Chapter - 8

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------INTRODUCTION:
This chapter is specifically included to enable readers know the doubts (questions)
arised in the past by transformer users. The genesis of raising such question has been
to take right techno commercial decision during the process of procurement to
commissioning for the useful life of transformer. Committee members have captured
such frequently asked question (FAQ) through recalling their memories of field
experiences and customer interactions.
It is interesting to know that such FAQs bring out a good understanding of techno
commercial evaluation which power transformer industry has undergone in last five
decades.
These FAQs are grouped in three categories:
Design and Engineering:
1. What are the acceptable vibration & acoustic levels?
2. What should be essential type test requirement for a particular voltage class
transformer but of different ratings?
3. What is the significance of stray losses and should it be within some limits of
total losses?
4. Is there any standard for thickness of tank sheet according to rating of Power
transformer?
5. Some bushings are provided with spark gap with arcing horns, what gap should
be maintained?
6. What is the significance of over fluxing factor and its ideal duration ?
7. How much difference in percentage
transformers to be paralleled?

impedance

is

acceptable

among

8. What is the function of stabilizing tertiary winding?

9. What will be a contribution of power transformer in Smart Grid?
10.What are the interfaces of power transformer with switchyard layout ?
11.What is the best core material, one should use to achieve minimum losses.
12.Up to what voltage class power transformer should have Air Cell ?

Page 1 of 16

13.Many times tank body is found hot particularly top plate during operation, what
could be cause & care to be taken in design?
14.What is the most ideal location for locating the fiber optic sensors?
15.Why do you need to know the solubility of water in electrical insulating liquids?
Manufacturing and Quality:
1. How to ensure that transformer after manufacturing has good IR value and
minimum moisture?
2. How to ascertain that core material used is genuine?
3. Should there be one-to-one match between material used in type tested job
and later supplied during manufacturing?
4. What is the typical manufacturing through put time for different voltage classes
of transformers?
5. Can we use the transformer unit, which has undergone short circuit test?
6. How to ascertain that transformer offered by supplier is similar to what is type
tested?
Erection, Commissioning and Service issues:
1. What is the thumb rule for IR value in power transformer above 66 KV Class?
2. What to do if IR value is low after filtration at site in new units and how to
improve it?
3. Should the oil in transformer below drain valve be accepted? Up to what level,
oil should be filled in conservator?
4. What is polarization index & the significance of polarization index?
5. Is there any rule or practice for first charging with respect to HV side or LV side?
6. What are the key points for internal inspection of unit at site before oil filling &
bushing erection?
7. What are the ideal Alarm and Trip values for OTI and WTI?
8. Should we connect transformer neutral earthing to main earth mat of
switchyard?
9. How to make scrap or repair decision for transformers?
10.How to find out the weight of core, steel and copper in old Transformers?
11.How to avoid bushing porcelain flash over in highly contaminated locations, like
dusty as in a cement plant, misty as near to a cooling tower, foggy or saline as
near to sea?
12.How to decide on mixing of oil of two different makes?

Page 2 of 16

Design and Engineering:

1.

What are the acceptable vibration & acoustic levels?

Generally accepted maximum limits of audible sound level for transformers are
as per tables in NEMA Standard TR 1-1993(R2000) Transformers, Regulators and
Reactors. Table 2 (Power Transformers) Table 3 (Distribution Transformers) Table
4 (Dry Type Transformers). Manufacturers can deliver transformers with still
lower sound levels by adopting special measures. Transformer sound becomes
disturbing when sound level is 3-6 dB above the ambient sound level.
Tank vibration levels are usually not specified for Transformers, but only for
reactors. Typical specification for EHV shunt Reactors call for maximum
vibration amplitude in any panel shall not exceed 200 microns peak to peak at
rated voltage (sometimes maximum system voltage) and frequency. Average
vibrations shall not exceed 60 microns peak to peak. Tank stresses shall not
exceed 2.0 kg/mm2 at any point on the tank In the early days of development,
many reactors in service failed from tank welding failures due to excessive
vibrations.

