr? UDMA
Fujitsu
Fujitsu
Mfgr?
Fujitsu
Mfgr? UDMA
Fujitsu
Fujitsu
Fujitsu
Mfgr? UDMA
Mfgr?
2000 April 1
IBM
Maxtor
Maxtor 7200rpm
Maxtor UDMA
Seagate UDMA
Seagate UDMA
IBM UDMA 5400rpm
Maxtor UDMA
Maxtor 7200rpm
Maxtor UDMA
Maxtor UDMA
Western Digital
UDMA
Note 70 Maxtor UDMA
Note 70 Maxtor UDMA
20.4 gigabytes
17.3 gigabytes
27.3 gigabytes
17.3 gigabytes
W
y
Capacity
$299.00
$248.00
$388.00
$225.00
1.69
1.65
1.63
1.50
Price of Cost per Cost per

gigabyte megabyte
Drive
10.2 gigabytes
20.4 gigabytes
13.6 gigabytes
12.9 gigabytes
13.6 gigabytes
13.0 gigabytes
17.3 gigabytes
27.3 gigabytes
17.3 gigabytes
17.3 gigabytes
20.4 gigabytes
$175.00
$299.00
$199.00
$187.99
$197.80
$186.00
$238.00
$375.00
$232.30
$215.00
$211.99
$19.73
$16.86
$16.83
$16.76
$16.73
$16.45
$15.82
$15.80
$15.44
$14.29
$11.95
1.97
1.69
1.68
1.68
1.67
1.65
1.58
1.58
1.54
1.43
1.20
20.5 gigabytes
15.2 gigabytes
20.0 gigabytes
15.0 gigabytes
17.2 gigabytes
28.0 gigabytes
17.3 gigabytes
20.3 gigabytes
17.0 gigabytes
27.0 gigabytes
20.4 gigabytes
36.5 gigabytes
27.0 gigabytes
20.0 gigabytes
$279.00
$199.00
$259.00
$192.00
$218.00
$349.00
$215.00
$245.00
$204.00
$320.00
$239.00
$411.00
$299.00
$218.00
$15.65
$15.06
$14.89
$14.72
$14.58
$14.33
$14.29
$13.88
$13.80
$13.63
$13.47
$12.95
$12.74
$12.54
1.57
1.51
1.49
1.47
1.46
1.43
1.43
1.39
1.38
1.36
1.35
1.30
1.27
1.25
20.0 gigabytes $217.00

$12.48
$11.81
1.25
1.18
Note 65
Note 65
Note 66
Note 67
Note 73
Note 74
Note 73
Note 72
Note 71
Note 72
Note 71
Note 71
Note 75
Note 75
Note 75
Source
2000 May 12
Western Digital
Ultra ATA/66
5400rpm
Maxtor
UDMA/66 7200rpm
Maxtor
UDMA/66 7200rpm
2000 June 2
Maxtor
UDMA/66 5400rpm
2000 August 1
Samsung
Maxtor IDE 7200rpm
Samsung
2000 August 19-20
Maxtor 7200rpm 9ms
Maxtor 5400rpm
Maxtor 7200rpm 9ms
Maxtor 5400rpm
Maxtor 5400rpm
2000 August 25
Maxtor 5400rpm
Maxtor 7200rpm
Maxtor 7200rpm
UDMA/66
Manufacturer
Note 76
2000 October 27
Maxtor 7200rpm
Note 76
Maxtor 7200rpm
Note 76
Maxtor 5400rpm
Note 76
Maxtor 5400rpm
$15.22
1.52
$12.27
1.23
$11.50
1.15
$14.57
1.46

$12.42
$11.24
$10.06
1.24
1.12
1.01
40.9 gigabytes
15.3 gigabytes
30.7 gigabytes
20.4 gigabytes
30.7 gigabytes
$388.00
$144.00
$278.00
$164.00
$214.00
$10.91
$10.82
$10.41
$9.25
$8.02
1.09
1.08
1.04
0.925
0.802

