Institute of Technology,

Nirma University.
M.Tech CASAD Semester I
CL1105 Advanced Materials 2014-2015
Term Assignment IV
Application and Case studies of Advanced
Materials in Civil Engineering
Fly Ash usage in various civil engineering
applications.
Yash Khandol(14MCLC06)
Neeraj Khatri (14MCLC12)
Pragnesh Patel (14MCLC17)
Ravi Patel (14MCLC18)
Sachin Patel (14MCLC19)
Tejas Patil (14MCLC22)
M. Tech. 1st Year
November 17, 2014

Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Applications In Civil Engineering
1.2.1 Portland cement . . . . .
1.2.2 Soil stabilization . . . . .
1.2.3 Roller compacted concrete
1.2.4 Bricks . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Avoid fly ash for, . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Use fly ash for, . . . . . . . . . .

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2 Properties and Composition

2.1 Size, Shape and Colour . . . .
2.2 Fineness . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Specific Gravity . . . . . . . .
2.4 Pozzolanic Activity . . . . . .
2.5 Particle Morphology . . . . .
2.6 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Chemical Composition . . . .
2.8 Mineralogical Characteristics

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3 Quality of fly ash

3.1 Chemical Requirements
3.2 Physical Requirements .
3.3 Classification of Fly Ash
3.3.1 Class F fly ash .
3.3.2 Class C fly ash .

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4 Fly Ash : Mechanism

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5 Effect of fly ash incorporation in concrete

5.1 Reduced Heat of Hydration . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Workability of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Permeability and corrosion protection . . .
5.4 Effect of fly ash on Carbonation of Concrete

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5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11

Sulphate Attack . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion of steel . . . . . . . . . .
Reduced alkali- aggregate reaction
Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . .

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6 Fly Ash : Usage and Mix Proportions

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6.1 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1.1 Simple replacement method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1.2 Addition Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.1.3 Modified replacement method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.2 Mix Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.2.1 Workability and Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.2.2 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.2.3 Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.2.4 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2.5 Heat of Hydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3 Proportioning of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3.1 Selection of slump for requirement of consistency . . . . 24
6.3.2 Selection of maximum size of aggregates . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3.3 Estimation of mixing water and air content . . . . . . . . 25
6.3.4 Selection of water cementitious materials [w /(c+p)] or
water cement ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3.5 Calculation of cementitious material content: . . . . . . . 28
6.3.6 Estimation of coarse aggregate content . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3.7 Estimation of fine aggregate content . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3.8 Adjustments for aggregate moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3.9 Trial batch adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7

Fly Ash : Industrial Overview

7.1 Deposition of fly-ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Flyash Disposal in Ash Ponds . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Flyash as Fill Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Fly ash transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.1 Airslide-airlift systems . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.2 Airslide channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.3 Airlift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.4 Dense phase pneumatic transport . . . . . .
7.5.5 Combination of airslides and pressure vessel
7.6 Packing of fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 1

Introduction
Electricity is the key for development of any country. Coal is a major source
of fuel for production of electricity in many countries in the world. In the process of electricity generation large quantity of fly ash get produced and becomes
available as a byproduct of coal-based power stations. It is a fine powder resulting from the combustion of powdered coal - transported by the flue gases of
the boiler and collected in the Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP).

1.1

History

In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but pollution
control equipment mandated in recent decades now requires that it be captured
prior to release. In the US fly ash is generally stored at the coal power plants
or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled often used to supplement Portland
cement in concrete production. Fly ash was first used in large scale in construction of Hungry Horse dam in America in the approximate amount of 30% by
weight of cement. Later on it was used in Canyon and Ferry dams etc. In India, Fly ash was used in Rihand dam construction replacing cement up to about
15%. In recent times, the importance and use of fly ash in concrete has grown so
much that it has almost become a common ingredient in concrete, particularly
for making high strength and high performance concrete. Extensive research
has been done all over the world on the benefits that could be accrued in the
utilization of fly ash as a supplementary cementitious material. High volume fly
ash concrete is a subject of current interest all over the world.

1.2
1.2.1

Applications In Civil Engineering

Portland cement

Owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly ash is used as a replacement for some of
the Portland cement content of concrete. The use of fly ash as a pozzolanic in-

gredient was recognized as early as 1914, although the earliest noteworthy study
of its use was in 1937.Roman structures such as aqueducts or the Pantheon in
Rome used volcanic ash or pozzolana (which possesses similar properties to fly
ash) as pozzolan in their concrete. As pozzolan greatly improves the strength
and durability of concrete, the use of ash is a key factor in their preservation.
Use of fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement is particularly
suitable but not limited to Class C fly ashes. Class F fly ashes can have volatile
effects on the entrained air content of concrete, causing reduced resistance to
freeze/thaw damage. Fly ash often replaces up to 30% by mass of Portland cement, but can be used in higher dosages in certain applications. Fly ash can add
to the concretes final strength and increase its chemical resistance and durability. Fly ash can significantly improve the workability of concrete. Recently,
techniques have been developed to replace partial cement with high-volume fly
ash (50% cement replacement). For roller-compacted concrete (RCC)[used in
dam construction], replacement values of 70% have been achieved with processed fly ash at the Ghatghar dam project in Maharashtra, India. Due to the
spherical shape of fly ash particles, it can increase workability of cement while
reducing water demand. Proponents of fly ash claim that replacing Portland
cement with fly ash reduces the greenhouse gas footprint of concrete, as the
production of one ton of Portland cement generates approximately one ton of
CO2, compared to no CO2 generated with fly ash. New fly ash production, i.e.,
the burning of coal, produces approximately 20 to 30 tons of CO2 per ton of fly
ash. Since the worldwide production of Portland cement is expected to reach
nearly 2 billion tons by 2010, replacement of any large portion of this cement by
fly ash could significantly reduce carbon emissions associated with construction,
as long as the comparison takes the production of fly ash as a given.

1.2.2

Soil stabilization

Soil stabilization is the permanent physical and chemical alteration of soils to

enhance their physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength
of a soil and/or control the shrink-swell properties of a soil, thus improving the
load-bearing capacity of a sub-grade to support pavements and foundations.
Stabilization can be used to treat a wide range of sub-grade materials from expansive clays to granular materials. Stabilization can be achieved with a variety
of chemical additives including lime, fly ash, and Portland cement. Proper design and testing is an important component of any stabilization project. This
allows for the establishment of design criteria as well as the determination of the
proper chemical additive and admixture rate to be used to achieve the desired
engineering properties. Benefits of the stabilization process can include: Higher
resistance (R) values, Reduction in plasticity, Lower permeability, Reduction
of pavement thickness, Elimination of excavation - material hauling/handling
- and base importation, Aids compaction, Provides all-weather access onto
and within projects sites. Another form of soil treatment closely related to soil
stabilization is soil modification, sometimes referred to as mud drying or soil
conditioning. Although some stabilization inherently occurs in soil modifica4

tion, the distinction is that soil modification is merely a means to reduce the
moisture content of a soil to expedite construction, whereas stabilization can
substantially increase the shear strength of a material such that it can be incorporated into the projects structural design. The determining factors associated
with soil modification vs soil stabilization may be the existing moisture content,
the end use of the soil structure and ultimately the cost benefit provided. Equipment for the stabilization and modification processes include: chemical additive
spreaders, soil mixers (reclaimers), portable pneumatic storage containers, water
trucks, deep lift compactors, motor graders.