2.

What should be essential type test requirement for a particular

voltage class transformer but of different ratings?
Requirement of Dielectric tests whether routine or type are well defined in IS
2026-1 & 3 / IEC60076 - 1 & 3 depending upon voltage class of transformers
should be followed.
Temperature rise test with DGA test before and after should be done preferably
on one unit of each type of transformer.
In case of short circuit test, standards provide alternative method of proving s/c
withstand capability by calculations. However, this has to be decided by
purchaser on case to case basis.

3.

What is the significance of stray losses and should it be within some

limits of total losses?
Stray losses are additional eddy losses in the structural parts and within the
winding. Leakage flux is responsible for these losses. Quantum of the stray
losses mainly depends upon the leakage flux intensity linking with structural
parts and the windings. The geometry of winding, type of conductors used and
material used in structural parts influence the magnitude of stray
losses.
Excessive value of the stray losses if not controlled, can cause local overheating of structural parts and further gasification in transformer oil during
service conditions. Higher stray losses in the winding (i.e. eddy current losses)
may be responsible for increased value of the hot spots in the winding.
To reduce stray losses, designers use effective conductor dimensions and
special types of conductor viz. bunched conductors, CTC conductors etc., to
limit winding eddy current losses. Also, effective shielding is provided in terms

Page 3 of 16

of tank shields and yoke shunts which control stray losses in structural parts to
a great extent.
Any possible local overheating in structural parts in a transformer shall get
detected by comparing oil DGA test results before and after temperature rise
test. Advanced tools like thermo-vision camera do helps mapping thermal
image of external structural parts of transformer during temperature rise test.
It is not a practice to limit maximum stray losses in terms of % of total load loss
as this may lead to excessive shielding in the medium and lower ratings of
transformers which are commercially not viable and this unnecessarily
complicates the transformer design.
Stray loss limit are to be reviewed in design review keeping loss capitalization
issue and temperature rise in to consideration.
4.

Is there any standard for thickness of tank sheet according to rating of

Power transformer?
There is no need to specify the minimum or standard thickness for tank panels.
For example power transformers side panels can be made of steel sheets of
thickness 8 12 mm. When thickness is less, stiffeners will be required at more
frequent intervals. If high tensile steel is used then thinner steel can be used for
the same pitch of stiffeners. Similarly it is possible to use thin steel (12 - 16
mm) as tank bottom with a skid base welded to it. Otherwise it will be
necessary to use a thick plate (32-40 mm thick) as base plate.

5.

Some bushings are provided with spark gap with arcing horns, what
gap should be maintained?
Arcing horns used to be provided on bushings during the days when surge
arresters were made of silicon carbide blocks with air gaps. These surge
arresters were not giving precise cut off with surges of different wave fronts. To
take care of these uncertainties and to avoid a flash over to earth across the
porcelain surface (which may damage the porcelain glaze or even porcelain) an
arcing horn was provided across the porcelain with flash over voltage well
below the withstand value of bushing (transformer). These arcing horns were
not effective against steep fronted surges as the flashover values were quite
high for such surges. Another disadvantage with arcing horns is the interruption
of power supply with arcing horn flashover followed by power frequency current
flow. With the advent of metal oxide surge arresters with consistent voltage cut
off
characteristics, arcing horns became redundant and no longer used in
transformers.
Today arcing horns are provided only on distribution transformer bushings.

6.

What is the significance of over fluxing factor and its ideal duration?
IEC 60076-1 and ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00, Transformer specifications, require 110
% V/f (Voltage /Frequency is called over fluxing factor) continuous at no-load
reducing to 105 % at full load (only ANSI specifies power factor). IEC also

