An Introduction to Philosophy

The outline of this lesson:

1. To have some knowledge about this science (philosophy)
2. To know the distinction between philosophy & other domain of thought, & the
differences in method & subject matter.
Question 1: What are the two ways to study Philosophy?
Answer:

Question 2: List the points/questions that can be enumerated to explain philosophy.

Answer:
The Life

The Origin of Life

The Origin of Universe

The Value of Life

The place of Human being in the Universe
The END towards which we are moving
Our Fate and Destiny
The relationship of GOD and Human being

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Question 3: How do we distinguish Philosophy in terms of subject matter, method and

purpose?
Answer:

The subject matter of philosophy is very universal: being qua being.

In philosophy, subject matter can discuss as of its cause and effect, act & potentiality,
mental & external, things that are very general.
Philosophy can also be distinguished from other domain of thought in terms of
its method; because the method of other sciences might be traditional,
narrative, analytic, but the method of philosophy is rational & intellectual
method.
Philosophy can also be distinguished from other sciences in terms of its
purpose. The purpose of philosophy, as we understand, is to make us familiar
with reality.

In order to avoid any mistake or error we need to know the properties of

reality. Then after it, we can distinguish the real things from unreal things.

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Lesson 2
The outline of this lesson:
1. The study and necessity of Philosophy.
2. To study about the different approaches of philosophy.
Question 1: Why should we study Philosophy?
Answer:
To understand the authenticity of tradition.
To prove the validity of Holy Quran.
To prove the existence of God.
Truth about the Human Being.
To analyze the content of Quran and Holy Sunnah.
The possibility of the relation of God with human
being.
Question 2: What are the approaches to study Philosophy?
Answer:
Philosophy can be studied into
two ways of approches

Analytical approach

Continental approach

Question 3: Distinguish between the Analytical and Continental approaches.

Answer:
The Analytical philosophers approch is
to resort to analyze.

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The Continential philosopher approach is to

resort to some grand & fundamental principles.

Lesson 3
The outline of this lesson:
1. To study about the beginning of Islamic Philosophy.
2. To study about the features of Islamic Philosophy.
Question 1: What are the difference between realism and idealism?
Answer:

Realism:
Realistic position.
Reality is not doubtful.
Truth.
Realism contrasted with anti-realism means
idealism.
Idealism:
Idealistic position.
Idealism is doubtful.
Not real.
Idealism refers to mind and metal construction.

Question 2: What is the standard for Islamic Philosophy to expand the idea of reality?
Answer:

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Question 3: Why did Western Philosopher Rene Descartes fail in his philosophy?
Answer:

Rene Descartes, the western philosopher, also believes that one cannot start
from an uncertain thing & basis, so he started to doubt everything, in his book,
by the title of Meditations.
Then after doubting everything, Descartes tries to find a valid thing & positive
ground.
He tries to put an end to his doubt by referring to his thought. He says;
whatever I doubt, I cannot doubt that I am thinking:
Cogito ergo sum (koto ro sm): I think, therefore I am
Based on his thought, Descartes intended to establish a solid ground & firm
foundation, upon which he could build the structure of his philosophy.
Descartes failed, because before doubting, something else is certain & that is
the entity of myself.
Before having certain knowledge of my thought, I have a categorical
knowledge: an undeniable knowledge about myself.
Descartes considered his thought as the starting point, but he failed because
doubt & thought are posterior to the very existence of our own.

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Lesson 4
The outline of this lesson:
1. Discuss about the priority of Philosophy and epistemology.
2. Which is more important ontology and epistemology.
Question 1: What were the different thoughts of Muslim and Western and Greek
Philosophers in terms to first discuss about the ontology and epistemology?
Answer:

Ontology

Muslim Philosophers first study

ontology.

West & Greek Philosophers first

study epistemology.

Muslim Philosophers dealt with

existence & properties of existence.

West & Greek Philosophers study

about the nature of knowledge, its
ways and capability.

Muslim Philosophers cannot start

from scrach, something should be
assumed and regarded beyond any
question & doubt.

Western & Greek Philosophers

pretent to be aware of reality but
doubt about everything.

Western & Greek Philosophers begin

the strating point from the absolute
doubt.

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Epistemology

Muslim Philosophers first analyze

the problem (ontology) and then deal
with epistemological question.