$11.50
$10.06
$9.58
1.15
1.01
0.958
W
y
Capacity
Price
of
Drive
Cost
Mby
per
for
gigabyte 1
30.7
gigabytes
40.9
gigabytes
61.4
gigabytes
81.9
$244.00
$9.14
1.09
$318.00
$8.94
1.12
$398.00
$7.45
1.34
$518.00
$7.27
1.37
Note 76
Maxtor 5400rpm
Note 76
Maxtor 5400rpm
Note 77
Note 78
Note 79
Note 80
Note 80
Note 80
Note 81
Note 81
Note 81
Note 82
Note 82
Note 82
Note 82
Note 83
Note 84
Note 85
Note 86
Note 87
2000 November 1
Maxtor 7200rpm
UDMA/66
2000 December 13
Samsung
2000 December 20
Maxtor Ultra ATA 66
5400rpm
2001 January 14
5400rpm
5400rpm
5400rpm
2001 April 25
Quantum 7200rpm
Fujitsu 5400rpm
UDMA-100
Fujitsu 5400rpm
UDMA-100
2001 May 1
5400rpm
5400rpm
5400rpm
5400rpm
2001 June 28
Western Digital
7200rpm EIDE
2001 July 6
Maxtor UATA 7200rpm
2001 July 20
Western Digital
7200rpm UATA
2001 August 31
Western Digital
7200rpm UATA
2001 November 30
EIDE UATA-100
2001 December 1
gigabytes
30.7
gigabytes
40.9
gigabytes
$194.00
$7.27
1.38
$254.00
$7.14
1.40
30 gigabytes
Note 77
$7.88
1.27
30 gigabytes
$189.00
$7.25
1.38
80 gigabytes
$479.99
$6.90
1.45
61 gigabytes
82 gigabytes
40 gigabytes
$388.00
$518.00
$238.00
$7.31
$7.26
$6.84
1.37
1.38
1.46
40 gigabytes
30 gigabytes
$260.00
$169.00
$7.48
$6.48
1.34
1.54
40 gigabytes
$199.00
$5.72
1.75
30 gigabytes
82 gigabytes
61 gigabytes
40 gigabytes
$178.00
$468.00
$344.00
$204.00
$6.82
$6.56
$6.49
$5.87
1.47
1.52
1.54
1.71
40 gigabytes
$219.99
$6.33
1.58
60 gigabytes
$329.99
$6.33
1.58
80 gigabytes
Note 85
$5.75
1.74
60 gigabytes
Note 86
$4.41
2.27
100
gigabytes
Note 87
$2.99
3.34
Note 88
Note 89
Note 90
Note 91
Note 92
Note 92
Note 93
Note 94
Note 95
Note 95
Note 96
Note 96
Note 97
Note 97
Note 98
Note 98
Note 98
Note 98
Note 98
Maxtor 5400rpm IDE

