Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 545558

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Thermal load deviation model for superheater and reheater

of a utility boiler
Lijun Xu a,*, Jamil A. Khan a, Zhihang Chen b
a

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA

University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, 516 JunGong Road, Shanghai 200093, China

Received 18 September 1998; accepted 11 May 1999

Abstract
The extreme steam temperature deviation experienced in the superheater and reheater of a utility
boiler can seriously aect its economic and safe operation. This temperature deviation is one of the root
causes of boiler tube failures (BTF), which causes about 40% of the forced power station outages. The
steam temperature deviation is mainly due to the thermal load deviation in the lateral direction of the
superheater and reheater. This variation is very dicult to measure in situ using direct experimental
techniques. In this paper, we propose a thermal load model that is based on the power plant
thermodynamic parameters, thermal deviation theory, and ow rate deviation theory. It is found that
the calculated results from our model agree well with the in situ experimental results. The predicted BTF
positions are the same as that in the reheater of a 300 MW utility boiler at Wujing Power Plant. The
proposed model has been used to improve the design of utility boiler in Boiler Works, predict the
possible BTF in the design stage, and assess the existing designs. This model can also be applied to
utility boilers of dierent manufactures, and has been successfully applied to the BTF prediction and
prevention in the Power Station. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Utility boiler; Superheater; Reheater; Thermal load deviation; Thermal deviation; Flow rate deviation;
Boiler tube failure

* Corresponding author.
1359-4311/00/$ - see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 5 9 - 4 3 1 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 4 9 - 6

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Nomenclature
d
E0
F
G
k
H
l
p
q
Q
s1
s2
x
xf
a
Di
Dt
z
Z
x
t

tube outer diameter

correction factor of middle tube area
heat transfer area
ow rate
resistance coecient
maximum dynamic pressure of header inlet/outlet
heated tube length
pressure drop
absorbed energy per unit area
total absorbed energy
tube longitudinal separation
tube transverse separation
location axis
view factor
total friction resistance
enthalpy rise between the inlet and outlet of the tube or tube row
temperature dierence
thermal deviation coecient
deviation coecient
heat transfer deviation factor
gas average penetration rate

Subscripts
av
average
c
collection header
d
distribution header

ow rate
fr
front gas room radiation
i
ith row tubes
max
maximum
mc
middle tubes bundle convection
min
minimum
mr
middle tubes bundle radiation
rr
rear gas room radiation
st
structure
th
thermal load
tot
total
x
location axis along header
w
width direction
h
height direction
Superscripts
a
tube segment A

