Abnormal pressure

Reservoir pore fluid pressure that is not similar to normal saltwater gradient pressure. The term is usually associated with
higher than normal pressure, increased complexity for the well designer and an increased risk of well control problems.
Pressure gradients in excess of around 10 pounds per gallon equivalent fluid density (0.52 psi/foot of depth) are considered
abnormal. Gradients below normal are commonly called subnormal.
Air drilling
A drilling technique whereby gases (typically compressed air or nitrogen) are used to cool the drill bit and lift cuttings out of the
wellbore, instead of the more conventional use of liquids. The advantages of air drilling are that it is usually much faster than
drilling with liquids and it may eliminate lost circulation problems. The disadvantages are the inability to control the influx
offormation fluid into the wellbore and the destabilization of the borehole wall in the absence of the wellbore pressure typically
provided by liquids.

Cable-tool drilling
A method of drilling whereby an impact tool or bit, suspended in the well from a steel cable, is dropped repeatedly on the
bottom of the hole to crush the rock. The tool is usually fitted with some sort of cuttings basket to trap the cuttings along the
side of the tool. After a few impacts on the bottom of the hole, the cable is reeled in and the cuttings basket emptied, or a bailer
is used to remove cuttings from the well. The tool is reeled back to the bottom of the hole and the process repeated. Due to the
increasing time required to retrieve and deploy the bit as the well is deepened, the cable-tool method is limited to shallow
depths. Though largely obsolete, cable-tool operations are still used to drill holes for explosive charge placement (such as for
acquisition of surface seismic data) and water wells.

Company man
The representative of the oil company or operator on a drilling location. For land operations, the company man is responsible
for operational issues on the location, including the safety and efficiency of the project. Even administrative managers are
expected to respond to the direction of the company man when they are on the rigsite. Offshore, depending on the regulatory
requirements, there may be an offshore installation manager, who supervises the company man on safety and vessel integrity
issues, but not on operational issues.
LWD
The measurement of formation properties during the excavation of the hole, or shortly thereafter, through the use of tools
integrated into the bottomhole assembly. LWD, while sometimes risky and expensive, has the advantage of measuring
properties of a formation before drilling fluids invade deeply. Further, many wellbores prove to be difficult or even impossible to
measure with conventional wireline tools, especially highly deviated wells. In these situations, the LWD measurement ensures
that some measurement of the subsurface is captured in the event that wireline operations are not possible. Timely LWD data
can also be used to guide well placement so that the wellbore remains within the zone of interest or in the most productive
portion of a reservoir, such as in highly variable shale reservoirs.
LOT
a test to determine the strength or fracture pressure of the open formation, usually conducted immediately after drilling below a
new casing shoe. During the test, the well is shut in and fluid is pumped into the wellbore to gradually increase the pressure
that the formation experiences. At some pressure, fluid will enter the formation, or leak off, either moving
through permeable paths in the rock or by creating a space by fracturing the rock. The results of the leakoff test dictate the
maximum pressure or mud weight that may be applied to the well during drilling operations. To maintain a small safety factor to
permit safe well control operations, the maximum operating pressure is usually slightly below the leakoff test result.
Lubricator
term initially applied to the assembly of pressure-control equipment used on slickline operations to house the tool string in
preparation for running into the well or for retrieval of the tool string on completion of the operation. The lubricator is assembled
from sections of heavy-wall tube generally constructed with integral seals and connections. Lubricator sections are routinely
used on the assembly of pressure-control equipment for other well-intervention operations such as coiled tubing.
RISER
A large-diameter pipe that connects the subsea BOP stack to a floating surface rig to take mud returns to the surface. Without
the riser, the mud would simply spill out of the top of the stack onto the seafloor. The riser might be loosely considered a
temporary extension of the wellbore to the surface.