1.2.3

Roller compacted concrete

The upper reservoir of AmerensTaum Sauk hydroelectric plant was constructed

of roller-compacted concrete which included fly ash from one of Amerens coal
plants. Another application of using fly ash is in roller compacted concrete
dams. Many dams in the US have been constructed with high fly ash contents.
Fly ash lowers the heat of hydration allowing thicker placements to occur. Data
for these can be found at the US Bureau of Reclamation. This has also been
demonstrated in theGhatghar Dam Project in India.

1.2.4

Bricks

There are several techniques for manufacturing construction bricks from fly ash,
producing a wide variety of products. One type of fly ash brick is manufactured
by mixing fly ash with an equal amount of clay, then firing in a kiln at about
1000 C. This approach has the principal benefit of reducing the amount of clay
required. Another type of fly ash brick is made by mixing soil, plaster of paris,
fly ash and water, and allowing the mixture to dry. Because no heat is required,
this technique reduces air pollution. More modern manufacturing processes use
a greater proportion of fly ash, and a high pressure manufacturing technique,
which produces high strength bricks with environmental benefits.
In the
United Kingdom, fly ash has been used for over fifty years to make concrete
building blocks. They are widely used for the inner skin of cavity walls. They
are naturally more thermally insulating than blocks made with other aggregates.
Ash bricks have been used in house construction in Windhoek, Namibia since
the 1970s. There is, however, a problem with the bricks in that they tend to fail
or produce unsightly pop-outs. This happens when the bricks come into contact with moisture and a chemical reaction occurs causing the bricks to expand.
In India, fly ash bricks are used for construction. Leading manufacturers use
an industrial standard known as Pulverized fuel ash for lime-Pozzolana mixture using over 75% post-industrial recycled waste, and a compression process.
This produces a strong product with good insulation properties and environmental benefit. American civil engineer Henry Liu announced the invention of
a new type of fly ash brick in 2007. Lius brick is compressed at 27.58 MPa
(272 atm) and cured for 24 hours in a 66 C steam bath, then toughened with
an air entrainment agent, so that it lasts for more than 100 freeze-thaw cycles.
5

Owing to the high concentration of calcium oxide in class C fly ash, the brick
can be described as self-cementing. Since this method contains no clay and uses
pressure instead of heat, it saves energy, reduces mercury pollution, and costs
20% less than traditional manufacturing techniques.This type of brick is now
manufactured under license in the USA.

1.3

Avoid fly ash for,

Elevated beams and slabs - where formwork often needs to be removed

quickly.
Cold weather pours - may not be appropriate for fly ash concrete when
early strength is needed.
Face mixes of architectural or precast concrete - due to the effect on color
control and uniformity.
Below-grade concrete support structures for utility pipes ,avoid using fly
ash for concrete in contact with metal or ductile iron pipes (as fly ash can
be corrosive to metals).

1.4

Use fly ash for,

Poured-in-place concrete walls and columns, mat slabs and poured footings
in earth.
Lightweight concrete on metal deck - an ideal application for fly ash because the metal deck acts as a permanent formwork.
Drilled piers and piles - fly ash concrete can perform well in water conditions due to decreased permeability. Also building piles are often not
loaded to full capacity for some time after pouring. This allows for the
56-day curing period typically required to meet strength requirements for
high volume fly- ash applications.
Grouting of concrete block.
Precast concrete elements - This application is dependent on the precasters ability and willingness to allow for early strength gain before removal of the formwork. Conversations with several fabricators yielded a
range of responses:
Typical range of 15 - 25% replacement for Portland cement in the
mix.
Certain fabricators were reluctant to use fly ash, citing concerns that
it would change the rheological behavior of the mix (rheology is the

study of the flow of matter), add cost and complicate the mix operations (which are computer controlled whereas fly ash may need to
be added manually to the mix)

Chapter 2

Properties and Composition

Fly ash is part of coal ash, or the total residue,created during the combustion of
coal in electrical power plants. The coal that is not incinerated either settles at
the bottom of the boiler (bottom ash) or rises in the flue (fly ash). In short, fly
ash is the dust collected in the smokestacks as a result of combustion. Depending
on the source and properties of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash
vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide
(SiO2) and calcium oxide or lime (CaO).

2.1

Size, Shape and Colour

1. Fly ash particle size is finer than ordinary Portland cement. Fly ash
consists of silt sized particles which are generally spherical in nature and
their size typically ranges between 10 and 100lm .
2. These small glass spheres improve the fluidity and workability of fresh
concrete. Fineness is one of the important property contributing to the
pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash. Fly ash colour depends upon its chemical
and mineral constituents. It can be tan to dark gray.
3. Tan and light colours are generally associated with higher lime content,
and brownish colour with the iron content. A dark gray to black color is
attributed to elevated unburned carbon (LOI) content. Fly ash color is
usually very consistent for each power plant and coal source.

2.2

Fineness

1. Fineness of fly ash is most closely related to the operating condition of the
coal crushers and the grindability of the coal itself. Fineness of fly ash is
related to its pozzolanic activity.

2. Generally, a large fraction of ash particle is smaller than 3 m in size. In

bituminous ashes, the particle sizes range from less than 1 to over 100 m.
A coarser gradation can result in a less reactive ash and could contain
higher carbon content.

2.3

Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of fly ash is related to shape, color and chemical
composition of fly ash particle. In general, specific gravity of fly ash may
vary from 1.3 to 4.8.
Canadian fly ashes have specific gravity ranging between 1.94 and 2.94,
whereas American ashes have specific gravity ranging between 2.14 and
2.69.

2.4

Pozzolanic Activity

1. property of fly ashes, possessing little or no cementing value to react with

calcium oxide in the presence of water, and produce highly cementitious
water insoluble products, is called pozzolanic reactivity.
2. The meta-stable silicates present in self-cementitious fly ash react with
calcium ions in the presence of moisture to form water insoluble calciumalumino-silicate hydrates.
3. The pozzolanic activity of a fly ash depends upon its (1) fineness; (2)
calcium content; (3) structure; (4) specific surface; (5) particle size distribution; and (6) and LOI content.Several investigators have reported
that when fly ash is pulverized to increase fineness, its pozzolanic activity
increases significantly.
4. However, the effect of increase in specific surface area beyond 6,000 cm2/g
is reported to be insignificant.