Page 4 of 16

requires 140 % over fluxing for 5 seconds for GSU transformers. Customers
often have their own specific requirements based on operating practice.
Over fluxing phenomena in transformers became a concern when some large
Generator Transformers failed in USA during the first energisation during
1960's. It was the time when large generators of above 200 MW were first
introduced. After site failure, during factory inspection, the classic over fluxing
failure mode - burning of inner side of LV winding and blistering of outside tank
painting- was noticed in these units. The reason for failures was increased V/F
seen by transformers due to some mistakes in generator excitation protocol.
This led to the development and use of over fluxing (V/F) relay in GTs.
The phenomena was first studied in depth by GE, Pittsfield engineers and first
over fluxing design philosophy and withstand graph were published by them
(IEEE PAS Vol. 85 No. 8 Aug 1966, Design and operating practices of generator
step up Transformers - G W Alexander & WJ Mac Nutt Pages 901-909). Later
CIGRE published this graph along with graph from German Standard VDE 0532 /
8.64 in Electra No 31 1973 December -Transformer Over fluxing protection
Pages 65. Later CIGRE revised this vide Electra No. 82 May, 1982 Page 42 Permissible
over
excitation
of
Power
Transformers.
Anyway, these graphs are all theoretical as no one has tested transformers for
these over fluxing levels. The saturation level of CRGO is almost same
irrespective of grades. Dr Girgis of ABB in 2003 IEEE seminar reported 1.92 1.95 for standard grades & 1.95 - 1.98 T for Hi-B and higher grades. Harold
Moore (ex Westinghouse) suggested 1.9 T for standard mitred core & 1.93 T for
step-lap core construction. On safer level, utilities generally specify 1.72 T as
max operating flux density with 1.9 T at max continuous operating voltage of
110 %, with over fluxing capability of 125 % over fluxing for 1 minute and 140
% for 5 seconds. When over fluxing level at site is more than these, the working
flux density will be reduced proportionately. That is why CEGB UK used to
specify working flux density of 1.7 T for GTs, 1.6 T for interconnecting
transformers and 1.55 T for sub transmission transformers. The low B value for
sub-transmission transformers is required as the operator will be lowering the
HV taps with constant input voltage, when the secondary voltage dips due to
transformer voltage regulation, causing continuous over fluxing in transformers.
When over fluxing occurs i.e. when B exceeds 1.9 T, the flux can no longer hold
inside the core and it overflows hitting the flitch (tie) plate, inner winding, tank
etc., causing them to overheat exponentially. Engineers take countermeasures
such as non- magnetic tie plates with slits etc. But the fundamental change will
be reduced working flux density. Earlier days, before the oil shock, in Europe,
US and Japan even 1.8 T working flux density at rated voltage was common for
GTs. But today due to higher and higher efficiency demands and the
environmental concerns of transformer noise, B of 1.45 T is not uncommon,
thereby building up extra over fluxing capacity automatically.
7.

How much difference in percentage impedance is acceptable among

transformers to be paralleled?

Page 5 of 16

Standards are silent about difference in percentage impedance for transformers

to be paralleled.
Two transformers, one with impedance measured with plus tolerance and the
other with impedance measured with minus tolerances are also accepted for
parallel operation.
The golden rule is that during parallel operation, no transformer should be
overloaded. However, basic requirements like voltage ratios at each tap, vector
group etc. should be essentially met with.

8.

What is the function of stabilizing tertiary winding?

Stabilizing tertiary winding is a delta connected auxiliary winding used
particularly in wye wye connected three phase transformers. It is sometimes
called buried tertiary. A winding is regarded as stabilizing winding if its
terminals are not brought out for connection to an external circuit. However one
or two points of the winding that are intended to form the same corner point of
the delta may be brought out for grounding or grounded internally to tank.
Purpose of the stabilizing tertiary winding is
1.
To stabilize the neutral point of the fundamental frequency voltages
2.
To minimize third harmonic voltage and the resultant effects on the
system
3.
To mitigate telephone influence due to third harmonic currents and
voltages
4.
To minimize the residual direct current magneto-motive force on the core.
5.
To decrease the zero sequence impedance of the transformers with Y
connected windings
Stabilizing tertiary winding can be avoided in three phase transformers with
three limbed cores as the unidirectional zero sequence fluxes in the limbs will
induce a virtual delta winding current on tank surface and serve to some extent
the functions of a separate delta winding.

