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BRIEF REVIEW
thermoregulatory model of stress centers on the heat-balance equation relating heat production during exercise or physical activity with
various mechanisms of heat dissipation (ie, evaporation, conduction,
convection, and radiation). The magnitude of the hyperthermic
response (driven by ambient conditions and/or exercise) has long
been considered the primary determinant of exertional heat illnesses
including heat syncope, heat exhaustion, and, in rare cases, heat
stroke.3,4 Heat stroke is characterized by central nervous system
dysfunction and initiation of the coagulation cascade, which can
culminate in multiorgan failure and death.5 Heat therefore effects
a broad range of thermoregulatory, immune, inflammatory, and
neuromuscular systems down to the tissue and molecular level.
In the context of exercise and sport, the exertional factors that
influence heat stress include the volume and intensity of acute
bouts of exercise, the cumulative stress of training over an extended
period, the competitive demands of different events and sports,
and the underlying environmental conditions, particularly ambient
temperature and relative humidity. In addition to these exertional
factors, the degree of passive exposure to heat and humidity in
everyday living is a consideration. Hyperthermia appears to involve
both intrinsic and extrinsic modulators.6 Intrinsic factors include
genetics, fitness level, degree of heat acclimatization, diet, current
medications, and sleep quality.3 Extrinsic factors include exercise
intensity and duration, ambient temperature and relative humidity,
and the degree of solar radiation. A complete understanding of the
causes and factors regulating heat illness is needed to facilitate
design of more efficient prevention and treatment strategies.
In addition to classical thermoregulatory factors, recent
studies indicate that heat stress can affect neuromuscular function, skills, and technique that underpin sports performance. For
example, neuromuscular-system integrity of the lower limbs was
compromised immediately after tennis match play in hot and cool
conditions as a consequence of the development of peripheral
fatigue.7 The larger and persistent strength losses observed under
heat stress were associated with greater levels of central fatigue,
especially during sustained contractions. In another study, skill
performance in field hockey was decreased after intermittent high-
Table 1 Planning and Policy Recommendations for Sporting Organizations and Event Managers to Consider in
Preparation for Competitions
Issue
Details
Preevent planning
International federations.
National and local sporting organizations.
Event organizers.
Adverse-weather policy.
Medical coverage
Recommendation
References
Health status.
1, 2
5053
Precooling.
36, 37
Probiotic supplementation.
57, 61
Postevent
5053
Energy needscarbohydrate.
54, 55
Pacing strategies.
13, 4749
37, 38
cold water, hosing, and use of cold-soaked towels are other useful
options. Cooling is likely to benefit both the thermoregulation and
inflammatory processes that underpin heat stress. Tissue cooling
reduces intestinal permeability and whole-body cooling can reduce
circulating levels of LPS and the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-
and IL-1.15 These immediate treatment strategies in situ are well
established. However, less is known about the subsequent management in the days and weeks after an episode of heat illness.
Training Interventions
Heat-Acclimation Training. Short-term tolerable increases
(~20%) in training load over a few weeks appear to offer some
protection against developing endotoxemia during exercise in
the heat.40 Further work is needed to define how both short- and
long-term training can improve heat tolerance. Heat-tolerance
testing has been proposed as a potential tool that, when combined
with appropriate clinical information, may assist in return-to-play
decisions. However, currently no standard of care is available for
performing heat-tolerance testing. The Israeli Defense Forces
heat-tolerance-testing protocol, developed over decades of careful
research, has proven useful for military personnel and is used by
other militaries to assist in return-to-play (or duty) decisions.41 It
is likely that improvement of heat tolerance by physical fitness is
caused by a greater cardiovascular capacity that permits greater
LPS tolerance and not only enhanced perfusion of heat-loss
tissues but also via maintenance of a better gastrointestinal tract
blood supply, thereby better maintaining the normal barrier to
movement of endotoxins from gut lumen to plasma. Sedentary
and relatively inactive individuals, with their lower cardiovascular
capacity, redistribute more blood flow away from the gut during
environmentally induced hyperthermia, thus allowing endotoxininduced fever to aggravate hyperthermia.42
A rethinking of current heat-acclimation strategies has been
suggested, as most research and advice for improving physiological
strain in the heat include maintaining hydration using long-term
acclimation protocols (>10 d). These strategies have typically used
untrained or moderately trained subjects. As short as 4 or 5 days
of heat training can be effective in achieving partial acclimation in
Nutritional Countermeasures
Fluids. It is apparent that fluid replacement in the heat is not a
Conclusions
Heat and immune stress are important considerations for athletes
training and competing in many sports in challenging environmental
conditions. The past decade has seen the emergence of new insights
into thermoregulation during exercise and causes of heat illness. It
is now recognized that inflammatory pathways can also contribute
to heat illness in a variety of settings. Experimental research has
been conducted on many interventions including precooling, shortterm heat-acclimation training, nutritional countermeasures around
hydration, energy replacement and probiotics, pacing strategies
during events, and postevent cooling measures to promote the performance and recovery of athletes. There has been much attention
placed on heat illnesses, from risk reduction to immediate treatment
and long-term management. Policy and planning guidelines for
international, national, and local sporting organizations have been
developed, although their implementation has not always been
timely and effective. Future work will clarify the management of
heat issues in athletes originating from both thermoregulatory and
inflammatory pathways.
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