2.5

Particle Morphology

1. Fly ash particles consist of clear glassy spheres and a spongy aggregate. Several morphological investigations have been carried out on particle shape and surface characteristics of various types of fly ashes using
scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray analysis
(EDXA).
2. Scanning electron micrographs of different fly ashes show the typical spherical shape of fly ash particles, some of which are hollow. The hollow spherical particles are known as cenospheres or floaters as they are very light
and tend to float on water surface.
9

3. Cenospheres are unique free flowing powders composed of hard shelled,

hollow, minute spheres. Cenospheres are made up of silica, iron and alumina. Cenospheres have a size range from 1 to 500 lm. Colors range from
white to dark gray.
4. Sometimes fly ashes may also contain many small spherical particles within
a large glassy sphere, called pherospheres. The exterior surfaces of the
solid and hollow spherical particles of low-calcium oxide fly ashes are generally smooth and better defined than those of high-calcium oxide fly ashes
which may have surface coatings of material rich in calcium.

2.6

Moisture

1. Any amount of moisture in Class C fly ash will cause hardening from hydration of its cementitious compounds. Even surface spraying may cause
caking.
2. To prevent caking and packing of the fly ash during shipping and storage
and to control uniformity of fly ash shipments, a 3.0% limit on moisture
content is specified in ASTM C618. Therefore, it is important that such
ashes have to be kept dry before being mixed with cement.

2.7

Chemical Composition

1. Chemical composition of fly ashes include silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3),

and oxides of calcium (CaO), iron (Fe2O3), magnesium (MgO), titanium
(TiO2), sulfur (SO3), sodium (Na2O), and potassium (K2O), and unburned carbon (LOI).
2. Amongst these SiO2 and Al2O3 together make up about 45-80% of the
total ash. The sub-bituminous and lignite coal ashes have relatively higher
proportion of CaO and MgO and lesser proportions of SiO2, Al2O3 and
Fe2O3 as compared to the bituminous coal ashes.

2.8

Mineralogical Characteristics

1. X-ray diffraction study of the crystalline and glassy phases of a fly ash
is known as mineralogical analysis. Mineralogical characterization determines the crystalline phases that contain the major constituents of fly
ash.
2. Generally, fly ashes have 15-45% crystalline matter. The high-calcium
ashes (Class C) contain larger amounts of crystalline matter ranging between 25 and 45%. Table 1.3 presents crystalline phases in fly ashes identified by XRD analysis .

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3. Although high-calcium Class C ashes may have less glassy or amorphous

material, they do contain certain crystalline phases such as anhydride
(CaSO4), tricalcium aluminate (3CaOAl2O3), calcium sulpho-aluminate
(CaSAl2O3) and very small amount of free lime (CaO) that participate in
producing cementitious compounds. Also, glassy phase in Class C ashes
is usually more reactive.
4. The glassy particles in Class C fly ashes contain large amount of calcium
which possibly makes the surface of such particles highly strained, and
probably, it is because of highly reactive nature of Class-C fly ashes.
5. Anhydrite (CaSO4) is formed from the reaction of CaO, SO2 and O2 in
the furnace or flue. Quantity of anhydrite increases with the increase in
SO3 and CaO contents. It plays a significant role in fly ash hydration
behavior because it.

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Chapter 3

Quality of fly ash

3.1

Chemical Requirements

1. Pulverized fuel ash, shall conform to the chemical requirements given in

table
2. The fly ash may be supplied in dry or moist condition as mutually agreed.
However, in case of dry condition, the moisture content shall not exceed
2 percent. All tests for the properties specified in 6.1 shall, however, be
carried out on oven dry samples.

3.2

Physical Requirements

1. Pulverized fuel ash, when tested in accordance with the methods of test
specified in IS 1727, shall conform 10 the physical requirements given in
Table.
2. Uniformity Requirements In tests on individual samples, the specific surface, particles retained on 45 micron IS Sieve (wet sieving) and lime reactivity -value shall not vary more than 15 percent from the average established from the tests on the 10 preceding samples or of all preceding
samples if less than 10.
3. Notwithstanding the strength requirements specified in Table, mixes in
which pulverized fuel ash is incorporated shall show a progressive increase
Fly ash of fineness 250 m2/kg (Min) is also permitted to be used in the
manufacture of Portland pozzolana cement by intergrinding it with Portland cement clinker if the flyash when ground to fineness of 320 m2/kg or
to the fineness of resultant Portland pozzolana cement whichever is lower,
meets all the requirements specified in physical and chemical requirements
of the standard.

12

Figure 3.1: Chemical Properties

3.3

Classification of Fly Ash

Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618: Class F fly ash and Class
C fly ash. The chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium,
silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash.

3.3.1

Class F fly ash

The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces
Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 20%
lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of
Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime,
or hydrated lime, with the presence of water in order to react and produce
cementitious compounds. Alternatively, the addition of a chemical activator
such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can lead to the formation
of a geopolymer.

3.3.2

Class C fly ash

Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal,
in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash will harden and gain strength
over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike
Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and

13

Figure 3.2: Physical Properties

14

sulfate (SO4) contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes.

At least one
US manufacturer has announced a fly ash brick condtaining up to 50% Class
C fly ash. Testing shows the bricks meet or exceed the performance standards
listed in ASTM C 216 for conventional clay brick; it is also within the allowable
shrinkage limits for concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specification for
Concrete Building Brick. It is estimated that the production method used in fly
ash bricks will reduce the embodied energy of masonry construction by up to
90%. Bricks and pavers were expected to be available in commercial quantities
before the end of 2009.

15

Chapter 4

Fly Ash : Mechanism

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is a product of four principal mineralogical phases. These phases are Tricalcium Silicate- C S (3CaO.SiO ), Dicalcium
Silicate -CS (2CaO.SiO ), Tricalcium Aluminate- C A (3CaO.Al O ) and Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite - C AF(4CaO. Al O Fe O ). The setting and hardening
of the OPC takes place as a result of reaction between these principal compounds and water.The reaction between these compounds and water are shown
as under:
2C3S + 6H = C3S2H3 + 3CH
2C2S (dicalcium silicate) + 4H (Water) = + C3S2H3 (C-S-H gel) +
CH(Calcium hydroxide)
The hydration rod s from C S and C S are similar but quantity of calcium
hydroxide (lime) released is higher in C S as compared to C S .The reaction of
C A with water takes place in presence of sulphate ions supplied by dissolution
of gypsum present in OPC. This reaction is very fast and is shown as under:
C3A + 3(CSH2) + 26H = C3 A(CS)3 H32
C3A + CSH2 + 10H = C3ACSH12
Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite forms hydration product similar to those of C A,
with iron substituting partially for alumina in the crystal structures of ettringite
and monosulpho-aluminate hydrate. Above reactions indicate that during the
hydration process of cement, lime is released out and remains as surplus in the
hydrated cement. This leached out surplus lime renders deleterious effect to
concrete such as make the concrete porous, give chance to the development of
micro- cracks, weakening the bond with aggregates and thus affect the durability
of concrete. If fly ash is available in the mix, this surplus lime becomes the
source for pozzolanic reaction with fly ash and forms additional C-S-H gel having
similar binding properties in the concrete as those produced by hydration of
cement paste. The reaction of fly ash with surplus lime continues as long as
lime is present in the pores of liquid cement paste.
16