9.

What will be the contribution of power transformer in Smart Grid?

Smart transformers are low loss, leak proof transformers equipped with online
diagnostic tools required for early detection of faults for unplanned outages.
These shall have bio-degradable insulating fluids and fail safe features.
Maintenance free to the maximum extent shall be suitable to work in an
environment of in feed from alternate energy sources.
Smart grid ensures easy and continuous availability of power for which
reliability of transformer is of utmost importance.
Additionally, special transformers like phase shifting transformers, dynamically
controlled shunt reactors or transformers equipped with SVC schemes etc. are
also smart transformers since they help grids to maintain voltage profile and
inter-grid power transfer capability

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10.

What are the interfaces of power transformer with switchyard layout?

Some of the major interfaces of transformer with switch yard layout are as
follow:1)
2)
3)

Permanent route for entry and exit of transformer with trailer.

Foot print of transformer and maximum height from rail.
Foundation plan with weight schedules, oil content, weight at each
support point, co-ordinates of jacking pad loading points , rail gauge,
centre of gravity of loading, centre lines (both directions), foundation
bolts.
4)
Co-ordinates of bushing terminals, drain valve, tank earthing pads, PRD
outlet, Cable inlet to OLTC drive, control cubicle and marshalling box
5)
Co-ordinates up to LV bus-duct, SF-6 bus duct, cable pot head mounting
6)
Foot print and mounting co-ordinates of cooler bank, if separately
mounted.
7)
Cable interconnection details
8)
Live metal clearances with switchyard structure and bus bar conductor.
9)
Fire Protection system and oil drainage system.
10) Integration with Protection and SCADA system using auxiliary CTs and
local protection like Buchholz, PRD, etc.
Design review process also helps in addressing several interfaces.
11.

What is the best core material, one should use to achieve minimum
losses.
Decision of selecting core material is purely a transformer designers choice.
Designer based on the capitalization value of no load losses / fixed no load
losses selects the grade of core material to get the most optimum design,
based on his technology and experience of core configuration etc.
It is not essentially required to use HiB /domain refined grades of core material
always and it is possible to achieve same value of losses without using HiB
material (say, by using lower operating flux density, better core construction).
Such decisions should be left to designer.
Saturation flux density of all grades of CRGO is same. It is the specific watt
loss / kg that define the grade of steel.

12.

Up to what voltage class power transformer should have Air Cell?

Any power transformer of voltage class 66 kV and above should have air cell.

13.

Many times tank body is found hot particularly top plate during
operation, what could be cause & care to be taken in design?
Stagnant oil with reduced flow is generally the reason for higher top plate
temperature. Such phenomenon is sometimes noticed in externally mounted /
tank mounted radiator banks of large rating transformer tanks which are dome
shaped at top to facilitate transport profile. As shown in the figure below, the
differences in top most plate and the oil entry point sometimes may be
substantial to lead to reduced oil flow currents and higher temperatures. To

Page 7 of 16

overcome this situation, a connecting pipe from top most point to oil inlet pipe
of header may help reduce the stagnant oil temperature.

Recommended connecting
pipe

14.

What is the most ideal location for locating the fiber optic sensors?
Fiber optic sensors are embedded in the transformer windings to directly read
the winding hot spot temperatures where it is placed. Location of fiber optic
temperature is judiciously decided
by transformer designer based on the
hot spot temperature distribution of transformer winding. Generally top zone of
the transformer winding is surrounding the hot oil; this zone also carries higher
value of winding eddy current losses in view of radial flux at this location.
Generally fiber optic sensors are placed in the second or third disc from top of
the winding which are generally the hottest.

15.

Why do you need to know the solubility of water in electrical

insulating liquids?
The dielectric breakdown voltage of dielectric liquids is a function of the
relative saturation of water in the liquids and not the concentration in parts per
million (ppm). To calculate the relative saturation three things are needed - oil
temperature, the concentration in ppm and the solubility in ppm. From this, the
relative saturation of water in oil can be determined along with the risk of low
breakdown voltage from excessive moisture. The breakdown voltage is also
influenced by the amount and nature of particles but the contribution of
moisture is a key portion.