2002 March 8
EIDE Ultra ATA-100
2002 July 27
Maxtor 7200rpm IDE
2002 August 9
EIDE Ultra ATA-100
2002 August 16
Ultra ATA-100
Maxtor 7200rpm EIDE
Ultra ATA-133/100
2002 August 23
EIDE Ultra ATA-100
2002 August 30
EIDE Ultra ATA-100
2002 September 6
Western Digital
7200rpm EIDE
2002 September 20
EIDE Ultra ATA-100
Ultra ATA-100
2003 October 11
Maxtor 7200rpm IDE
Maxtor 7200rpm IDE
2003 November 29
Maxtor Serial ATA
Western Digital
SMB cache
Maxtor Serial ATA
Western Digital
SMB cache
Maxtor 7200rpm IDE
40 gigabytes
$158.88
$4.57
2.19
40 gigabytes
$149.99
$4.31
2.32
40 gigabytes
$128.88
$3.71
2.70
100
gigabytes
$229.99
$2.65
3.78
60 gigabytes
$149.99
$2.88
3.48
80 gigabytes
$259.99
$3.74
2.68
40 gigabytes
$89.99
$2.59
3.86
100
gigabytes
$179.99
$2.07
4.83
$269.99
$2.59
3.86
120
gigabytes
40 gigabytes
$99.99
$2.88
3.48
40 gigabytes
$89.99
$2.59
3.86
60 gigabytes
$139.99
$2.68
3.73
40 gigabytes
120
gigabytes
$89.88
$158.00
$2.58
$1.51
3.87
6.60
80 gigabytes
80 gigabytes
$134.00
$124.00
$1.93
$1.78
5.19
5.61
120
gigabytes
120
gigabytes
80 gigabytes
$168.00
$1.61
6.21
$158.00
$1.51
6.60
$98.88
$1.42
7.04
Note 98
Maxtor 7200rpm IDE
Note 99
2004 March 27
Western Digital Caviar
7200rpm
Cicero 7200rpm
Note 99
Note 99
120
gigabytes
$144.88
$1.39
7.20
160
gigabytes
160
gigabytes
250
gigabytes
80 gigabytes
80 gigabytes
120
gigabytes
120
gigabytes
$269.99
$1.94
5.15
$269.95
$1.94
5.15
$369.99
$1.70
5.88
$109.00
$98.00
$144.00
$1.57
$1.41
$1.38
6.38
7.10
7.25
$129.00
$1.24
8.09
160
gigabytes
$169.99
$1.22
8.18
250
gigabytes
$249.99
$1.15
8.70
200
gigabytes
200
gigabytes
160
gigabytes
$216.00
$1.24
8.05
$210.00
$1.21
8.28
$167.00
$1.20
8.33
120
gigabytes
250
gigabytes
$69.99
67.1
14.9
$129.99
59.8
16.7
Note 100 Western Digital

Note 100 Maxtor 7200rpm IDE
Note 100 Western Digital
Note 100 Maxtor 7200rpm IDE
Note 101
Note 102
Note 113
Note 113
Note 113
Note 105
2004 April 2
7200rpm
2004 April 16
Western Digital Caviar SE
7200rpm
2004 July 18
Western Digital 200GB
7200rpm WD2000JD
Maxtor 200GB 7200rpm
6Y200M0
Maxtor 160GB Diamondmax
Plus
7200rpm 6Y160M0
2004 December 24
1
1
Note 105 Western Digital 7200rpm

2005 January 7
Note 106 Maxtor 7200rpm
160
gigabytes
$99.99
71.9
13.9
2005 February 4
160
gigabytes
$99.99
71.9
13.9
160
gigabytes
$99.99
71.9
13.9
2005 October 14
2005 October 21
2005 December 16
Note 112
Note 114
Note 114
Note 114
Note 114
Note 114
Note 114
Note 115
Note 115
Note 115
Note 115
Note 116
Note 117
Note 118
200
gigabytes
$99.99
57.5
17.3
250
gigabytes
$129.99
59.8
16.7
2007 March 19
Hitachi releases world's first 1 TB hard drive
First 1 terabyte (1,000,000 megabytes) drive: Largest single drive capacity to date
2007 October 16
Hitachi Deskstar 1TB
1.00 terabyte $370.00
42.6
23.5
7200rpm 0A35155
Samsung 400GB 7200rpm
400 gigabyte $143.00
41.1
24.3
HD403LJ
Seagate Barracuda 250GB
250
$82.00
37.7
26.5
7200.10
gigabytes
7200rpm ST3250310AS
Seagate DB35 750GB
750
$242.00
37.1
26.9
7200rpm ST3750840SCE
gigabytes
Western Digital Caviar 320GB
320
$102.00
36.7
27.3
7200rpm WD3200AAJS
gigabytes
Seagate SV35.2 500GB
500
$152.00
35.0
28.6
7200rpm ST3500630SV
gigabytes
2007 November 18
Maxtor 7200rpm L01F500
500
$144.99
33.3
30.0
gigabytes
500
$132.93
30.6
32.7
7200rpm WD5000KSRTL
gigabytes
Seagate Barracuda 7200rpm
5
400
$104.95
30.2
33.1
ST3400832A
gigabytes
320
$79.99
28.7
34.8
7200rpm WD3200KSRTL
gigabytes
2008 July 10
Seagate releases world's first 1.5 TB hard drive
First 1.5 terabyte (1,500,000 megabytes) drive: Largest single drive capacity to
date
2009 January 27
Western Digital launches 2 TB hard disk drive
2010 June 29
Seagate releases world's first 3 TB hard drive
2010 August 4
Note 120 Western Digital Caviar Black

