Victorious Academy

Chapter # 4
Question: Define Microscopy?
Use of microscope is known as microscopy. First compound microscope was
developed by Zacharias Janssen in Holland in 1595. It was a simple tube with
lenses on both sides.

Question: Define Magnification & Resolving Power?

Magnification is the increase in the apparent size of an object and it is an
important factor in microscopy.
Resolving Power or Resolution is the measure of the clarity of an image.

Question: Define Light Microscope and Electron Microscope?

Light Microscope:
It works by passing visible light.
It uses two glass lenses One enlarge the image while other magnifies the image
into viewers eye or film.
A photograph taken through microscope is called micrograph.
Light microscope can magnify an object only about 1500 times without
causing blurriness.
Electron Microscope:
In this microscope, object and lens are placed in a vacuum chamber and a beam
of electrons is passed through object.
Electromagnetic lenses enlarges and focus the image onto a screen or film.
It can magnify objects about 250,000 times.
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There are two types of electron microscope. Transmission Electron Microscope
(TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).

Question: Explain the history of formulation of cell theory?

In 1665 an English Scientist Robert Hook first studied thin slices of cork and
leaves under microscope. He found small boxes like chambers. He called them
cells (cellulae).
Robert Brown discovered nucleus in the cell. Then it was also known that
cells have complicated structures.
In 1838 Mathias Schleiden (a German botanist) said that all plants were
made up of cells. Then in 1839 Theodre Schwann said that all animals are
also composed of cells.
In 1840 J.Purkinji used the term protoplasm for the materials found in the
cell.
In 1855 Rudolf Virchow, a German physician, proposed an important
extension of cell theory. He proposed that all living cells arise from preexisting cells.
In 1862, Louis Pasteur provided experimental proof of this idea.
Cell Theory: On invention of electron microscope cell was studies in more detail. The
followings are the postulates of cell theory presented by Schleiden and
Schwann: i)

All animals and plants are made up of cells and cell products. These

animals and plants may be unicellular or multicellular.

ii)

Cells are structural and functional unit of living organisms.

iii)

New cells are formed by pre-existing cells by cell division.

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Question: Write a detailed note on cell wall?
Location: It is outer most boundary of plant cell. It is absent in animals cell.
Thickness: It may be thick as outer wall of trachieds or as parenchyma tissues.
Tissues: i)

Parenchyma tissues are composed to thin wall and its function is

storage.
ii)

Cotenchyma tissues are slightly thick and their function is conduction.

iii)

Sclerenchyma tissues are thick wall and their function is protection.

Composition: Its composition is different in different plants. Majority composed of cellulose

(dead cells). In fungi it is composed of chitin.
Types of cell wall: i)

Primary cell wall is a thin wall which form first whorl.

ii)

Secondary cell wall is formed by deposition of many primary cell

walls. It is thick.
Functions of cell wall: i)

It provides protection to the cell.

ii)

It gives shape to the cell.

iii)

It provides support to the cell.

iv)

It provides rigidity to the cell.

Nature of cell wall: Cell wall is permeable in nature because it allows all the materials to pass
through.
Question: Write a detailed note on cell membrane?
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Location: It is outer most layer in animals cell while in plant cell it is present inside the
cell wall.
Thickness: It is few micron meter thick.
Composition: Basically is composed of lipids and proteins. It consists of two layers of lipids
in which protein molecule are completely embedded.
Function: i)

All the transportation of cell is done by cell membrane.

ii)

It provides the shape to the animal cell.

iii)

It provides support to animal cell.

Question: Write a detailed note on nucleus?

Location: In animals cell it is present in center of the cell. In plants it is present at side
due to presence of large vacuole.
Structure: i.

A nuclear membrane is present outside of the nucleus. It give the

shape and support to nucleus.

ii.

Nuclear pores are used for transportation of materials from

cytoplasm to nucleus.
iii.

Nucleoplasm is a jelly like substance which contain chromosomes,

nucleolus etc.
Function: i.

It controls all the activities of the cell.

ii.

It plays important role in cell division or cell reproduction.

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Question: Write a note on chromosomes?
Shape: Chromosomes are thread like structures.
Centromere: It is present in the center of chromosomes.
Chromotids: They are two in numbers and attached on centromere.
Number of chromosomes: Chromosomes are constant in any organisms and never change through out the
life cycle. In human they are 46, in onion they are 16, in radish they are 18 etc.
Composition: They are composed of protein and DNA. Presence of DNA shows that they are
living.
Question: Write a detailed note on Cytoplasm?
Location: It is jelly like substance and present between nucleus and cell membrane.
Composition: It is composed of two major components: i.