Manufacturing and Quality:

1.

How to ensure that transformer after manufacturing has good IR value

and minimum moisture?
Transformer manufacturer ensures that the insulation is perfectly dry by various
in-house procedures/measurements and he compares the IR values with similar
units manufactured in his production lines. One simple method to ensure

Page 8 of 16

dryness of insulation is power factor measurement of winding insulation and the

generally accepted limit is 0.5 % at ambient temperatures.
2.

How to ascertain that core material used is genuine?

Authenticity of the core material can be ascertained by correlation with
purchase order placed
by the Manufacturer or lamination processor with
packing list (bill of lading, in voice etc.), giving coil numbers and mills test
certificates of each coil. This correlation can be extended to lamination
processors end also by verification of records of coil numbers and cut
laminations there from.
On random basis, samples from prime coils and cut laminations may be sent to
third party laboratory or laboratory with NABL accreditation for specific core
loss measurement. However, marginal variations owing to sampling, handling
and different test set up should be reasonably considered.

3.

Should there be one-to-one match between material used in type

tested job and later supplied during manufacturing?
It is not mandatory to compare materials used in transformer with type tested
units on one-to-one basis. Transformer design is a process of continual
improvements, more often changes are made in basic design to compensate for
the price variation in major raw materials, commensurate with rates of
capitalization of losses etc. However, following major parameters are compared
with reference type tested transformer:
(1). Guidelines for identification of similar transformer for dynamic short circuit
withstand ability is given as Annex-A in IEC 60076-5 : Ability to withstand
short circuit. The same should be followed.
(2). Lightning Impulse Test:
a.
b.
c.
d.
(3).

Rated BIL of HV and LV windings.

MVA rating should be closer to reference transformer within 20%.
Disposition of windings (placement with reference to core).
Type of windings (e.g. helical, disc, layer etc.)
Temperature Rise Test:

a. Type of Transformer (e.g. generator, step-up unit, distribution, interconnecting etc.)

b. Type of cooling
c. MVA rating should be within 20%
d. Type of windings (e.g. helical, disc, layer etc.)
e. Whether directed or non directed flow and this should be same as for
reference transformer.
f. Co-relation with measured temperature rises and guaranteed
temperature rises.
4.

What is the typical manufacturing time for different voltage classes of

transformers?

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Following typical period from the day of order to delivery (Ex-work) can be
considered:
Power Transformer up to 132 kV class :
Power Transformer up to 400 kV class :
Power Transformers up to 765 kV class :
5.

4 6 months
6 8 months
9 12 months

Can we use the transformer unit, which has undergone short circuit
test?
Yes. We can use a short circuit tested transformer in regular service .It is
expected to give the same service life as any other unit in that manufacturing
lot.

6.

How to ascertain that transformer offered by supplier is similar to

what is type tested?
We can ensure this by rigorous stage inspection and checking of way bills for
the main raw materials and components. Buyer may random select any one
unit from production batch for type testing.

Erection, Commissioning and Service issues:

1.

What is the thumb rule for IR value in power transformer above 66 kV

Class?
In the first editions of IS:1866 Maintenance of Transformers, there was graph
indicating the minimum recommended values of IR values for standard
voltage classes of transformer windings at different insulation temperatures.
These values were no longer valid once high resistivity oils were introduced and
later editions of the standard removed these graphs. Today transformer oil used
is severely hydro-cracked mineral oil, devoid of all polar components, giving
extremely high values of resistivity for oil. Hence today, at ambient
temperatures, transformer winding insulation resistance is
of the order of
thousands of Megohms instead of a few tens or hundreds of Mega Ohms
obtained in earlier days. Hence even with slightly wet winding, transformer may
give high IR values due to the high resistivity of oil. Today no minimum values
of IR are specified for transformers. But the measured values may be compared
with factory values after temperature correction (for every 10C reduction in
insulation temperature, the IR value doubles up approximately)

2.