MWD
The evaluation of physical properties, usually including pressure, temperature and wellbore trajectory in three-dimensional
space, while extending a wellbore. MWD is now standard practice in offshore directional wells, where the tool cost
is offset byrig time and wellbore stability considerations if other tools are used. The measurements are made downhole, stored
in solid-state memory for some time and later transmitted to the surface. Data transmission methods vary from company to
company, but usually involve digitally encoding data and transmitting to the surface as pressure pulses in the mud system.
These pressures may be positive, negative or continuous sine waves. Some MWD tools have the ability to store the
measurements for later retrieval with wireline or when the tool is tripped out of the hole if the data transmission link fails. MWD
tools that measure formation parameters (resistivity, porosity, sonic velocity, gamma ray) are referred to as logging-whiledrilling (LWD) tools. LWD tools use similar data storage and transmission systems, with some having more solid-state memory
to provide higher resolution logs after the tool is tripped out than is possible with the relatively low bandwidth, mud-pulse data
transmission system.
Sidetrack
To drill a secondary wellbore away from an original wellbore. A sidetracking operation may be done intentionally or may occur
accidentally. Intentional sidetracks might bypass an unusable section of the original wellbore or explore a geologic feature
nearby. In the bypass case, the secondary wellbore is usually drilled substantially parallel to the original well, which may be
inaccessible due to an irretrievable fish, junk in the hole, or a collapsed wellbore.
Boyle law
A principle of physics stating that the product of pressure and volume divided by the temperature is a constant for an ideal gas.
It is a good approximation for many real gases, such as helium, over reasonable ranges of temperature and pressure.
Normal Fault
A type of fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall, and the fault surface dips steeply, commonly from
50o to 90o. Groups of normal faults can produce horst and graben topography, or a series of relatively high- and low-standing
fault blocks, as seen in areas where the crust is rifting or being pulled apart by plate tectonic activity. A growth fault is a type of
normal fault that forms during sedimentation and typically has thicker strata on the downthrown hanging wall than the footwall.
Reverse Fault
A type of fault formed when the hanging wall fault block moves up along a fault surface relative to the footwall. Such movement
can occur in areas where the Earth's crust is compressed. A thrust fault, sometimes called an overthrust if the displacement is
particularly great, is a reverse fault in which the fault plane has a shallow dip, typically much less than 45o.
Thrust Fault
A type of reverse fault in which the fault plane has a very shallow dip, typically much less than 45o. The hanging wall fault block
moves up the fault surface relative to the footwall. In cases of considerable lateral movement, the fault is described as an
overthrust fault. Thrust faults can occur in areas of compression of the Earth's crust.
Geophone
A device used in surface seismic acquisition, both onshore and on the seabed offshore, that detects ground velocity produced
by seismic waves and transforms the motion into electrical impulses. Geophones detect motion in only one direction.
Conventional seismic surveys on land use one geophone per receiver location to detect motion in the vertical direction. Three
mutually orthogonal geophones are typically used in combination to collect 3C seismic data. Hydrophones, unlike geophones,
detect changes in pressure rather than motion.
Hydrophone
A device designed for use in detecting seismic energy in the form ofpressure changes under water during marine seismic
acquisition. Hydrophones are combined to form streamers that are towed by seismic vessels or deployed in a borehole.
Geophones, unlike hydrophones, detect motion rather than pressure.
Abandonment Cost
The costs associated with abandoning a well or production facility. Such costs are specified in the authority for expenditure
(AFE), and typically cover the plugging of wells; removal of well equipment, production tanks and associated installations; and
surface remediation.

Bullet Perforating
An early perforating method that used a hardened steel bullet or projectile, propelled by an explosive charge, to create
aperforation tunnel. This method creates a low-permeability crushed zone and leaves the bullet and associated debris jammed
at the end of the tunnel. Jet perforating is now the preferred method.
Jet Perforating
the use of shaped explosive charges to create perforation tunnels. The explosive charge produces an extremely highpressure jet that penetrates the casing or liner to shoot into the reservoir formation. The shaped charges are contained in a
perforating gun assembly that can be conveyed on wireline, tubing or coiled tubing, depending on the application and the
wellbore conditions.
Compressor
A device that raises the pressure of air or natural gas. A compressor normally uses positive displacement to compress the gas
to higher pressures so that the gas can flow into pipelines and other facilities.
Dehydrator
A device used to remove water and water vapors from gas. Gas dehydration can be accomplished through a glycol dehydrator
or a dry-bed dehydrator, which use a liquid desiccant and a solid desiccant, respectively. Gas dehydrators are designed to
handle only water and gas vapors. If liquid water or oil enters the dehydrator, the device cannot work properly.
FWKO
A vertical or horizontal separator used mainly to remove any free water that can cause problems such
as corrosion andformation of hydrates or tight emulsions, which are difficult to break. A free-water knockout is commonly called
a three-phase separator because it can separate gas, oil and free water. The liquids that are discharged from the free-water
knockout are further treated in vessels called treaters. Free-water knockout is abbreviated as FWKO.
Scrubber
A device to remove dirt, water, foreign matter, or undesired liquids that are part of the gas flowstream. Air can be used to absorb
water; also an oil bath might be useful to remove dust, dirt or other liquids. A scrubber is used to protect downstreamrotating
equipment or to recover valuable liquids from gas.
Mist Extractor
A device used to collect small liquid droplets (moisture or hydrocarbons) from the gas stream before it leaves the separator.
The two most common types of mist extractors are wire-mesh pads and vanes. Once the small droplets of liquid are collected,
they are removed along with the other liquids from the separator.
Annular Flow
A multiphase flow regime in which the lighter fluid flows in the center of the pipe, and the heavier fluid is contained in a thin film
on the pipe wall. The lighter fluid may be a mist or an emulsion. Annular flow occurs at high velocities of the lighter fluid, and is
observed in both vertical and horizontal wells. As the velocity increases, the film may disappear, leading to mist flowor emulsion
flow. When the interface between the fluids is irregular, the term wavy annular flow may be used.
Bubble Flow
A multiphase fluid flow regime characterized by the gas phase being distributed as bubbles through the liquid phase. In a
producing wellbore where the bubbles are uniformly distributed, there is little relative motion between the phases. Where the
bubbles congregate and combine to form a less uniform distribution of the gas phase, some slippage will occur between the
phases with the gas tending to cut through the liquid phase.
Emulsion Flow
multiphase-flow regime with oil as the continuous phase, in which water exists as small, approximately homogeneously
distributed droplets. There may also be a thin film of water on the pipe wall.
Mist Flow
A multiphase fluid-flow regime characterized by the gas phase being distributed as bubbles through the liquid phase. In a
producing wellbore where the bubbles are uniformly distributed, there is little relative motion between the phases. Where the