7200rpm
Note 121 Seagate Pipeline 5900rpm
2010 August 6
Note 122 Seagate Barracuda 7200rpm
Note 123
Note 123
Note 123
Note 124
2010 August 7
Western Digital Caviar Black
7200rpm WD2001FASS
Western Digital Caviar Blue
7200rpm WD5000AAKS
Western Digital Caviar Green
7200rpm WD10EARS
2013 July 12
Western Digital MyBook
WDBACW0020H
$312.00
16.4
61.0
2.00
terabytes
1.00 terabyte
$119.99
13.4
72.5
1.00 terabyte
$79.00
9.09
110
1.50
terabytes
$89.78
6.88
145
2.0 terabytes
$199.99
11.5
87.0
500 gigabyte
$49.34
11.3
88.1
1.00 terabyte
$71.42
8.21
122
2.00
terabytes
$109.99
6.33
158
Different
Types Of
Computers
Mainframes
Mainframe computers (colloquially referred to as big iron) are computers used primarily by
corporate and governmental organizations for critical applications, bulk data processing such as
census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning and transaction processing.
The term originally referred to the large cabinets called "main frames" that housed the central
processing unit and main memory of early computers. Later, the term was used to distinguish
high-end commercial machines from less powerful units Most large-scale computer system
architectures were established in the 1960s, but continue to evolve.
Modern mainframe design is generally less defined by single-task computational speed (typically
defined as MIPS rate or FLOPS in the case of floating point calculations), and more by:
Redundant internal engineering resulting in high reliability and security

Extensive input-output facilities with the ability to offload to separate engines
Strict backward compatibility with older software
High hardware and computational utilization rates through virtualization to support

massive throughput.
Their high stability and reliability enables these machines to run uninterrupted for decades.
Characterstics:
Modern mainframes can run multiple different instances of operating systems at the same
time. This technique of virtual machines allows applications to run as if they were on
physically distinct computers. In this role, a single mainframe can replace higherfunctioning hardware services available to conventional servers.
Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and output (I/O) and
emphasize throughput computing. Since the late-1950s mainframe designs have included
subsidiary hardware(called channels or peripheral processors) which manage the I/O
devices, leaving the CPU free to deal only with high-speed memory. It is common in
mainframe shops to deal with massive databases and files.
Compared to a typical PC, mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as
much data storage online and can access it much faster.
Mainframe return on investment(ROI), like any other computing platform, is dependent
on its ability to scale, support mixed workloads, reduce labor costs, deliver uninterrupted
service for critical business applications, and several other risk-adjusted cost
factors.Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics for fault tolerant
computing.
History:
Several manufacturers produced mainframe computers from the late 1950s through the 1970s.
The group of manufacturers was first known as "IBM and the Seven Dwarfs" usually Burroughs,
UNIVAC, NCR, Control Data, Honeywell, General Electric and RCA, although some lists
varied. Later, with the departure of General Electric and RCA, it was referred to as IBM and the
BUNCH. IBM's dominance grew out of their 700/7000 series and, later, the development of the
360 series mainframes. The latter architecture has continued to evolve into their current zSeries
mainframes which, along with the then Burroughs and Sperry (now Unisys) MCP-based and
OS1100 mainframes, are among the few mainframe architectures still extant that can trace their
roots to this early period. While IBM's zSeries can still run 24-bit System/360 code, the 64-bit
zSeries and System z9 CMOS servers have nothing physically in common with the older
systems. Notable manufacturers outside the USA were Siemens and Telefunken in Germany, ICL
in the United Kingdom, Olivetti in Italy, and Fujitsu, Hitachi, Oki, and NEC in Japan. The Soviet
Union and Warsaw Pact countries manufactured close copies of IBM mainframes during the
Cold War; the BESM series and Strela are examples of an independently designed Soviet
computer.
Minicomputers
A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that developed in the