Chapter 5

Effect of fly ash

incorporation in concrete
5.1

Reduced Heat of Hydration

In concrete mix, when water and cement come in contact, a chemical reaction
initiates that produces binding material and consolidates the concrete mass.
The process is exothermic and heat is released which increases the temperature
of the mass When fly ash is present in the concrete mass, it plays dual role
for the strength development. Fly ash reacts with released lime and produces
binder as explained above and render additional strength to the concrete mass.
The unreactive portion of fly ash act as micro aggregates and fills up the matrix to render packing effect and results in increased strength.
The large
temperature rise of concrete mass exerts temperature stresses and can lead micro crackes. When fly ash is used as part of cementitious material, quantum of
heat liberated is low and staggers through pozzolanic reactions and thus reduces
micro-cracking and improves soundness of concrete mass.

5.2

Workability of Concrete

Fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and reduces the water requirement for a given slump. The spherical shape helps to reduce friction between
aggregates and between concrete and pump line and thus increases workability
and improve pumpability of concrete. Fly ash use in concrete increases fines
volume and decreases water content and thus reduces bleeding of concrete.

5.3

Permeability and corrosion protection

Water is essential constituent of concrete preparation. When concrete is hardened, part of the entrapped water in the concrete mass is consumed by cement
17

mineralogy for hydration. Some part of entrapped water evaporates, thus leaving porous channel to the extent of volume occupied by the water. Some part
of this porous volume is filled by the hydrated products of the cement paste.
The remaining part of the voids consists capillary voids and give way for ingress
of water. Similarly, the liberated lime by hydration of cement is water-soluble
and is leached out from hardened concrete mass, leaving capillary voids for the
ingress of water. Higher the water cement ratio, higher will be the porosity
and thus higher will be the permeability. The permeability makes the ingress
of moisture and air easy and is the cause for corrosion of reinforcement. Higher
permeability facilitate ingress of chloride ions into concrete and is the main
cause for initiation of chloride induced corrosion.
Additional cementitious material results from reaction between liberated
surplus lime and fly ash, blocks these capillary voids and also reduces the risk
of leaching of surplus free lime and thereby reduces permeability of concrete.

5.4

Effect of fly ash on Carbonation of Concrete

Carbonation phenomenon in concrete occurs when calcium hydroxides (lime)

of the hydrated Portland Cement react with carbon dioxide from atmospheres
in the presence of moisture and form calcium carbonate. To a small extent,
calcium carbonate is also formed when calcium silicate and aluminates of the
hydrated Portland cement react with carbon dioxide from atmosphere. Carbonation process in concrete results in two deleterious effects (i) shrinkage may
occur (ii) concrete immediately adjacent to steel reinforcement may reduce its
resistance to corrosion. The rate of carbonation depends on permeability of concrete, quantity of surplus lime and environmental conditions such as moisture
and temperature. When fly ash is available in concrete; it reduces availability of
surplus lime by way of pozzolanic reaction, reduces permeability and as a result
improves resistance of concrete against carbonation phenomenon.

5.5

Sulphate Attack

Sulphate attacks in concrete occur due to reaction between sulphate from external origins or from atmosphere with surplus lime leads to formation of etrringite,
which causes expansion and results in volume destabilization of the concrete.
Increase in sulphate resistance of fly ash concrete is due to continuous reaction between fly ash and leached out lime, which continue to form additional
C-S-H gel. This C-S-H gel fills in capillary pores in the cement paste, reducing
permeability and ingress of sulphate ions.

5.6

Corrosion of steel

Corrosion of steel takes place mainly because of two types of attack. One is due
to carbonation attack and other is due to chloride attack. In the carbonation
18

attack, due to carbonation of free lime, alkaline environment in the concrete

comes down which disturbs the passive iron oxide film on the reinforcement.
When the concrete is permeable, the ingress of moisture and oxygen infuse to
the surface of steel initiates the electrochemical process and as a result-rust is
formed. The transformation of steel to rust increases its volume thus resulting
in the concrete expansion, cracking and distress to the structure.
In the chloride attack, Chloride ion becomes available in the concrete either
through the dissociation of chlorides-associated mineralogical hydration or infusion of chloride ion. The sulphate attack in the concrete decomposes the chloride
mineralogy thereby releasing chloride ion. In the presence of large amount of
chloride, the concrete exhibits the tendency to hold moisture. In the presence
of moisture and oxygen, the resistivity of the concrete weakens and becomes
more permeable thereby inducing further distress. The use of fly ash reduces
availability of free limes and permeability thus result in corrosion prevention.

5.7

Reduced alkali- aggregate reaction

Certain types of aggregates react with available alkalis and cause expansion
and damage to concrete. These aggregates are termed as reactive aggregates.
It has been established that use of adequate quantity of fly ash in concrete
reduces the amount of alkali aggregate reaction and reduces/ eliminates harmful
expansion of concrete. The reaction between the siliceous glass in fly ash and
the alkali hydroxide of Portland cement paste consumes alkalis thereby reduces
their availability for expansive reaction with reactive silica aggregates.

5.8

Bleeding

Generally fly ash will reduce the rate and amount of bleeding primarily due
to the reduced water demand (Gebler 1986). Particular care is required to
determine when the bleeding process has finished before any final finishing of
exposed slabs.
High levels of fly ash used in concrete with low water contents
can virtually eliminate bleeding. Therefore, the freshly placed concrete should
be finished as quickly as possible and immediately protected to prevent plastic
shrinkage cracking when the ambient conditions are such that rapid evaporation
of surface moisture is likely. The guidance given in ACI 305, Hot Weather
Concreting should be followed. An exception to this condition is when fly ash
is used without an appropriate water reduction, in which case bleeding (and
segregation) will increase in comparison to Portland cement concrete.