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547

1. Introduction
The boiler tube failures (BTF) often occur in the superheaters and the reheaters of a utility
boiler, after the boiler has operated for a period of time. This BTF seriously aects the
economic and safe operation of the utility boiler. It has been observed that the BTF causes
about 40% of the forced outage rate of power stations [1]. BTF continue to be the single
largest source of the forced outages in the fossil-red electricity generating stations. Even in the
US, the BTF of the superheater and the reheater is the leading cause of forced outages at the
fossil-red utility boiler [2]. Eliminating BTF could save the electric power industry about $5
billion a year [3]. It has been observed that the BTF continues to occur on the same tube, same
material or in the same boiler sections over and over again [4]. Signicant eort has been
expended to predict the BTF and to determine the mechanisms responsible for the BTF by
utility boiler companies, boiler manufactures, and by academic researchers [520].
The imperfection in the design method of the utility boiler and the thermal load deviation in
the lateral direction are the leading causes for the BTF in most superheaters and reheaters.
For example, Shanghai Boiler Works in China utilized the most recently patented technology
of Combustion Engineering Company in USA (ABB-CE) to design the fth utility boiler with
a steam capacity of 1025 ton/h at Shiheng Power Station, China. This boiler begun commercial
operation on June 30, 1987. The rst BTF occurred on September 28, 1989 at the welding
joints of the left-hand side of the 55th row for the boiler tubes of the nal stage reheater. The
BTF location is shown in the steam ow diagram of Fig. 1. The boiler tube failed again at the
same position on April 1, 1990. In another case, the Harbin Boiler Co. of China designed and
built its rst 600 MW assessment utility boiler for Pingwei Power Plant by utilizing the ABBCE's newest patented technology. This utility boiler experienced steam temperature deviations
in the range of 20408C at the boiler reheater tubes, detected from the left-hand side to the
right-hand side (Fig. 1, Editor's note). As a result the steam temperature could not meet the
design target, and aected the safe and economic operation of the plant. On this facility the
BTF occurred on the individual tubes on August 10, 1992. In a third case, a 350 MW
imported utility boiler from Japan experienced BTF at Baoshan Iron and Steel (Group) Corp.
on September 23, 1988. The position of the BTF was the fth tube's lower welded joint on
fth row of the right-hand side, and the cause of the BTF was long-term overheating [1].
It can be mentioned that most of the large capacity utility boilers use the four angletangential ring systems. The main advantage of this kind of the ring system is that it works
eciently for a wide variety of coals. The inherent strengths of the tilting tangential ring
system are its high combustion eciency, consistent thermal performance and low emissions.
In this type of ring system, the rotating ame envelope formed within the furnace delivers
thermal energy uniformly to each of the furnace walls, independent of unit load or fuel input
combinations. A feature unique to tangentially red boilers is the ability to regulate furnace
heat absorption for steam temperature control, which is done by tilting the fuel and air nozzle
assemblies up or down automatically. Superheat and reheat temperatures can, thus, be
controlled with minimal plant heat rate impact. Global furnace aerodynamics provide eective
furnace volume utilization for higher heat absorption and lower bulk gas temperatures
compared to wall-red boilers. Complete combustion is assured by the combination of
maximum residence time and vortex turbulence. But, the vortex turbulence of the tilted

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Fig. 1. Steam ow diagram for the reheater of the 300 MW utility boiler in Wujing Power Station.

tangential ring system intensely aects the thermal load distribution in the convection
horizontal gas passage, which increases the thermal load deviation.
Development of high-capacity utility boilers, operating at high temperatures and pressures,
results in increased thermal load deviation of the boiler in the lateral direction with horizontal
gas passage. In spite of its many advantages, the thermal load deviation is inherent for the
tangential ring system and cannot be eliminated completely. However, with the availability of
improved models, like the one proposed here, design changes can be made to mitigate the
severity of temperature deviations in the boiler tubes.
It has been determined via in situ experimental measurements in many utility boilers that the
thermal load deviation of the superheaters and reheaters is in the range of about 1.151.25 [1].
The distribution of the thermal load deviation for the tangential ring system in the utility
boiler is almost the same, and is independent of the load and the number of burners in use.
The magnitude of the structural deviation between the rows is small. The tee joint distributions
of the headers aect the ow rate deviation, and there is a vortex area in the vicinity of the tee
joint [1214]. Based on the ABB-CE calculation standard, the maximum thermal deviation is
taken to be 1.12 along the gas passage lateral direction, which includes the ow rate deviation
between the rows [13,14].

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549

In this paper, we propose a thermal load deviation model that is based on the power plant
in situ thermodynamic parameters, thermal deviation theory and ow rate deviation theory.
The proposed model has been used to improve the design of the utility boiler in Boiler Works,
predict the possible failures in the design stage, and assess the existing designs. This model can
also be applied to dierent types of utility boilers with dierent boiler manufactures, and has
been successfully applied to the prediction and prevention of the BTF in the power station. In
the design stages, the boiler can be assessed for BTF using the model and changes can be made
to avoid this. The model can identify the location of maximum temperature deviation. It can
be mentioned here that the ABB-CE calculation standard predicts only the maximum
temperature deviation, but does not predict the location of this maximum deviation, and its
maximum thermal deviation is less than the experimental measurements. Therefore, the
proposed model is more robust.
2. Mathematical model
The reheater and the superheater of the utility boiler are assembled by the manifold system
such that the tube rows are parallel along the lateral direction of the boiler as shown in Figs.
13. The manifold systems are complicated and can vary depending on the types of utility
boiler design.
Wang and Chen [12,13] proposed the thermal deviation theory for the calculation of the heat
transfer in the external surface of the complicated heated tubes. Several dierent modes of heat

Fig. 2. 300 MW utility boiler ow diagram.