mid-1960s and sold for much less than mainframe and mid-size computers from IBM and its
direct competitors. In a 1970 survey, the New York Times suggested a consensus definition of a
minicomputer as a machine costing less than 25,000 USD, with an input-output device such as a
teleprinter and at least four thousand words of memory, that is capable of running programs in a
higher level language, such as Fortran or BASIC. The class formed a distinct group with its own
software architectures and operating systems. Minis were designed for control, instrumentation,
human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation and record
keeping. Many were sold indirectly to Original Equipment Manufacturers(OEMs) for final end
use application. During the two decade lifetime of the minicomputer class (1965-1985), almost
100 companies formed and only a half dozen remained.
When single-chip CPUs appeared, beginning with the Intel 4004 in 1971, the term
"minicomputer" came to mean a machine that lies in the middle range of the computing
spectrum, in between the smallest mainframe computers and the microcomputers. The term
"minicomputer" is little used today; the contemporary term for this class of system is "midrange
computer".
History:
The term "minicomputer" developed in the 1960s to describe the smaller computers that became
possible with the use of transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and
less expensive peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR. They usually took up
one or a few 19-inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes that could fill a
room.Minicomputers were also known as midrange computers. They grew to have relatively
high processing power and capacity. They were used in manufacturing process control, telephone
switching and to control laboratory equipment. In the 1970s, they were the hardware that was
used to launch the computer-aided design (CAD) industry and other similar industries where a
smaller dedicated system was needed.
The minicomputer's industrial impact and heritage:

A variety of companies emerged that built turnkey systems around minicomputers with
specialized software and, in many cases, custom peripherals that addressed specialized problems
such as computer aided design, computer aided manufacturing, process control, manufacturing
resource planning, and so on. Many if not most minicomputers were sold through these original
equipment manufacturers and value-added resellers.Several pioneering computer companies first
built minicomputers, such as DEC, Data General, and Hewlett-Packard (HP) (who now refers to
its HP3000 minicomputers as "servers" rather than "minicomputers"). And although today's PCs
and servers are clearly microcomputers physically, architecturally their CPUs and operating
systems have developed largely by integrating features from minicomputers.
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) was once the leading minicomputer manufacturer, at one
time the second-largest computer company after IBM. But as the minicomputer declined in the
face of generic Unix servers and Intel-based PCs, not only DEC, but almost every other
minicomputer company including Data General, Prime, Computervision, Honeywell and Wang
Laboratories, many based in New England (hence the end of the Massachusetts Miracle), also
collapsed or merged. DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998, while Data General was acquired by
EMC Corporation.
Microcomputers
A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a
microprocessor as its central processing unit (CPU). It includes a microprocessor,
memory, and input/output (I/O) facilities. Microcomputers became popular in the