5.9

Setting time

The impact of fly ash on the setting behaviour of concrete is dependent not
only on the composition and quantity of fly ash used, but also on the type and
amount of cement, the water-to-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm), the type
19

and amount of chemical admixtures, and the concrete temperature. It is fairly

well-established that low-calcium fly ashes extend both the initial and final set
of concrete as shown in Figure.
During hot weather the amount of retardation due to fly ash tends to be
small and is likely to be a benefit in many cases.
During cold weather, the
use of fly ash, especially at high levels of replacement, can lead to very significant
delays in both the initial and final set. These delays may result in placement
difficulties especially with regards to the timing of finishing operations for floor
slabs and pavements or the provision of protection to prevent freezing of the
plastic concrete. Practical considerations may require that the fly ash content is
limited during cold-weather concreting. The use of set-accelerating admixtures
may wholly or partially offset the retarding effect of the fly ash. The setting
time can also be reduced by using ASTM C150 Type III (or ASTM C1157
Type HE) cement or by increasing the initial temperature of the concrete during
production (for example, by heating mix water and/or aggregates).
Higher-calcium fly ashes generally retard setting to a lesser degree than lowcalcium fly ashes, probably because the hydraulic reactivity of fly ash increases
with increasing calcium content. However, the effect of high-calcium fly ashes
is more difficult to predict because the use of some of these ashes with certain
cement-admixture combinations can lead to either rapid (or even flash) setting
or to severely retarded setting (Wang 2006 and Roberts 2007).

5.10

Strength

In conventional concrete the flexural strength reaches its maximum value between 14 to 28 days. In case of concretes with fly ash as a supplement the
strength keeps on increasing with age because of pozzolanic reaction of fly ash,
and the strengthening of interfacial bond between cement paste and aggregate.
The strength properties are strongly dependent on the quality of cement and
fly ash used.

5.11

Water Demand

The water demand and workability are controlled by particle size distribution,
particle packing effect, and smoothness of surface texture. As mentioned above
the fly ash replacing some of the cement will increase the paste volume. The fly
ash concrete is more workable and less water is needed for the same slump.
Although increased fineness usually increases the water demand, the spherical particle shape of the fly ash lowers particle friction and offsets such effects.
The use of fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement will usually
reduce water demand.

20

Chapter 6

Fly Ash : Usage and Mix

Proportions
6.1

Usage

The main objective of using fly ash in most of the cement concrete applications
is to get durable concrete at reduced cost, which can be achieved by adopting
one the following two methods :
1. Using Fly ash based Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) conforming to
IS:1489 Part-1 in place of Ordinary Portland Cement
2. Using fly ash as an ingredient in cement concrete.
The first method is most simple method, since PPC is factory-finished product and does not requires any additional quality check for fly ash during production of concrete. In this method the proportion of fly ash and cement is,
however, fixed and limits the proportioning of fly ash in concrete mixes. The
addition of fly ash as an additional ingredients at concrete mixing stage as part
replacement of OPC and fine aggregates is more flexible method. It allows for
maximum utilization of the quality fly ash as an important component (cementitious and as fine aggregates) of concrete. There are three basic approaches for
selecting the quantity of fly ash in cement concrete:

6.1.1

Simple replacement method

In this method a part of the OPC is replaced by fly ash on a one to one basis
by mass of cement. In this process, the early strength of concrete is lower and
higher strength is developed after 56-90 days. At early ages fly ash exhibits
very little cementing value. At later ages when liberated lime resulting from
hydration of cement, reacts with fly ash and contributes considerable strength
to the concrete. This method of fly ash use is adopted for mass concrete works
21

where initial strength of concrete has less importance compared to the reduction
of temperature rise.

6.1.2

Addition Method

In this method, fly ash is added to the concrete without corresponding reduction
in the quantity of OPC. This increases the effective cementitious content of
theconcrete and exhibits increased strength at all ages of the concrete mass.
This method is useful when there is a minimum cement content criteria due to
some design consideration.

6.1.3

Modified replacement method

This method is useful to make strength of fly ash concrete equivalent to the
strength of control mix (without fly ash concrete) at early ages i.e. between 3
and 28 days. In this method fly ash is used by replacing part of OPC by mass
along with adjustment in quantity of fine aggregates and water. The concrete
mixes designed by this method will have a total weight of OPC and fly ash higher
than the weight of the cement used in comparable to control mix i.e. without
fly ash mix. In this method the quantity of cementitious material (OPC + Fly
ash) is kept higher than quantity of cement in control mix (without fly ash) to
offset the reduction in early strength.

6.2

Mix Design

Cement Concrete is principally made with combination of cement (OPC / PPC/

Slag), aggregate and water. It may also contain other cementitious materials
such as fly ash, silica fumes etc. and / or chemical admixture. Use of Fly
ash along with cement helps to provide specific properties like reduced early
heat of hydration, increased long term strength, increased rsistance to alkali
aggregate reaction and sulphate attack, reduced permeability, rsistance to the
intrusion of aggressive solutions and also economy. Chemical admixture are used
to accelerate, retard, improve workability, reduce mixing water requirement,
increase strength or alter other properties of the concrete.
Criteria for Mix Design
The selection of concrete proportions involves a balance between economy
and requirements for workability and consistency, strength, durability, density
and appearance for a particular application. In addition, when mass concrete
is being proportioned, consideration is also given to heat of hydration.

6.2.1

Workability and Consistency

Workability is considered to be that property of concrete, which determines its

capacity to be placed, compacted properly and finished without segregation.
Workability is affected by: the grading, particle shape, proportions of aggregate, the quantity qualities of cement + cementitious materials, the presence
22

of entrained air and chemical admixtures, and the consistency of the mixture.
Consistency is defined as the relative mobility of the concrete mixture. It is measured in terms of slump. The higher the slump the more mobile the mixtureand it affects the ease with which the concrete will flow during placement. It
is related with workability. In properly proportioned concrete, the unit water
content required to produce a given slump will depend on several factors. Water
requirement increases as aggregates become more angular and rough textured.
It decreases as the maximum size of well- graded aggregate is increased. It also
decreases with the entrainment of air.
Certain water- reducing admixtures reduce mixing water requirement significantly.

6.2.2

Strength

Although strength is an important characteristics of concrete, other characteristics such as durability, permeability and wear resistance are often equally or
more important. Strength at the age of 28 days is generally used as a parameter for the structural design, concrete proportioning and evaluation of concrete.
Strength mainly depends on water - cement or water - cementitious material
ratio [w/c or w/(c+p)]. For a given set of materials and conditions, concrete
strength is determined by the net quantity of water used per unit quantity of
cement or total cementitious materials. The net water content excludes water
absorbed by the aggregates. Difference in strength for a given water- cement
(w/c) ratio or water- cementitious materials w/(c+p) ratio (p indicates pozzolana or supplementary cementitious materials) may result from changes in:
maximum size of aggregate; grading, surface texture, shape, strength, stiffness
of aggregate particles, differences in cement types and sources, air content, and
the use of chemical admixtures that affect the cement hydration process or develop cementitious properties themselves.

6.2.3

Durability

Concrete must be able to endure those exposures that may deprive it of its
serviceability- heating cooling, wetting drying, freezing thawing in cold countries, chemicals, de-icing agents etc. Resistance to some of these may be enhanced by use of special ingredients, low-alkali cement, fly ash, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace (GGBF) slag, and silica fume. The durability of concrete
exposed to seawater or sulfate- bearing or aggregate composed of minerals and
free of excessive soft particles where resistance to surface abrasion is required
can also be enhanced substantially by using above special ingredients. Use of
low water-cement or water cementitious materials ratio [w/c or w/(c+p)] will
prolong the life of concrete by reducing the penetration of aggressive liquids.