Question 2: What is the theory of Global Skepticism?

Answer:

Doubt is
correlated
to

Certain

Refers to:
An attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or
toward a particular object;

The doctrine that true knowledge or some particular knowledge is

uncertain; or

The method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that

is characteristic of skeptics.

Question 3: Which is the another Self-Evidient Principle?

Answer:

The Principle of impossiblility of contradition:

One cannot be the same

time certain
and uncertain.

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Lesson 5
The outline of this lesson:
1. The idea of realism as astarting point, self-evident and intuitively known myself.
2. Division o f Knowledge.

Question 1: What is the idea of reality in refers to Western and Islamic Philosopher?
Answer:

Western Philosopher

Islamic Philosopher

Reality includes everything that is and has been,

weather or not it is observeable or
comprehensible.

Reality refers to the Knowledge of Presence

(intuitive knowledge of state), use to remove
some doubts and establish a solid ground to
start philosophy.

Question 2: Into how many types knowledge can be divided.

Answer:

Types of Knowledge

Immediate & Intutive

Knowledge:
To have direct access to the
object of knowledge.

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Discursive & representeation

Knowledge:
Not to have direct access to
the object of knowledge.

Question 3: Into how many types the act of knowledge can be divided.

Acts of Knowledge

Self-evident knowledge

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Theoretical acts of
knowledge

Lesson 6
The outline of this lesson:
1. About the way that philosophers study epistemology.
2. How the philosophers justified the knowledge?
Question 1: What is meant by the direct and indirect knowledge?
Answer:

Direct
Knowledge

Knowledge of presence, have direct access

to the reality, there is no meditation.

Indirect
Knowledge

Discursive knowledge constitute the main

body of our knowledge.

Question 2: Explain the types of discursive knowledge.

Answer:
Have an impression of reality.
Conceptual
Knowledge
Do not judge about the reality.

Discursive
Knowledge
Propositional
Knowledge

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Judge about reality.

Question 3: Discribe the different theories of Justification.

Answer:
1. According to classic foundationalism, we can infer A from B & B from
C until we reach to a foundational & basic belief.
This theory believes that among different beliefs in our system beliefs, there are
privilege beliefs & most fundamental concepts that cannot be explained
anymore; because of their simplicity & self-evidence.
As it is mentioned, the first theory to justify the claim is the fundamental &
traditional theory, which is endorsed by Muslim philosophers.
The first principle of non-contradiction plays the role as the foundation of every
act of knowledge & scientific enterprise.
Among the beliefs, there should be some privilege & unique acts of knowledge,
which can support & justify the other acts of knowledge.
2. Coherentism theory; according to this theory of justification, there is a
network of belief. Among the belief system, there is no privilege instance
of knowledge. Therefore, every act of knowledge is susceptible to be
doubted.
Positive claim of Coherentism: the justification of every act of belief originates
from the way that is related to other beliefs. The origin of justification is the
whole system & network of belief.

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Lesson 7
The outline of this lesson:
1. The importance of epistemology.
2. The way Islamic philosophers dealt with this subject.
Question 1: What are the different aspects of Discursive Knowledge?
Answer:

Aspects of Discursive
Knowledge

First Aspect

Self-evident
Knowledge

Aquired
Knowledge

Second Aspect

Conceptual
Knowledge

Propositional
Knowledge

Question 2: What is Conceptual Knowledge and its division?

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To indicate reality without any

judgement.

Conceptual knowledge

Answer:

Particular Knowledge

Universal Knowledge

Question 3: What are the three different ideas in regards of the nature of Universe?
Answer:

Plato &
Platonist

Universals have separate independent counterparts in the reality, so they are

not only in mind but also a reference in the reality.
According to Plato & Platonists, the soul of human being, before being
related to the body, seems to be eternal, so it had access to ideal forms.
Therefore, human had knowledge about those eternal, absolute things.

William Ockham believe that universals or general ideas are mere names
without any corresponding reality, neither to have reality in external world
nor in mind.
For William Ockham & his followers, man, e.g. is just a term that indicates
Nominalists every individuals; instead of specific names like Hassan or John, we make
a general term & use as a subject in propositions & then qualify &
characterize them & finally say that, for example, man is rational.
Aristotle & his followers, & Muslim philosophers believe that universals
Moderate are not in reality independent of particular individuals. They are not only
names, but also they are as the same as individuals.
Realism

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Lesson 8
The outline of this lesson:
1. About the division of properties of concepts.
2. About the way that universal concepts are acquired, according to traditional viewpoint.
Question 1: Explain the two categories of Concepts.
Answer:

Categories of Concepts

Particular concept:
It is applicable specifically
to one indiviual.