1970s and 80s with the advent of increasingly powerful microprocessors. The
predecessors to these computers, mainframes and minicomputers, were
comparatively much larger and more expensive (though indeed present-day
mainframes such as the IBM System z machines use one or more custom
microprocessors as their CPUs). Many microcomputers (when equipped with a
keyboard and screen for input and output) are also personal computers (in the
generic sense).
Computer memory in the form of RAM, and at least one other less volatile, memory storage
device are usually combined with the CPU on a system bus in one unit. Other devices that make
up a complete microcomputer system include batteries, a power supply unit, a keyboard and
various input/output devices used to convey information to and from a human operator (printers,
monitors, human interface devices). Microcomputers are designed to serve only one user at a
time, although they can often be modified with software or hardware to concurrently serve more
than one user. Microcomputers fit well on or under desks or tables, so that they are within easy
access of users. Bigger computers like minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers take up
large cabinets or even dedicated rooms.
A microcomputer comes equipped with at least one type of data storage, usually RAM. Although
some microcomputers (particularly early 8-bit home micros) perform tasks using RAM alone,
some form of secondary storage is normally desirable. In the early days of home micros, this was
often a data cassette deck (in many cases as an external unit). Later, secondary storage
(particularly in the form of floppy disk and hard disk drives) were built into the microcomputer
case.
History:
The term microcomputer came into popular use after the introduction of the
minicomputer, although Isaac Asimov used the term microcomputer in his short
story "The Dying Night" as early as 1956 (published in The Magazine of Fantasy and
Science Fiction in July that year).Most notably, the microcomputer replaced the
many separate components that made up the minicomputer's CPU with one
integrated microprocessor chip. The French developers of the Micral N (1973) filed
their patents with the term "Micro-ordinateur", a literal equivalent of
"Microcomputer", to designate the first solid state machine designed with a
microprocessor.
However, as microprocessors and semiconductor memory became less expensive,

microcomputers in turn grew cheaper and easier to use:
Increasingly inexpensive logic chips such as the 7400 series allowed cheap dedicated
circuitry for improved user interfaces such as keyboard input, instead of simply a row of
switches to toggle bits one at a time.
Use of audio cassettes for inexpensive data storage replaced manual re-entry of a
program every time the device was powered on.
Large cheap arrays of silicon logic gates in the form of Read-only memory and EPROMs
allowed utility programs and self-booting kernels to be stored within microcomputers.
These stored programs could automatically load further more complex software from
external storage devices without user intervention, to form an inexpensive turnkey system
that does not require a computer expert to understand or to use the device.
Random access memory became cheap enough to afford dedicating approximately 1-2
kilobytes of memory to a video display controller frame buffer, for a 40x25 or 80x25 text
display or blocky color graphics on a common household television. This replaced the
slow, complex, and expensive teletypewriter that was previously common as an interface
to minicomputers and mainframes.
Microcomputers were built around transistor-transistor logic (TTL), Hewlett-Packard calculators