What to do if IR value is low after filtration at site in new units and how
to improve it?
In case the IR value is substantially lower than the factory value, then the
reason for the same shall be investigated. Some of the reasons for low
insulation resistance values can be defective bushings, low IR value for tap
changer insulation, misplaced lead layout, water entry in to oil etc.
The best method to improve the IR values is by vacuum treatment:
The degree of vacuum shall be of the order of 2 Torr for 132 kV and 1 Torr
for >132 kV with following vacuum and dry air filling cycle:

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66 kV
132 kV/220 kV
220 kV/400 kV

> 12 Hrs Vacuum hold dry air filling -- Vacuum

> 36 Hrs Vacuum hold dry air filling -- Vacuum
> 60 Hrs Vacuum hold dry air filling Vacuum

At the end of vacuum hold period, hot oil shall be filled to raise the
temperature of winding insulation to expedite moisture removal. External
heating and hot oil circulation may be repeated 2~3 times as required.
3.

Should the oil in transformer below drain valve be accepted? Up to

what level, oil should be filled in conservator?
The oil in the tank below the drain valve can be used, though may contain free
water. Hence this shall be thoroughly filtered before reuse.
Care shall be taken while filling oil in the conservator. As the purpose of
conservator is to contain the volume expanded with temperature (oil expands
by 1 % for every 10 C change in temperature) it is important to keep oil level in
conservator corresponding to the ambient oil temperature at the time of first
energisation. If too high oil level is kept at the beginning, it will result in oil
overflow through the breather pipe (operation of pressure relief device / weld
crack in tank or radiator fins when air cell is used). If oil level is too low,
corresponding to the ambient temperature, it will result in draining back of oil in
to main tank causing Buchholz relay operation (creation of vacuum inside tank
when air cell is used which can be a serious situation as air dissolved in oil will
form as bubbles near to winding conductors that may lead to insulation
breakdown)

4.

What is polarization index & the significance of polarization index?

The polarization index is the ratio of the insulation resistance at the end of a 10
Minute test to that at the end of 1 Minute test at a constant voltage. The total
current developed when applying a steady-state DC voltage is composed of the
following three components:
i)

Charging current, due to the capacitance of the insulation being

measured. This current falls off from maximum to zero very rapidly.

ii)

Absorption current, due to molecular charge shifting in the insulation.

This transient current decays to zero more slowly.

iii)

Leakage current, which is the true conduction current of the insulation.

The leakage current varies with the test voltage. It may also have a component
due to the surface leakage that is due especially to surface contamination.
Since leakage current increases at a faster rate with moisture present than does
absorption current, the Mega Ohm readings do not increase with time as fast
with insulation in poor condition as with insulation in good condition. This
results in a lower polarization index.
An advantage of the index ratio is that all of the variables that can affect a
single Mega Ohm reading, such as temperature and humidity, are essentially
the same for both the 1 Min. and 10 Min. readings.

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Polarization Index = 10 Min. Insulation Resistance (Mega Ohm) reading

/1 Min. Insulation Resistance (Mega Ohm) reading
The following are guidelines for evaluating transformer insulation using
polarization index values:
Less than 1.0 = Dangerous
1.0 to 1.1 = Poor
1.1 to 1.25
= Questionable
1.25 to 2.0
= Fair
Above 2.0
= Good
The polarization index for insulation liquid is always close to 1. Therefore, the
polarization index for transformers with low conductivity liquids i.e. oil with high
resistivity (e.g., new mineral oil) may be low in spite of good insulation
condition.
The polarization index method should not be used to assess insulation condition
in new power transformers (Clause 7.2.13.4 of C57.152-2013 "Guide for
Diagnostic Field Testing of fluid filled Power Transformers, Regulators and
Reactors")
5.