Universal concept:
It is applicable to many
indiviuals.

Question 2: What are the basic divisions of Universal knowledge?

Answer:

Basic divisions of
Universal Knowledge

External Qualifications
The concepts in our
mind, that characterize
something in reality.

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Mental Qualifications
A universal concept
that, characterizes a
mental being.

Question 3: Into how many ways External Qualification are divided.

Answer:

Primary
Intelligible
Exxternal
Qualification

Secondary
Philosophical
Intelligible

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The concepts are gained through simple

abstracting & generalizing but this abstraction is
not enough; we need to make some comparison &
mental exploration, as well. Each of primary
intelligible concepts indicates the reality that has
its own existence.
The secondary philosophical concepts are
universal & intelligible; it means that they can
be understood by intellect & reason, so it is
impossible to show them by sense.

Lesson 9
The outline of this lesson:
1. About all types of intelligible concepts.
2. Why some philosophers reject ontology.

Question 1: How many types of intelligible concepts in general?

Answer:

The First Intelligible

This kind of concept characterizes external

things, so there is a counterpart for every concept;
Most of the concepts indicate external things &
without these concepts, we cannot make even one
proposition. Every proposition should, at least,
contain one general concept.

The Second Intelligible

This kind of concept is to characterize another

concepts;
For example, Man is a general concept &
Tehran is a particular concept; this generality or
particularity is not of an external thing but the
characteristic of a mental concept.
Logical secondary intelligible are called
secondary, because by them, we do not
characterize the external things & there is no
counterpart for each of them in external reality.
They are intelligible, because these are about
mental things.

Philosophical Secondary
Intelligible

This kind of concept characterizes external

concepts but there is no separate counterpart for
each of the concepts.

Question 2: List the components of Aristotle.

Answer:

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Aristotle listed ten components of reality in this way: the first one is substances
and nine accidental categories such as quality, quantity, time and position,
state & so on.

Question 3: Why some of the philosophers rejected the ontology

Answer:

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Some of the philosophers rejected the ontology, because they thought that
existence is not something real, so we cannot have some science under the
name of ontology; in their argument: it is ok to speak of a book, camera, table
& so on, but it is not ok to speak about existence.

Lesson 10
The outline of this lesson:
1. The discussion of the necessity of secondary intelligible, whether logical or
philosophical.
2. To explain some doubts of David Hume & the answers of Immanuel Kant & the
answers which Muslim philosophers gave to this doubt.
Question 1: What are the two levels of reality?
Answer:
1. Noumenon: this domain is beyond the scope of our knowledge, for example, God&
Soul.
2. Phenomenon: this domain is understandable by our sense.
Question 2: Review the answer of Kant.
Answer:
1. He accepted skepticism. He accepted that we cannot speak of necessity as the real &
external relation between A & B, for instance.
2. He could not explain the nature of universality & generality; whether these are
external or extra mental.
Question 3: Explain the idea of causation of Allameh Tabatabaei.
Answer:
When I reflect on my own sense & deliberate on my soul, I can find myself as an
independent factor. The feelings, like hunger, thirst, sadness & others, are dependent on me.
We call the dependent things as effect & the other independent factors that are the ground
for the dependent things as cause.
To explain the nature of causation:
We can find this connection in the depth of our experiences; we have direct experiences of
our mental & psychological states, which are, totally, dependent on our soul.
We have immediate access to causality; immediate understanding of something (myself)
related to something else (my psychological sates).
When we encounter the reality, for example, we see the fire that is burning something else,
so we call the fire as the cause & the changing of wood into ashes as the effect of it.
Necessity is not only the product of our mind; it is something in the external world, but it
does not mean that necessity should have a tangible instance & we should be able to touch
it.
Intelligible concepts ate those realities that are understandable by reason.
No one is able to answer the challenge of David Hume, based on empiricism, but we need a
rational ground & foundation to meet the challenge & then solve it.

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