bubbles congregate and combine to form a less uniform distribution of the gas phase, some slippage will occur between the
phases with the gas tending to cut through the liquid phase.
Plug Flow
A multiphase flow regime in pipes in which most of the gas moves as large bubbles dispersed within a continuous liquid. The
bubbles may span much of the pipe. There are also small bubbles within the liquid, but many of these have coalesced to form
the larger bubbles, or plugs. In near-horizontal wells, the plugs are also known as elongated bubbles. Plug flow is similar to slug
flow, but the bubbles are generally smaller and move more slowly.
Slug Flow
A multiphase-fluid flow regime characterized by a series of liquid plugs (slugs) separated by a relatively large gas pockets. In
vertical flow, the bubble is an axially symmetrical bullet shape that occupies almost the entire cross-sectional area of the tubing.
The resulting flow alternates between high-liquid and high-gas composition.
Laminar Flow
type of streamlined flow for single-phase fluids in which the fluid moves in parallel layers, or laminae. The layers flow smoothly
over each other with instabilities being dampened by the viscosity. Laminar flow occurs in straight pipes when the Reynolds
number is below a critical value, corresponding to a low production rate. Above this value, the flow is turbulent. For laminar flow
in straight pipes, the velocity profile across the pipe is parabolic, increasing from zero at the wall of the pipe to a maximum at
the center equal to twice the mean velocity.
Turbulent Flow
A type of flow for single-phase fluids in which the velocity at any point may vary in both direction and magnitude with time.
Turbulent flow is characterized by random, irregular, locally circular currents, or vortices. It occurs in straight pipes when the
Reynolds number is above a critical value, corresponding to a higher production rate. Below this value, the flow is laminar. For
turbulent flow in straight pipes, the velocity increases from zero at the wall of the pipe, passes through a thin layer of laminar
flow to reach a near constant value over most of the pipe.
Asphaltic Crude
Petroleum with a high content of naphthenic compounds, such as asphaltenes. Asphaltic crude is also known as naphthenebased crude oil when the paraffin wax content is low.
Methane Hydrate
A compound or complex ion that is formed by the union of water with methane. Hydrates can form in pipelines and in gas
gathering, compression and transmission facilities at reduced temperatures and high pressures. Once hydrates are formed,
they can plug the pipelines and significantly affect production operatio
Napthane base Crude oil
Crude oil containing asphaltic materials but very little or no paraffin wax. This type of oil is suitable for making gasoline,
lubricating oil and asphalt. It is also called asphalt-base crude.
Paraffin base crude oil
A crude oil containing paraffin wax but very few asphaltic materials. This type of oil is suitable for motor lubricating oil and
kerosene.
Natural Gasoline
A natural gas liquid with a vapor pressure intermediate between condensate and liquefied petroleum gas. This
liquidhydrocarbon mixture is recovered at normal pressure and temperature and is much more volatile and unstable than
commercial gasoline.