23

6.2.4

Density

For certain applications, concrete may be used primarily for its weight characteristics. Examples of such applications are counterweights on lift bridges,
dams, weights for sinking oil pipelines under water, shielding from radiation
and insulation from sound.

6.2.5

Heat of Hydration

A major concern in proportioning mass concrete is the size and shape of the
completed structure or portion thereof. If the temperature rise of the concrete
mass is not controlled a minimum and the heat is allowed to dissipate at a reasonable rate, or if the concrete is subjected to severe temperature differential or
thermal gradient, cracking is likely to occur. Thermal cracking of foundation,
floor slabs, beams, columns, bridge piers and other massive structure such as
dams can or may reduce the service life of a structure by promoting early deterioration and may need excessive maintenance. Utilization of fly ash provides
a partial replacement of cement with material, which generates considerable
less heat at early ages. The early age heat contribution of a pozzolana may
conservatively be estimated to a range between 15 to 50 percent of that of an
equivalent weight of concrete. The required temperature control measures can
thus be suitably reduced.

6.3

Proportioning of Concrete

The selection of concrete proportions involves a balance between economy and

various criteria defined in para 8.1 above. Proportioning or mix design of concrete involves a sequence of logical, straight forward steps which in effect fit the
characteristics of the available materials into a mixture suitable for the work.
Steps to be followed for proportioning of concrete utilizing fly ash are given
below. These guidelines are based on Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete (ACI 211.1-91) of American
Concrete Institute (ACI).

6.3.1

Selection of slump for requirement of consistency

If slump is not specified, a value appropriate for the work can be selected from
Table (a). The slump ranges shown apply when vibration is used to consolidate
the concrete. The maximum value of slump may be increased by 25 mm if the
methodof consolidation adopted is other than vibration.
Recommended slumps in ACI 211.1-91 for various types of constructions-

6.3.2

Selection of maximum size of aggregates

Large nominal maximum sizes of well-graded aggregates have less voids than
smaller size aggregates. This results in, concrete with the larger sized aggre24

Figure 6.1: Slumps

gates require less mortar per unit volume of concrete. Therefore, the nominal
maximum size of aggregates should be the largest that is economically available
and consistent with the dimensions of the structure. However, nominal maximum size of aggregates should not be more than (i) one fifth of the narrowest
dimension between sides of forms.(ii) one third of the depth of slab (iii) three
fourths of the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars/ bundles of bars or pretensioning strands. These limitations are sometimes can be
relaxed if workability and methods of consolidation are such that the concrete
can be placed without honeycombs or voids.

6.3.3

Estimation of mixing water and air content

The quantity of water per unit volume of concrete required to produce a given
slump is dependent on the nominal maximum size, particle shape, grading of the
Aggregates, the concrete temperature; the amount of entrained air and use of
chemical admixture. Slump is not greatly affected by the quantity of cement or
cementitious material. Estimates of required mixing water for concrete, with or
without air entrainment recommended by ACI (American Concrete Institutes)
Approximate Mixing Water and Air Content Requirements for Different
Slumps and Nominal Maximum Sizes of Aggregates is shown in table.
The quantity of mixing water given for air entrained concrete are based on
typical total air content requirement and as shown for moderate exposure
in The table above. reasonably well-shaped angular aggregates grading within
limits of accepted specification. Rounded course aggregate will generally require
18 kg less water for non-air-entrained and 15 kg less for air-entrained concrete.
The use of water reducing chemical admixture may also reduce mixing water by
5% or more. The volume of liquid admixture is included as part of total volume
of mixing water.
These quantities of mixing water are for use in computing cement factors for
trial batches when 75 mm or 150 mm nominal maximum size aggregate is used.

25

Figure 6.2: Approximate Mixing Water and Air Content Requirements for Different Slumps and Nominal Maximum Sizes of Aggregates

26

They are average for reasonably well-shaped coarse aggregate, well graded from
coarse to fine.
When using large aggregate in low cement factor concrete, air entrainment
need not to be detrimental to strength. In most cases, mixing water requirement
is reduced sufficiently to improve the water cement ratio and to thus compensate
for the strength reducing effect of entrained air concrete. Generally, therefore,
fo these large nominal maximum sizes of aggregate, air contents recommended
for extreme exposure should be considered even though there may be a little or
no exposure to moisture and free water.

6.3.4

Selection of water cementitious materials [w /(c+p)]

or water cement ratio

The approximate values corresponding to compressive strength at 28 days under

standard laboratory conditions are given in table (c), which can be used for
selection of water cementitious materials [w /(c+p)] or water cement (w/c)
ratio for concrete proportioning.

Figure 6.3: Relationship between water cementitious materials ratio and compressive strength of Cement
* Values are estimated average strength for concrete containing not more
than 2% air for non-air-entrained concrete and 6% total air content for airentrained concrete. For constant water-cement ratio, the strength of concrete is
reduced as the air content is increased.
Strength is based on 152 x305 mm cylinder moist-cured for 28 days in accordance with standard norms specified in relevant ASTM code.
The relationship given in the above table is based on the nominal maximum
size of about 19 to 25 mm. For given source of aggregate, strength produced at

27

given water -cement ratio will increase as nominal maximum size of aggregates
decreases.
Fly ash 15-35% by weight of total cementitious material can
be used as part replacement of Ordinary Portland cement. When high early
strength is required, the total weight of cementitious material (Cement + fly
ash) may be kept greater than the quantity that would be need if Portland
Cement were the only cementitious material. When high early strength is not
required higher percentage of fly ash can be used. When fly ash is used in
concrete, a water-to- cement + fly ash ratio by weight must be considered in
place of the traditional water-cement ratio (w/c) by weight.

6.3.5

Calculation of cementitious material content:

The amount of cementitious material (c + p) per unit volume of concrete can be

determined by selecting the mixing water content and the water to cementitious
material ratio as described in step 3 4. However, if minimum cementitious
material requirement is specified for strength and durability criteria, in that
case higher quantity of cementitious content will be used in the mix.

6.3.6

Estimation of coarse aggregate content

Nominal maximum size and grading will produce concrete of satisfactory workability when a given volume of coarse aggregates, on an oven dry-rodded basis, is
used per unit volume of concrete. The approximate value of dry mass of coarse
aggregate required for a cubic meter of concrete can be worked out by taking
value corresponding to nominal maximum size of aggregate from table (d) and
multiplying by the dry- rodded unit mass of aggregates in kg.