Organic substances like carbohydrates, fats and proteins etc.

ii.

Inorganic substances like water and salts.

Function: i.

It provide site for all the biochemical reactions occurring in the cell.

ii.

It provides all necessary chemicals which are required for all the

reactions.
Question: Write a note on mitochondria?
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They are located in cytoplasm.
Shape: They are round or oval in shape.
Number: The number of mitochondria depends upon the function of organisms.
Structure: i.

Outer membrane of mitochondria is smooth.

ii.

Inner membrane is greatly folded in the mitochondrial materials.

iii.

They are small rounded particles called cristae

Function: They are called power house of the cell. They contain respiratory enzymes
which house oxides the food and energy. This energy is used to perform
different release activities of life.
Question: Write a note on Golgi bodies or Golgi complex?
Location: It is located inside the cytoplasm and scattered in all directions of the cell.
Structure: Golgi complex is present in the form of smooth membrane which is called
cisternae. These sacs are attached to each other.
Function: - They involve in cell secretions.
Question: Write a detailed note on Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Location: They are present between cell membrane and nucleus.
Shape: They are tube like structures
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They are of two types: i) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: They do not have ribosomes. They do not involve in protein
synthesis.
ii) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: They have ribosomes. They involve in protein synthesis.
Function: i.

They help in transport of materials.

ii.

They help in protein synthesis.

iii.

They help in formation of lipids.

Question: Write a detailed note on Ribosomes?

Location: They are present in cytoplasm on rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Shape: They are present in the form of granules.
Structure: They are non-membranous occur freely on rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Function: They are involved in protein synthesis.
Question: Write a detailed note Plastids or Chloroplasts?
Location: It is present in leaves, petals, fruits and roots etc.
Colour: The colour of plastids may vary e.g. Green (chlorophyll), red, blue, yellow,
purple
and white etc.
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Structure: It is in the form of semi-fluid matrix called stroma. It is composed of protein
and other chemicals. It is in the form of stack membranous system in which
each membrane is called geranium. Granum is a place where photosynthesis
takes place so it play vital role in plant cell.
Types of Plastids: Plastids are of three types
Chloroplast
Chromoplast
Leucoplast
Question: Write a detailed note on Centriole?
Location: It is present near nucleus in the form of pairs. They are absent in higher plants.
Structure: They are present in the form of triplicate micro tubules.
Function: i). They help in formation of spindles and play important role in cell
division.
ii). They help in formation of cilia and flagella.
Question: Write a detailed note on vacuole?
Location: In plant cell a big vacuole is present in the center of the cell. And in animal cell
many small vacuoles are present in cytoplasm.
Shape: Plant vacuole is in the shape of large structure while animal vacuoles are oval
in shape.
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Function: i)

Main function of vacuole is excretion of waste materials from cell.

ii)

In lower organisms food vacuole serves the process of digestion.

Question: Write down the difference between Prokaryotic Cell and

Eukaryotic Cell?
Prokaryotic Cell: i.

The organism of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes e.g. bacteria.

ii.

Chromosomes are present in cytoplasm.

iii.

Membrane bounded cell organelles are not present.

iv.

Ribosomes are of small size and freely scattered in cytoplasm.

v.

Cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan.

Eukaryotic Cell: i.

The organisms of eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes e.g. animal

and plants.
ii.

Chromosomes are present in nucleus.

iii.

Membrane bounded cell organelles are present.

iv.

Ribosomes are of large size and present in endoplasmic reticulum

or in cytoplasm.
v.

Cell wall is composed of cellulose.

Question: Describe Cell as an Open System?