Dynamometer
An instrument used in sucker-rod pumping to record the variation between the polished rod load and the polished
roddisplacement.
Gas Anchor

A perforated tubular attached to the subsurface sucker-rod pump that controls the entrance of gas. Since it is the only way
forformation fluid to enter the pump, its use increases the efficiency of the subsurface sucker-rod pump. It also helps to prevent
the phenomenon called gas lock. A gas anchor is similar to a bottomhole gas separator.
Mud Anchor
Large diameter pipe placed outside the gas anchor to reduce the amount of solids carried by the formation liquid entering the
subsurface sucker-rod pump.
Sonolog
An acoustic device that measures the time required for an explosive sound to echo from the annular liquid level in nonflowing
wells. The time is proportional to the distance from the surface to the liquid. It is used to determine backpressure in
theformation or a static fluid level in the annulus. It is also known as an echo meter.
Standing Valve
In a subsurface sucker-rod pump, a valve that permits flow up the tubing to fill the pump-barrel chamber while preventing
downward flow.
Travelling Valve
In a subsurface sucker-rod pump, the valve that closes the barrel chamber allowing the trapped fluid to be lifted in
theupstroke of the pump. This valve is similar in configuration to the standing valve.
Flow after flow test
A type of deliverability test conducted in gas wells to generate a stabilized gas deliverability curve (IPR). In a flow-after-flow
test, a well flows under a constant rate until it reaches stabilized conditions (pseudosteady state). After the stabilized rate
andpressure are recorded, the rate is changed and the well flows until pressure stabilizes again. The same procedure is
repeated three or four times. The stabilization requirement is an important limitation of this type of test, especially in lowpermeability formations, which require longer stabilization times. This test is also known as a backpressure or four-point test.
Isochronal Test
A type of deliverability test conducted in gas wells. This test is used to generate a stabilized gas deliverability curve (IPR)
without actually flowing the well for the time required to achieve stabilized conditions (pseudosteady state). This type of test is
especially useful for low-permeability reservoirs. In an isochronal test, the well flows at a constant rate and then is shut in,
allowing the pressure to build up to the average reservoir pressure. The same procedure typically is repeated four times. It is
called isochronal because the flow periods are of the same length. A stabilized point (pseudosteady state) is usually obtained at
the end of the test.
Modified Isochronal Test
A type of deliverability test conducted in gas wells to generate a stabilized gas deliverability curve (IPR). This test overcomes
the limitation of the isochronal test, which requires long shut-in times to reach the average reservoir pressure. In the modified
isochronal test, the shut-in periods are of equal duration, as are the flowing periods. The final shut-in pressure before the
beginning of the new flow is used as an approximation of the average reservoir pressure. The same procedure is typically
repeated four times. A stabilized point (pseudosteady state) is usually obtained at the end of the test. Modified isochronal tests
are commonly used in gas wells, because they require less time and money to produce results comparable to the isochronal
test.
Under travel
In sucker-rod pumping, a situation that occurs when the stroke length at the downhole pump is shorter than the surface stroke
length.
Gas Lock
A condition sometimes encountered in a pumping well when dissolved gas, released from solution during the upstroke of the
plunger, appears as free gas between the valves. On the downstroke, pressure inside a barrel completely filled with gas may
never reach the pressure needed to open the traveling valve. In the upstroke, the pressure inside the barrel never decreases
enough for the standing valve to open and allow liquid to enter the pump. Thus no fluid enters or leaves the pump, and the
pump is locked. It does not cause equipment failure, but with a nonfunctional pump, the pumping system is useless. A decrease
in pumping rate is accompanied by an increase of bottomhole pressure (or fluid level in the annulus). In many cases of gas
lock, this increase in bottomhole pressure can exceed the pressure in the barrel and liquid can enter through the standing
valve. After a few strokes, enough liquid enters the pump that the gas lock in broken, and the pump functions normally.

Geostatistical
Techniques that are applied to reservoir characterization using various statistical approaches to estimate
the geologicalcharacteristics of formations at a distance from known points, such as within wellbores. These techniques include
the use of semivariograms, kriging and multivariate analysis.
History Matching
he act of adjusting a model of a reservoir until it closely reproduces the past behavior of a reservoir. The
historical productionand pressures are matched as closely as possible. The accuracy of the history matching depends on the
quality of the reservoir model and the quality and quantity of pressure and production data. Once a model has been history
matched, it can be used to simulate future reservoir behavior with a higher degree of confidence, particularly if the adjustments
are constrained by known geological properties in the reservoir.

Monte carlo simulation

The use of Monte Carlo risk analysis techniques to estimate the most probable outcomes from a model with
uncertain input data and to estimate the validity of the simulated model.