as far back as 1968 had various levels of programmability such that could be called
microcomputers. The HP 9100B (1968) had rudimentary conditional (if) statements, statement
line numbers, jump statements (go to), registers that could be used as variables, and primitive
subroutines. The programming language resembled Assembly language in many ways. Later
models incrementally added more features, including the BASIC programming language
Personal Computer
A personal computer is a general-purpose computer whose size, capabilities and
original sale price make it useful for individuals, and is intended to be operated
directly by an end-user with no intervening computer operator. This contrasts with
the batch processing or time-sharing models that allowed larger, more expensive
minicomputer and mainframe systems to be used by many people, usually at the
same time. Software applications for most personal computers include, but are not
limited to, word processing, spreadsheets, databases, web browsers and e-mail
clients, digital media playback, games and myriad personal productivity and
special-purpose software applications. Modern personal computers often have
connections to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web and a wide
range of other resources. Personal computers may be connected to a local area
network (LAN), either by a cable or a wireless connection. A personal computer may
be a desktop computer or a laptop, netbook, tablet or a handheld PC.
Early computer owners usually had to write their own programs to do anything
useful with the machines, which even did not include an operating system. The very
earliest microcomputers, equipped with a front panel, required hand-loading of a
bootstrap program to load programs from external storage (paper tape, cassettes,
or eventually diskettes). Before very long, automatic booting from permanent readonly memory became universal. Today's users have access to a wide range of
commercial software, freeware and free and open-source software, which are
provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile form. Software for personal computers,
such as applications and video games, are typically developed and distributed
independently from the hardware or OS manufacturers, whereas software for many
mobile phones and other portable systems is approved and distributed through a
centralized online store
History:
The Programma 101 was the first commercial "desktop personal computer", produced by the
Italian company Olivetti and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto, inventor of
the magnetic card system. The project started in 1962. It was launched at the 1964 New York
World's Fair, and volume production began in 1965, the computer retailing for $3,200.
NASA bought at least ten Programma 101s and used them for the calculations for the 1969
Apollo 11 Moon landing. Then ABC used the Programma 101 to predict the presidential election
of 1969, and the U.S. military used the machine to plan their operations in the Vietnam War. The
Programma 101 was also used in schools, hospitals, government offices. This marked the
beginning of the era of the personal computer.
In 1973 the IBM Los Gatos Scientific Center developed a portable computer prototype called
SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) based on the IBM PALM processor with a
Philips compact cassette drive, small CRT and full function keyboard. SCAMP emulated an IBM
1130 minicomputer in order to run APL\1130.[5] In 1973 APL was generally available only on
mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the Wang 2200 or HP
9800 offered only BASIC. Because SCAMP was the first to emulate APL\1130 performance on a
portable, single user computer, PC Magazine in 1983 designated SCAMP a "revolutionary
concept" and "the world's first personal computer"
Eventually, due to the influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market, personal
computers and home computers lost any technical distinction. Business computers acquired color
graphics capability and sound, and home computers and game systems users used the same
processors and operating systems as office workers. Mass-market computers had graphics
capabilities and memory comparable to dedicated workstations of a few years before. Even local
area networking, originally a way to allow business computers to share expensive mass storage
and peripherals, became a standard feature of personal computers used at home.
Types:
Workstation
A workstation is a high-end personal computer designed for technical, mathematical, or scientific
applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly
connected to a local area network and run multi-user operating systems. Workstations are used
for tasks such as computer-aided design, drafting and modeling, computation-intensive scientific
and engineering calculations, image processing, architectural modeling, and computer graphics
for animation and motion picture visual effects.[53]
Desktop computer
Prior to the widespread usage of PCs, a computer that could fit on a desk was remarkably small,
leading to the "desktop" nomenclature. More recently, the phrase usually indicates a particular
style of computer case. Desktop computers come in a variety of styles ranging from large vertical
tower cases to small models which can be tucked behind an LCD monitor. In this sense, the term
"desktop" refers specifically to a horizontally oriented case, usually intended to have the display
screen placed on top to save desk space. Most modern desktop computers have separate screens
and keyboards.
Gaming computer
A gaming computer is a standard desktop computer that typically has high-performance
hardware, such as a more powerful video card, processor and memory, in order to handle the
requirements of demanding video games, which are often simply called "PC games". A number
of companies, such as Alienware, manufacture prebuilt gaming computers, and companies such
as Razer and Logitech market mice, keyboards and headsets geared toward gamers.
Single unit
Single-unit PCs (also known as all-in-one PCs) are a subtype of desktop computers that combine
the monitor and case of the computer within a single unit. The monitor often utilizes a
touchscreen as an optional method of user input, but separate keyboards and mice are normally
still included. The inner components of the PC are often located directly behind the monitor and
many of such PCs are built similarly to laptops.
Nettop
A subtype of desktops, called nettops, was introduced by Intel in February 2008, characterized
by low cost and lean functionality. A similar subtype of laptops (or notebooks) is the netbook,
described below. The product line features the new Intel Atom processor, which specifically
enables nettops to consume less power and fit into small enclosures.
Home theater PC
A home theater PC (HTPC) is a convergence device that combines the functions of a personal
computer and a digital video recorder. It is connected to a TV set or an appropriately sized
computer display, and is often used as a digital photo viewer, music and video player, TV
receiver, and digital video recorder. HTPCs are also referred to as media center systems or media
servers. The general goal in a HTPC is usually to combine many or all components of a home
theater setup into one box. More recently, HTPCs gained the ability to connect to services
providing on-demand movies and TV shows.
Laptop
A laptop computer or simply laptop, also called a notebook computer, is a small personal
computer designed for portability. Usually, all of the hardware and interfaces needed to operate a
laptop, such as the graphics card, audio devices or USB ports (previously parallel and serial
ports), are built into a single unit. Laptops contain high-capacity batteries that can power the
device for extensive periods of time, enhancing portability. Once the battery charge is depleted, it
will have to be recharged through a power outlet. In the interests of saving power, weight and
space, laptop graphics cards are in many cases integrated into the CPU or chipset and use system
RAM, resulting in reduced graphics performance when compared to an equivalent desktop
machine. For this reason, desktop or gaming computers are usually preferred to laptop PCs for
gaming purposes.
Desktop replacement
A desktop replacement computer (DTR) is a personal computer that provides the full capabilities
of a desktop computer while remaining mobile. Such computers are often actually larger, bulkier
laptops. Because of their increased size, this class of computers usually includes more powerful
components and a larger display than generally found in smaller portable computers, and can
have a relatively limited battery capacity or none at all in some cases. Some use a limited range
of desktop components to provide better performance at the expense of battery life. Desktop
replacement computers are sometimes called desknotes, as a portmanteau of words "desktop" and
"notebook," though the term is also applied to desktop replacement computers in genera.
Netbook
Netbooks, also called mini notebooks or subnotebooks, are a subgroup of laptops[55] acting as a
category of small, lightweight and inexpensive laptop computers suited for general computing
tasks and accessing web-based applications. They are often marketed as "companion devices",
with an intention to augment other ways in which a user can access computer resources.[55] Walt
Mossberg called them a "relatively new category of small, light, minimalist and cheap
laptops."[56] By August 2009, CNET called netbooks "nothing more than smaller, cheaper
notebooks."
Tablet
A tablet is a type of portable PC that de-emphasizes the use of traditional input devices (such as a
mouse or keyboard) by using a touchscreen display, which can be controlled using either a stylus
pen or finger. Some tablets may use a "hybrid" or "convertible" design, offering a keyboard that
can either be removed as an attachment, or a screen that can be rotated and folded directly over
top the keyboard.
Ultra-mobile PC
The ultra-mobile PC (UMPC) is a specification for small-configuration tablet PCs. It was
developed as a joint development exercise by Microsoft, Intel and Samsung, among others.
Current UMPCs typically feature the Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, or Linux
operating system, and low-voltage Intel Atom or VIA C7-M processors.
Pocket PC
A pocket PC is a hardware specification for a handheld-sized computer (personal digital
assistant, PDA) that runs the Microsoft Windows Mobile operating system. It may have the
capability to run an alternative operating system like NetBSD or Linux. Pocket PCs have many
of the capabilities of modern desktop PCs.