Is there any rule or practice for first charging with respect to HV side
or LV side?
There is no specific rule or practice regarding the first charging of transformers
except in case of step up transformers and interconnecting auto-transformers
wherein initial charging is always done from HV side as otherwise the inrush
current will overload the LV side system transformers which will be of lower
rating than HV side system transformers. Another advantage of charging from
HV side is the lower inrush current (as times of full load current) as normally HV
winding is the outer most winding. But when high ratio transformers like step
up transformers are energized from HV side, LV side shall be protected from
transferred surges by connecting lightning arresters or surge absorbers to LV
side.

6.

What are the key points for internal inspection of unit at site before oil
filling & bushing erection?
Necessity of internal inspection generally arises out of any abnormal shocks
recorded by Impact recorder or discrepancy in magnetic circuit isolation (2 kV
Test).
However, large transformers above 100 MVA may be inspected internally at site
before bushing erection, as a good practice.
During inspection dry air should be continuously injected to avoid any moisture
ingress.
Following points are generally checked during internal inspection
at site.
1. Any movements of windings or looseness of OLTC connection leads /
supports (Supports are tightened in case found loose. Connections on
OLTC are also tightened.)

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2. Cleaning of any sludge / dust deposited at bottom.

3. Internal inspection of main unit should be started from the bottom to
validate that no loose items are lying at the bottom of the tank. The
bottom side inspection covers should be located suitability so that the
inspection can be carried out easily.
4. The tank mounted CTs assembly if any should be inspected for the
tightness of the mounting mechanism and electrical terminations on the
secondary plate.
5. The core frame earthing terminals should be inspected for their tightness
on the respective termination arrangement.
6. All the shorting links in the frame should be checked for tightness of their
hardwares.
7. OLTC lead connections should be inspected and preferably the leads are
not displaced from their original location, but sample tightness check for
the hardware can be done.
8. The various leads inside the transformer for the HV, IV, tertiary
connections and neutral are routed and clamped using insulation
materials clamps & hardwares. The clamps mounted on mounting
arrangements and mounting hardwares should be checked for tightness.
9. The insulating material clamps are used for the retention of the leads and
maintain the clearances; the tightness of the hardwares for the clamping
insulation should be checked for their tightness. Sample tightness can be
carried out an in case looseness is found then all the hardwares are to be
checked for tightness.
10.Any loose tapes for securing the leads or any items are located the same
should be re-secured.
11.For units with documented evidence of shocks the same should be
checked for SFRA and the same to be verified with the factory test
results.
7.

What are the ideal Alarm and Trip values for OTI and WTI?
Considering allowed temperatures of oil and winding and avoid unnecessary
tripping, following are the recommended values of the OTI / WTI alarm / trip
settings.
OTI 85 C (Alarm) / 95 C (Trip)
WTI 100 C (Alarm) / 110 C (Trip)

8.

Should we connect transformer neutral earthing to main earth mat of

switchyard?
Yes, we should always connect transformer neutral earthing to main earth mat
of switchyard.

9.

How to make scrap or repair decision for transformers?

There is no hard and fast rule and the appropriate decision is to be taken on
case to case basis. The age of transformer, cost and time to repair v/s new
procurement are the issues to be addressed to decide scrap or repair.

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If the repair cost is more than 60-65% of cost of new transformer, it may be
worth considering scrap of the transformer.
If the age is more than 20 years and repair cost is substantial, one may
consider scrap. However, in such a case, change of windings and uprating with
enhanced cooling may be a good proposition.
With advancement of technology, losses of the transformers have come down.
While considering repair of an old transformer, the possibility of a more energy
efficient transformer in lieu of huge repair cost may also be explored.
10.