Figure 6.4: Volume of Coarse Aggregate Per Unit of Volume of Concrete

28

6.3.7

Estimation of fine aggregate content

The fine aggregate content can be worked out from the formula given below:
Wet density of concrete (kg/m3) - weight of (cement + fly ash + water + coarse
agreegates) in kg.
Normally wet density of concrete is taken as 2400 kg/m3

6.3.8

Adjustments for aggregate moisture

The aggregate quantities actually to be weighted out for the concrete must
allow for moisture in the aggregates. Generally, aggregates are moist and their
dry weights should be increased by the percentage of water they contain (both
absorbed and surface). The mixing water to be added in a batch must be
reduced by an amount equal to the free moisture contributed by aggregate i.e.
total moisture minus absorption.

6.3.9

Trial batch adjustment

The estimated mixture proportion is to be checked by trial batches prepared

and tested according to standard practice for compressive strength, slump, unit
weight etc. In the trial batch sufficient water should be used to produce the
required slump regardless of the amount assumed in selecting the trial proportions. The trial batches should be carefully observed for proper workability,
freedom from segregation and finishing properties. Appropriate adjustment
should be made in the proportions for subsequent batches.
By following
above-mentioned steps, designing of cement concrete mix using fly ash as a cementitious material for partly replacing cement can be carried out for desired
strength and durability.

29

Chapter 7

Fly Ash : Industrial

Overview
COAL-based thermal power plants have been a major source of power generation
in India, where 75% of the total power obtained is from coal-based thermal power
plants. The coal reserve of India is about 200 billion ton-nes (bt) and its annual
production reaches 250 million tonnes (mt) approximately. About 70% of this
is used in the power sector. In India, unlike in most of the deve-loped countries,
ash content in the coal used for power generation is 30-40%. High ash coal
means more wear and tear of the plant and machinery, low thermal efficiency of
the boiler, slogging, choking and scaling of the furnace and most serious of them
all, generation of a large amount of fly ash. India ranks fourth in the world in
the production of coal ash as by-product waste after USSR, USA and China,
in that order. Fly ash is defined in Cement and Concrete Terminology (ACI
Committee 116) as the finely divided residue resulting from the combustion
of ground or powdered coal, which is trans-ported from the fire box through
the boiler by flue gases. Fly ash is fine glass powder, the particles of which
are generally spherical in shape and range in size from 0.5 to 100 ?m. Fly ash
is classified into two types according to the type of coal used. Anthracite and
bituminous coal produces fly ash classified as class F. Class C fly ash is produced
by burning lignite or sub-bituminous coal. Class C fly ash has self-cementing
properties.

7.1

Deposition of fly-ash

1. Thermal Power stations using pulverized coal or lignite as fuel generate

large quantities of ash as a by-product. There are about 82 power plants
in India, which form the major source of flyash in the country. With the
commissioning of super thermal power plants and with the increasing use
of low grade coal of high ash content, the current production of ash is
about 85 million tonnes per year. This figure is likely to go upto 100
30

million tonnes per year by the year 2000 AD and pose serious ecological
problems.
2. Although the scope for use of ash in concrete, brick making, soil-stabilization
treatment and other applications has been well recognized, only a small
quantity of the total ash produced in India is currently utilized in such
applications. Most of the ash generated from the power plants is disposed off in the vicinity of the plant as a waste material covering several
hectares of valuable land. The bulk utilization of ash is possible in two areas, namely, ash dyke construction and filling of low-lying areas. Coal ash
has been successfully used as structural fills in many developed countries.
However, this particular bulk utilization of ash is yet to be implemented in
India. Since most of the thermal power plants in India are located in areas
where natural materials are either scarce or expensive, the availability of
flyash is bound to provide an economic alternative to natural soils

7.2

Flyash Disposal in Ash Ponds

1. Primarily, the flyash is disposed off using either dry or wet disposal scheme.
In dry disposal, the flyash is transported by truck, chute or conveyor at
the site and disposed off by constructing a dry embankment (dyke). In
wet disposal, the flyash is transported as slurry through pipe and disposed
off in impoundment called ash pond. Most of the power plants in India
use wet disposal system, and when the lagoons are full, four basic options
are available: (a) constructing new lagoons using conventional constructional material, (b) hauling of flyash from the existing lagoons to another
disposal site, (c) raising the existing dyke using conventional constructional material, and (d) raising the dyke using flyash excavated from the
lagoon (ash dyke). The option of raising the existing dyke is very cost
effective because any fly ash used for constructing dyke would, in addition
to saving the earth filling cost, enhance disposal capacity of the lagoon.
The constructional methods for an ash dyke can be grouped into three
broad categories: (a) Upstream method, (b) Downstream method and (c)
Centerline method. Fig.1 shows typical configurations of embankments
constructed using the different methods. The construction procedure of
an ash dyke includes surface treatment of lagoon ash, spreading and compaction, benching and soil cover.
2. An important aspect of design of ash dykes is the internal drainage system. The seepage discharge from internal surfaces must be controlled with
filters that permit water to escape freely and also to hold particles in place
and the piezometric surface on the downstream of the dyke. The internal drainage system consists of construction of rock toe, 0.5m thick sand
blanket and sand chimney. After completion of the final section including
earth cover the turfing is developed from sod on the downstream slope.

31

Figure 7.1: Fly Ash Deposition

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7.3

Flyash as Fill Material

1. Large scale use of ash as a fill material can be applied where (a) flyash replaces another material and is therefore in direct competition with
that material, (b) flyash itself is used by the power generating company
producing the flyash to improve the economics of the overall disposal of
surplus flyash; and (c) at some additional cost, flyash disposal is combined
with the rehabilitation and reclamation of land areas desecrated by other
operations.
2. Fills can be constructed as structural fills where the flyash is placed in thin
lifts and compacted. Structural flyash fills are relatively incompressible
and are suitable for the support of buildings and other structures. Nonstructural flyash fill can be used for the development of parks, parking
lots, playgrounds and other similar lightly loaded facilities. One of the
most significant characteristics of flyash in its use as a fill material is its
strength. Well-compacted flyash has strength comparable to or greater
than soils normally used in earth fill operations. In addition, lignite flyash
possesses self-hardening properties which can result in the development of
shear strengths. The addition of illite or cement can induce hardening in
bituminous flyash which may not self-harden alone. Significant increases
in shear strength can be realized in relatively short periods of time and it
can be very useful in the design of embankments.