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Overview Of

a. Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.

Touchpad: A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a

In this chapter, we shall see a bird's eye view on the different

The Complex Number Calculator (CNC) is completed. In 1939, Bell Telephone

The U.S. Navy approached the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

Harvard Mark-1 is completed. Conceived by Harvard professor Howard Aiken,

An inspiring summer school on computing at the University of Pennsylvanias

10.2 gigabytes Note 57

Price of Cost per Cost per

20.0 gigabytes $217.00

13.6 gigabytes $179.99

30.0 gigabytes $319.99

40.0 gigabytes $399.99

15.0 gigabytes $189.99

15.0 gigabytes $162.00

15.0 gigabytes $149.99

Maxtor 5400rpm IDE

Maxtor 7200rpm IDE

Western Digital 7200rpm

Note 100 Western Digital

Note 105 Western Digital 7200rpm

Note 119 Western Digital 7200rpm

Note 120 Western Digital Caviar Black

Redundant internal engineering resulting in high reliability and security

Strict backward compatibility with older software

High hardware and computational utilization rates through virtualization to support

A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that developed in the

The minicomputer's industrial impact and heritage:

memory, and input/output (I/O) facilities. Microcomputers became popular in the

However, as microprocessors and semiconductor memory became less expensive,

Microcomputers were built around transistor-transistor logic (TTL), Hewlett-Packard calculators

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