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transfer exist in the superheater and the reheater of the utility boiler, which include the front
room gas radiation, the rear room gas radiation, and the tube bundle radiation and convection
heat transfer as shown in Fig. 3. The heated tubes can be classied into dierent groups; for
example, the rst and the last tube in the ow direction, the hanging tube, the contact tube,
the middle tube, and dierent interval tube. In their model, each tube is divided into a number
of segments based on the type of boiler tube. The ow rate deviation theory was proposed by
Chen [12] to solve the ow rate distribution of the boiler tubes for the complicated manifold
system.
Fig. 2 shows the ow diagram of a 300 MW utility boiler. The tube arrangements of one
row for the plate and the nal reheaters are shown in more detail in Fig. 3, in which the ow
directions of the steam and the gas are also displayed. Fig. 1 is the schematic diagram of the
direction of the steam ow for the reheater of the 300 MW utility boiler of Wujing Power
Station, China. Steam inlet and outlet ports for the tee joints along the distribution header and
the collection headers are also shown. The steam from the wall reheater ows into the
distribution header through four tee joints. Two rows of the tubes from the distribution header
are grouped into one tube row in the plate reheater as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The plate
reheater consists of 30 tube rows with 14 heated tubes (see Figs. 1 and 3). On the outlet of the
plate reheater, one tube row of the plate reheater is divided into two tube rows. The nal
reheater is assembled by 60 tube rows with 7 heated tubes as shown in Figs. 1 and 3.
The steam ow may vary due to the manifold system of the utility boiler, as a result the ow
may be signicantly lower in some tubes than in others. The poor cooling on the inside

Fig. 3. Tubes arrangement of tube row for plate and nal reheater.

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551

coupled with excessive heating on the outside may result in wall temperatures above the
acceptable limits, leading to tube burn out.
The ow diagram of the calculation algorithm of the thermal load simulation of the
proposed model is shown in Fig. 4. The thermal load deviation model includes three parts,
namely the structural deviation model, the ow rate deviation model, and the thermal
deviation model. The structural deviation model is used to describe the actual structure of the
reheater and the superheater in the utility boiler with the help of the database le, and is used
to calculate the structural deviation. The ow rate deviation model simulates the ow rate and
the heat absorbed by each boiler tube. The thermal deviation model is used to account for the
absorbed heat on the external surface of the tubes. The thermal load deviation is obtained by
an iterative procedure based on the three models and the in situ data.
2.1. Thermal deviation mathematical model
Thermal deviation is a ratio of the enthalpy rise of the heated tube/row to the average
enthalpy rise of that in the superheater and reheater of the utility boiler. The thermal deviation
coecient, z, is expressed as a function of the thermal load deviation coecient Zth , the
structural deviation coecient Zst , and the ow rate deviation coecient Zfl as follows [1]:
z

Di
Q
Gav
q=qav  F=Fav
Z  Zst


th

Diav
Qav
G
G=Gav
Zfl

Fig. 4. Thermal simulation calculation algorithm ow diagram.

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Based on the thermal deviation theory each boiler tube is divided into a number of segments.
An energy balance is made for each of the tube segments. For example, the total absorbed
energy Qa by the tube segment A is calculated via an energy balance by adding the front gas
room absorbed radiation energy Qafr , the rear gas room absorbed radiation energy Qarr , the tube
bundle radiation energy Qamr , and the tubes bundle convection energy Qamc [13,14].
Qa Qafr Qarr Qamr Qamc

The front gas room absorbed radiation energy by the tube segment A, Qafr , is given as:
Qafr qafr  l  s1  xffr  tfr qafr  xafr  F a

The rear room absorbed radiation energy by the tube segment A, Qarr , is dened as:
Qarr qarr  l  s1  xfrr  trr qarr  xarr  F a

The tubes bundle radiation energy by the tube segment A, Qamr , is expressed as,
Qamr qamr  l  s2  2xf qamr  xamr  F a

The energy of the tubes bundle convection heat transfer by the tube segment A, Qamc , is as
follows:
Qamc qamc  p  d  l qamc  xamc  F a

The total energy Qa absorbed by the tube segment A, may then be expressed by combining
Eqs. (2)(6).