7.4

Environmental Considerations

1. The environmental aspects of ash disposal aim at minimizing air and water pollution. Directly related to these concerns is the additional environmental goal of aesthetically enhancing ash disposal facilities. The ash
produced in thermal power plants can cause all three environmental risks
- air, surface water and groundwater pollution. The pathways of pollutant
movement through all these modes are schematically represented in Fig.
2. Air pollution is caused by direct emissions of toxic gases from the power
plants as well as wind-blown ash dust from ash mound/pond. The airborne dust can fall in surface water system or soil and may contaminate
the water/soil system. The wet system of disposal in most power plants
causes discharge of particulate ash directly into the nearby surface water
system. The long storage of ash in ponds under wet condition and humid
climate can cause leaching of toxic metals from ash and contaminate the
underlying soil and ultimately the groundwater system. However, most
of these environmental problems can be minimised by incorporating engineering measures in the design of ash ponds and continuous monitoring of
surface and groundwater water systems.
3. Air pollution is caused by direct emissions of toxic gases from the power
plants as well as wind-blown ash dust from ash mound/pond. The air33

Figure 7.2: Pollution

borne dust can fall in surface water system or soil and may contaminate
the water/soil system. The wet system of disposal in most power plants
causes discharge of particulate ash directly into the nearby surface water
system. The long storage of ash in ponds under wet condition and humid
climate can cause leaching of toxic metals from ash and contaminate the
underlying soil and ultimately the groundwater system. However, most
of these environmental problems can be minimised by incorporating engineering measures in the design of ash ponds and continuous monitoring of
surface and groundwater water systems.

7.5

Fly ash transportation

For the fly ash collection and transportation we can design and supply different
pneumatic transportation system such as:
1. Airslide-Airlift system
2. Dense phase pneumatic transport
3. Vacuum type pneumatic transport
4. Mechanical ash collection transport
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5. High concentration ash slurry disposal system

6. Positive pressure lean phase pneumatic transport.
7. Silo technologies.

7.5.1

Airslide-airlift systems

The Airslide-Airlift material transport is usually used together. It is a simple

and well proven design and suitable to transport large quantities for short distances. Typical application when the fly ash has to be collected from the large
number of ESP hoppers and has to be transported into a near-by fly ash storage
silo.

7.5.2

Airslide channel

Technical parameters:
1. Standard transport capacity: 1 - 500 t/h
2. Standard transport distance: 10 - 200 m
3. Specific air demand: 100 - 500 m3/h/m2
Advantages of the application:
operational safety, simplicity, flexibility and high transport capacity depending
on channel size. It has no moving part and transports the material with low
speed, in a protecting operating mode. There is a stable working point in wide
range according to change of the loading, that is, the same channel is able to
operate even for a considerably changed material

7.5.3

Airlift

The Airlift is used for vertical transportation of fly ash, cement and fine-grained
materials. Technical parameters
1. Standard transport capacity: 10 - 150 t/h
2. Standard vertical lifting height: 10 - 80 m
Advantages of the application:
The Airlift has simple structural constructions, contains no moving part, its
operating cost is low and can be operated safety in wide operating range. The
airlift has a stable working point and the equipment is self-adjusting.
The most frequent application fields:
In fly ash handling systems, cement works chemical plants vertical transportation of bulk material in large quantities into large-size silos, intermediate storage
tanks.

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7.5.4

Dense phase pneumatic transport

In the last 15-20 years it is a trend world-wide to use dense phase pneumatic
conveying for fly ash collection and transportation.
Why dense phase?
1. High material to air ratio, big quantities can be transported for long distances with less air.
2. Due to lower velocity less wear
3. Long conveying distance in one stage up to 1500 m.
4. No storage in ESP hoppers, fly ash is collected in the transporting vessels.
5. No sucking of flue gas, therefore danger of condensation is minimized while
filling and during conveying no danger of plugging.
6. Due to dense phase smaller transport pipes required, consequently less
structure and erection works
7. Lower power consumption compared to other methods.
Typical arrangements usually offering:
1. Direct, multi dense phase transport from each ESP hoppers to storage
silo. This simple solution can be used for silo distance up to 500 m.
For this direct transportation system we have developed pair and group
operation of the transport vessels. It means that up to 4 Nos. of vessels
can be operated simultaneously is such a way that the transport vessels
are working onto one common delivery pipeline. It results simpler and
maintenance friendly operation since the number of valves is reduced.
This arrangement is usually recommended under the 3rd , 4th and 5th
row of the E-precipitator hoppers.
2. Two stage dense phase transport. In the first stage the fly ash is collected
by individual vessels into a transfer bin and the long distance transportation from transfer bin to storage silo (up to 1500 m distance) is made by
Jumbo transport vessel.
3. Two stage transportation, where the fly ash collection is done by airslide,
mechanical or vacuum system and the long distance transport by single
Jumbo transport vessels.
Advantages of the application:
The equipment can be operated in wide operating range. Main operating parameters of working point belonging to quantitative and qualitative changes of
the material to be transported can be changed, resp., adjusted flexibly. Low

36

power consumption and operating cost. With PLC control, full automatic operation of the transport equipment of transport vessel can be realized. Because of
the low delivery air demand, on venting of the receiving silos we need filters of
smaller size compared to the conventional, thin-phase flow pneumatic transport
equipment. Additional advantages against vacuum type systems in case of big
fly ash quantities: The fly ash is collected in the transporting vessel, therefore
ESP hoppers have no storage function, consequently the plugging of hopper
outlet is eliminated. Several transport vessels can be connected to a common
pipeline, thereby a possibility is afforded to construct more complex systems as
well.

7.5.5

Combination of airslides and pressure vessel system

For power plants over 300 MW where big size ESP-s with large number of
hoppers are required and silos are far from units there is an alternative solution
to individual pressure vessels. This is combination of airslides and pressure
vessels. A typical 600 MW unit with two ESP including 32 NOS of collecting
hoppers each working as follows:
1. From the four hoppers belong to one path, fly ash is conveyed by airslide
into big size conveying vessels instead of 4 NOS of smaller ones. Resulting
eight (8) pressure vessels instead of thirty-two (32).
2. Out of the total eight (8) pressure vessels two (2) or four (4) can even
receive boiler ash via short distance pneumatic conveying, making easier
to transport the boiler ash to long distance by mixing it with the finer fly
ash from ESP.
3. Moreover four pneumatic conveying vessels belong to one ESP can be
connected to one common ash conveying line in such a way that two-two
vessels can be coupled and connected to one common ash outlet valve
forming conveying pairs

7.6

Packing of fly ash

1. Single spot fly ash packing machine

The air filler type single spout fly ash packing machine is designed to fill
fly ash under ESP hopper of power plant and fill valve type bag. Material
is pushed by the pneumatic feeder and filled in the bag through the spout
which is connected to machine with a flexible hose pipe. The material
is fluidized and easily flows into the bag through the nozzle. Weighing
is provided through mechanical weighing beam. This is an economical
machine to pack low cost powdered materials in valve type bags.
2. Double spot fly ash packing machine
Double spout fly ash packing machine is capable of filling and packing at
least 400 bags of fly as per hour. Compressed air requirements for this
37

machine are 750 lpm @ 7 kg / cm2. Height and other specifications, features of both the machines are same, both uses pneumetic filling mathod
to fill the bags.

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Figure 7.3: Double spot fly ash packing machine

Figure 7.4: Packing parameters

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