A cell works as an open system i.e. it takes in substances needed for its
metabolic activities through its cell membrane. Then it performs the metabolic
processes assigned to it. Products and by-products are formed in metabolism.
Cell either utilizes the products or transports them to other cells. The byproducts are either stored or are excreted out of cell.
Question: What do you know about Cell Size and Surface Area to volume
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Ratio?
Cells vary greatly in size. The smallest cells are bacteria called mycoplasmas,
with diameter between 0.1 um to 1.0 um. The bulkiest cells are birds eggs, and
the longest cells are some muscle cells and nerve cells. Most cells lie between
these extremes. Cell size and shape are related to cell function.
Question: What is the passage of molecules into and out of cells?
We know cell membranes act as barriers to most, but not all molecules. That is
why they are called semi-permeable membranes.
Diffusion:
Diffusion is a process through which molecules move from higher
concentration to lower concentration. Carbon dioxide, oxygen and glucose etc
can across cell membranes by diffusion. Cell does not spend energy to carry
out diffusion. That is why this process is also called passive transport.
Facilitated Diffusion: When a transport protein molecule moves a substance
from higher to lower concentration, this process is called facilitated diffusion.
This is also a type of passive transport as there is no need to spend energy in
this process as well.
Osmosis: Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi-permeable
membrane from a solution of lesser solute concentration to a solution of higher
solute concentration.
A Hypertonic solution has relatively more solute
A hypotonic solution has relatively less solute.
Isotonic solutions have equal concentration of solutes.
Water Balance Problems: When water enters into the cell and its vacuole the
size of cell increases. Cytoplasm presses firmly against the interior of cell wall,
which expands a little. In this condition the outward pressure on cell wall
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exerted by internal water is known as turgor pressure and the phenomenon is
called turgor. In a hypertonic environment a plant cell loses water and
cytoplasm shrinks. The shrinking of cytoplasm is called plasmolysis. The
turgor of cells is responsible for maintaining shapes of non- woody plants and
soft portions of trees and shrubs.
Filtration:
Filtration is a process by which small molecules are forced to move across
semi permeable membrane with the aid of hydrostatic (water) pressure or blood
pressure.
Active Transport:
Movement of molecules against the concentration gradient is called active
transport. This process needs expenditure of energy.
Endocytosis:
It is the process of cellular ingestion of bulky materials by the infolding of cell
membrane. Its two forms are phagocytosis (cellular eating) and pinocytosis
(cellular drinking)
Exocytosis:
It is the process through which bulky material is exported.
Question: Define and Explain the tissues of animals and plants?
1-Animals Tissues: These are of following types:
Epithelial Tissue: These tissues covers the outside of body and lines organs and cavities. It has
following further types: Squamous epithelium consists of single layer of flat cells. It is found in
lungs, heart and blood vessels.
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Cuboidal epithelium consists of single layer of cube-shaped cells. It is found
in kidney tubes, small glands etc.
Columnar epithelium has elongated cells. It is found in alimentary canal,
gall blader etc.
Ciliated Columnar epithelium has elongated cells with cilia. It is present in
trachea and bronchi etc.
Stratified squamous epithelium has many layers of flat cells. It is present in
linings of oesophagus and mouth and also cover the skin.

Connective Tissues: They service connecting function. It supports and binds other tissues. They
have cells scattered through an extracellular matrix. Their examples are
cartilage, bone and blood. The adipose tissue is also connective tissue found in
kidneys and under skin.
Muscle Tissue: These consists of bundles of long cells called muscle fibers. It is most abundant
tissue in animals. They have further three types: Skeletal Muscles are attached to bones. They are responsible for the
movements of bones
Smooth Muscles are found in alimentary canal and blood vessels. They are
responsible for movement of substances.
Cardiac Muscles are present in heart. They produce heart beat.
Nervous Tissue: Nervous tissues forms a communication system and performs the
communication tasks. These tissues mainly composed of nerve cells which are
specialized cells to conduct messages.
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2-Plants Tissues: These are of following types:
Meristematic Tissues: These tissues are composed of cells which have ability to divide. These cells
are thin walled, have large nucleus and small or no vacuoles. They have
following types:
Apical meristems are located at the tips of roots and shoots. They cause
increase in length of plant when they divide.
Lateral meristems are located on the lateral sides of roots and shoots. They
are responsible for increase in girth of plant parts.
Permanent Tissues: They originate from meristematic tissues. The cells of these tissues do not have
the ability to divide. They have following types:
Epidermal Tissues act as a barrier between environment and internal plant
tissues.
Ground Tissues made up of parenchyma cells. They have large vacuoles for
storage of food. In leaves they are called mesophyll and provide the site for
photosynthesis.
Support Tissues are of two types.
First is Collenchyma Tissues are made up of elongated cells. They are
flexible and function to support the organs in which they found.
Second is Sclerenchyma Tissues are composed of cells with rigid
secondary cell walls. Mature cells cannot elongate and most of them are dead.
Compound Tissues: They have following types: I-8/3 Campus
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Xylem Tissue is responsible for transport of water and dissolved
substances from roots to the aerial parts. Two types of cells are present in them.
One is Vessel Elements and other is Tracheids.
Phloem Tissue is responsible for the conduction of dissolved organic
matter (food) between different parts of plant body. It contains Sieve Tube
Cells.
Companion Cells make proteins for sieve tube cells.

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