How to find out the weight of core, steel and copper in old
Transformers?
Approximate weight of copper and core steel can be found out from the active
part weight as shown in the rating plate of transformer.
From the active part weight, find out the weight of net (copper + CRGO Steel)
by dividing factor. This factor will vary depending on the period when the
transformer was made. In early days (1965 - 75) this factor was on the higher
side. In later years, it came down due to improvements in design.
Factor

Two

1965- 197519957
9
2
5
5
0
0
5

winding
Transformer

Auto-Transformer

1.20

1.15

1.10

1.25

1.20

1.13

Difference between active part (Copper + Core) can be taken as the weight of
mild steel fabricated item plus oil impregnated insulation materials (paper,
pressboard, wood) in the ratio of 50:50. Weight of tap -changer can be
neglected. But it will have copper contacts as part which has good scrap value.
From the total weight of (copper + Core) individual weight of core laminations
and copper conductor can be estimated by guessing the core / copper ratio.
This ratio of core to copper weight (vary 1 ~ 4) depending on

Whether it is a two winding or an auto-transformer.

In two winding units, the ratio will be on higher side = 1.5 ~ 4.
In auto transformers ratio will be on lower side = 1 ~ 2.

Whether high impedance or low impedance transformer.

In high impedance transformer, the ratio will be on lower side.

Based on loss ratio (copper loss/iron loss)

If it is high, core / copper ratio will be on lower side.

Page 14 of 16

11.

If it is low, core / copper ratio will be on higher side.

How to avoid bushing porcelain flash over in highly contaminated

locations, like dusty as in a cement plant, misty as near to a cooling
tower, foggy or saline as near to sea?
The solutions available earlier were live line washing with demineralized water,
frequent application of silicone greases, use of porcelains with easy clean sheds
and of long creep lengths (more than 31 mm/kV of system voltage).
Better solutions are available today for reduced maintenance cost and
extended life time. In contaminated locations with relatively dry dust, use
composite polymeric insulators (IEC 62217-2005 Polymeric Insulators for indoor
and outdoor use for voltage above 1 kV, IEC 60815-3 -2008 Selection of
Insulators-Polymeric, IEC/TR 62039-2007) instead of conventional porcelain
insulators. In areas of high pollution with frequent vetting due to mist, rain or
fog, use porcelain insulators with RTV (Room Temperature Vulcanizing) silicone
coating. This came in to market around 1985. This can be applied at factory and
recoating will be required only once in its useful life of 30 years or more. (IEEE
Std 1523-2002 Guide for application, maintenance and evaluation of RTV
silicone rubber coatings for outdoor ceramic insulators, CIGRE Technical
Brochures 442 & 478) In such wet locations, composite polymeric insulators will
loose their hydrophobicity quickly thorough repeated discharges and hence RTV
coating over ceramic porcelain insulators is recommended.

12.

How to decide on mixing of oil of two different makes?

Generally the same grade of oil meeting the same standard can be mixed.
However, mixing of very old oils with new oils shall be avoided. To check the
miscibility concerns, fool proof testing method is to prepare two oils mixtures
of different combinations ( say 25:75,50:50, 75:25 ) and individual samples and
mixture samples shall be subjected to oxidation stability test, power factor and
resistivity tests and compare the same with individual oil tests.
New Transformer oil confirming to same group i.e. either uninhibited or
inhibited, and having the same lowest cold starting energizing temperature are
considered to be miscible and compatible with each other.

13.

What are the standard torque values for bolts and studs ?
The Classification of bolts is as show below.
GROUP-A:
Bolts marked 4.8 on the head
GROUP-B:
Bolts marked 8.8 or higher on the head or of Stainless Steel
The maximum recommended torque values, based on material properties, for

both
groups are as given below:
GROUP-A: Maximum recommended Torque
Torque

GROUP-B: Maximum recommended

Page 15 of 16

Bolt
Size
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36

Unplated
Torque N-m
20
36
90
175
300
600
1050

Zn Plated
Galvanized
Torque N-m
25
40
110
210
360
720
1260

Bolt
Size
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24
M30
M36

Unplated
Torque Nm
35
60
145
280
490
970
1700

Zn Plated
Galvanized
Torque N-m
40
70
170
340
590
1160
2040

Gasketed Joints:
Recommended torques for bolts/studs only for gasketed joints. Based on maxium
pitch generally used for that class of bolt.
Bolt
Size
M10
M12
M16
M20
M24

Unplated
Torque N-m
20
30
50
70
100

Page 16 of 16