Qa Qafr Qarr Qamr Qamc F a  qafr  xafr qarr  xarr qamr  xamr qamc  xamc
7
In view of the thermal load deviation in the horizontal and vertical directions, the energy Qawh
absorbed by the tube segment A is determined by using thermal load deviation coecient Zth,w
in the horizontal (width) direction and thermal load deviation coecient Zth,h in the vertical
(height) direction as follows:
Qawh Zth,w  Zth,h  Qa

Zth,w  Zth,h  F a  qafr  xafr qarr  xarr qamr  xamr qamc  xamc

Taking into account the calculated tube segment temperature dierence Dt and the average
temperature dierence Dtav , the energy absorbed by the segment A, Qatot , can be rewritten as
follows:
Qatot Qawh 

Dt
Zth,w  Zth,h
Dtav

Dt
 F a  qafr  xafr qarr  xarr qamr  xamr qamc  xamc 
Dtav
The total absorbed energy for each of the tube is expressed as follows:

L. Xu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 545558

Qtot Qatot Qbtot Qctot Qdtot

n
X
i1

553

Qitot

10

where a, b, c, . . . , etc. are the dierent segments that the tube is divided into.
2.2. Heat transfer deviation factors
Table 1 shows the radiation deviation factors of heat transfer for the tube bundle, the front
gas room and the rear gas room, and the deviation factors of the convection heat transfer for
the superheater and the reheater [1,13,14].
The correction factor for the middle tube area, E0, is determined as [13,14]
9
8
  "
 2 #0:5 =
<
s2
d
d
d
1
E0 2 :1 cos1
11
;
s2
s2
s2
d
2.3. Flow rate deviation mathematical model
According to the ow rate deviation theory, the static pressures dierence, pd,x , at the
distribution header with the Z type arrangement, at x location, is expressed as [12]:

 1 


2
3
12
pd,x Hd 0:76 1 1 x ad 1 1 x
3
The static pressure distribution, pc,x , for the collection header with the Z type arrangement at
any x location, is dened as [12]:
 
 1 

2
3

pc,x Hc 2 1 1 x ac 1 1 x
13
3
With the assumption that there are n tube rows for the complicated header connection system,
the governing equations for the ow rate deviation calculation of the superheater and the
reheater is as follows:
Table 1
Deviation factors of radiation and convection heat transfer
Radiation deviation factor for heat transfer of the front gas room
Radiation deviation factor for heat transfer of the rear gas room
Radiation heat transfer deviation factor for the middle tube
Radiation heat transfer deviation factor for the rst and the last tube
Radiation heat transfer deviation factor of hanging tube
Radiation heat transfer deviation factor of contact tube
Radiation heat transfer deviation factor of dierence interval tube
Convection heat transfer deviation factor for rst and the last tube
Convection heat transfer deviation factor for all other tubes

xafr s1 =d  xffr =E0  tfr

xarr s1 =d  xfrr =E0  trr
xmr 1:0
xmr 0:5 0:25  p=E0
xmr p=E0
xmr p 0:5  p  x=E0
xmr x2mr x3mr =2
xmc xmr 0:25  p=E0
xmc xmr

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L. Xu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 545558

pd,1 pc,1 k1  G 21
..
.
pd,i pc,i ki  G 2i
..
.
pd,n pc,n kn  G 2n
n
X
G
Gi

14

i1

where pd,i pc,i is the ith row tubes pressure dierence between the distribution header and the
collection header, and ki  G 2i is ith row tube's pressure drop.
2.4. Thermal load distribution
Based on the literature survey, the traditional distributions of the thermal load along the
utility boiler lateral direction can be summarized as follows [1].
The thermal load deviation Zth is a polynomial of the order of four for the boiler width axis:
Zth a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x 3 a4 x 4

15

where a0, a1, a2, a3 and a4 can be decided by the two minimum values and a maximum value
of thermal load deviation, and their axis.
Sixth power of the boiler width for the analysis of ABB-CE utility boiler eld is:
Zth a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x 3 a4 x 4 a5 x 5 a6 x 6

16

where a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 and a6 can be determined by a minimum and two maximum thermal
load deviations, and their axis.
Assuming the maximum thermal load deviation at the center of the boiler width:
Zth Zth min Ajx 0:5j1:5 Bjx 0:5j2:5

17

A 3:353b7 5Zth min 2Zth max c

B 9:898b3Zth min 2Zth max 5c
Assuming a parabolic distribution of the thermal load:
2

Zth A Bx C

18

where A, B and C are the coecients relative to the maximum thermal load deviation and its
axis.

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555

Fig. 5. Outside wall metal temperature of the nal reheater outlet tubes for the 300 MW utility boiler.

3. Simulation calculation and discussion

As mentioned earlier, Fig. 4 shows the ow diagram for the calculation algorithm used to
get a converged solution of the thermal load simulation model. The calculations were
performed by using experimentally measured utility boiler outer tubes' wall metal temperatures,
the average inlet and outlet gas temperatures, the thermal deviation theory and the ow rate
deviation theory. All the experimental results were from in situ measurements made at the 300
MW utility boiler at Wujing Power Station, which uses the four angles reverse-tangential ring
systems. Flow diagrams and tube arrangements are shown in Figs. 13. The calculated results
based on the model are presented in Figs. 57.
Fig. 5 compares the experimental value of the reheater outlet tube wall metal temperatures
for the 300 MW utility boiler reheater of Wujing Power Station, with the values calculated
from the simulation. The maximum temperature dierence between the calculated and the
experimental results is found to be about 5.58C as shown in Fig. 5. The relative errors in the
temperature of the model calculation results are within 1% of the in situ experimental results.
The calculated results agree very well with the experimental results.
Fig. 6 presents thermal load deviation coecient as a function of the tube row number. It
can be seen from the gure that the maximum deviation of the thermal load between the
superheater and reheater rows is about 215%. This predicted result is greater than the ABBCE design calculation standard. Fig. 7 presents the calculated thermal deviation results. This
gure also presents the structural and ow rate deviation values. As seen in the gure, the

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L. Xu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 545558

Fig. 6. Simulation calculation results of thermal load deviation coecient for the 300 MW utility boiler's nal
reheater.

maximum ow rate deviation between the reheater rows is about 212%. It is also observed
that the ow rate deviation below the normal ow rate, i.e., lower ow rate results in larger
temperature dierence. Therefore, it may be concluded that the key contributing factors for
thermal deviation is the ow rate deviation and the thermal load deviation between rows.
Thus, by minimizing the thermal deviation the key cause of the BTF may be eliminated. The
maximum thermal deviation between the rows is about 29% at the tubes of the sixth row
shown in Fig. 7. It can also be mentioned that the locations of the actual BTF indeed
coincided with the location of the maximum thermal deviation. The in situ BTF occurred at
the sixth row tubes of the reheater from left side, as shown in Fig. 1, in the 300 MW utility
boiler of Wujing Power Station, in February 1995. The predicted results of the BTF by using
the proposed model were the same as the in situ location of the BTF.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, we propose a thermal load model that is based on the power plant in situ
thermodynamic parameters, thermal deviation theory and ow rate deviation theory. The
model makes a systematic ow analysis and makes an energy balance on each segment of the
boiler tubes. Solution of the resulting governing equations provides the thermal load for each
segment of the tubes and the ow rate of each tube. Following this approach, the proposed

L. Xu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 545558

557

Fig. 7. Simulation calculation results of thermal deviation for 300 MW utility boiler nal reheater.

model has been used to improve the design of the utility boiler in Boiler Works. It has also
been used to predict the possible failures in the design stage, and to assess the existing designs.
This model can also be applied to dierent type of utility boilers built by dierent boiler
manufactures. This model has actually been used to predict and prevent the BTF in the power
station.
The predicted position of BTF is the same as the reheater positions of BTF at a 300 MW
utility boiler of Wujing Power Plant. The relative errors in temperatures of the model
calculation results are within 1% of the in situ experimental results.
In general, the maximum deviation of the thermal load between the superheater and reheater
rows is about 215%, this is more than the ABB-CE design calculation standard. This is the
BTF root cause for the large capacity utility boiler superheater and reheater.

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