Diesel

Engineering
Handbook

KARL W. STINSON, M.E.

Professor of Mechanical
Ohio State University

completely rewritten
10th

EDITION,

1959

Engineering

22

COOLING SYSTEMS

operation of any engine is dependent

SUCCESSFUL
upon the removal of excess heat from the cylin
ders, pistons, valves, etc., so as to keep the tempera
tures of these parts within allowable limits. Most diesel
and gas engines are water-cooled, although a few of
the small and high-speed engines are air-cooled. As a
result, most of this chapter will be devoted to watercooling systems.

Water Cooling
Two chief factors involved in design of a watercooling system are (a) a supply of water which will
not form scale in the engine jackets and heat ex
changers and (b) an adequate water supply. Consider
ation of these factors, along with the size of engine and
type of installation, will determine the most desirable
cooling system.

Quantity of Water

The actual amount of water

heat passing through cylinder walls

depends upon horsepower capacity of the engine, de
sign of the engine, and allowable rise in water tem

required to remove

perature. As a rule, it is advisable to install sufficient

water capacity to handle 2500 to 3000 Btu per hr per
bhp for normally-aspirated engines and 2000 to 2500
Btu for turbocharged engines.
If values of heat rejection to jacket water and oil
cooler are available from the engine builder, they
should be used to determine the water capacity re
quired.
The pounds of water to be circulated can be calcu
lated from

bhp (Btu per bhp per hr)

Table 22-1
Approximate Rate of Heat Rejection to Cooling Systems
Btu per brake-horsepower-hour

Four-cycle
Normally-aspirated
Uncooled pistons
Oil-cooled pistons
Turbocharged
Oil-cooled pistons
Two-cycle
Normally-aspirated
Oil-cooled pistons
Loop-scavenged
Uniflow-scavenged
Opposed-piston
Water-cooledexhaustmanifold

Total to
Raw Water

Oil
Cooler

Jacket
Water

Engine Type

19002300
17502150

200-350
300-600

2100-2(50
2050-2750

12001400

250-100

1450-2000

400-600
400-700
800-1000
additional-

1700-2600
2100-2700
2000-2700
300-500

1300-2000
1700-2000
1200-1700

engine horsepower per minute, with various unit quan

tities of heat entering the jackets.
For example, a 1000-hp engine rejects 2590 Btu to
the cooling system per horsepower hour, and it is
planned to have a cooling range, or water temperature
rise, of 15 F. How much water must be circulated
per minute?
Entering the chart, Fig. 22-1, from the 15 point at
the left side, pass horizontally until the diagonal line
marked "2500 Btu per hour" is intercepted. From this
intersection, move perpendicularly downward to read
approximately 0.34 on the bottom scale. The 1000-hp
engine will, then, require 1000 X 0-34 = 340 gal of
water to be circulated per minute.

Jacket- Water Temperatures Engine builders are

not in agreement as to the correct inlet and discharge
water temperatures. Certain builders, notably those
who produce high-speed units, recommend a discharge
temperature of as high as 180 F. Others take the
position that 160 F is the desirable maximum.

where
W = water circulated per hour, lb
bhp = brake horsepower rating
t, = outlet jacket-water temperature, F
U_ = inlet jacket-water temperature, F
Required quantity of water, expressed in gallons per
minute, would be

gpm=

bhp (Btu per bhp per hr)

(*,-,)

'

500

Table 22-1 gives approximate rates of heat rejection

to the cooling system for various types of engines. In
the case of supercharged two-cycle engines, the total
heat to raw water will be reduced from the normallyaspirated values given by 300 to 700 Btu, depending
upon the increased cooling obtained from the greater
air-flow rate.
The chart in Fig. 22-1, prepared by G. J. Bischof,
enables the engineer to determine the approximate rate
of water circulation needed in the jacket system per

.is

.1

2%

.0

CRM. of Wbtcr Circulated per HP

Mb 22-1 Chart to determine the amount of cooling water needed
by a plant.
237

DIESEL

ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

General practice is to take 165 to 180 F as the

maximum discharge and hold the rise to from 10 to
20 F, with the lower value the preferred one. When
a high-teinperature system of cooling is employed, a
method described later in this chapter, jacket tem
peratures are usually maintained above 212 F.

In the past, engines were operated with a water

temperature rise of 40 F, or even more. Such a large
temperature rise causes an increase in the thermal
stresses, particularly in the cylinder due to a greater
temperature difference between the top and bottom.
Also, rate of water flow is low increasing the danger
of local overheating.
Open

Cooling System

In this system, water is

under pressure through the water jackets.
A bypass may recirculate part of the water to the
jackets, but most of the water either (a) is wasted to
some outflow or (b) is recirculated through a cooling
pond or tower where much water is lost by evapora
tion. Continued evaporative cooling and addition of
make-up water increases concentration of both hard
ness and impurities in the water. Unless the engine out
let temperature is kept down to near 120 F, scaleforming materials will be deposited in the engine water
jackets, reducing the heat transfer rate to the cooling
circulated

circuit has its own circulating pump. Two types of in

stallation are in general use
( 1 ) A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with raw water
from the heat exchanger being cooled in (a) a cooling
pond, (b) an atmospheric cooling tower, or (c) an in
duced-draft or forced-draft cooling tower.
(2) A heat exchanger built into a cooling tower
where (a) the raw w:ater is sprayed into the top of the
tower, is cooled by the air, and then passes down over
the heat exchanger tubes to cool the jacket water; or
(b) the raw water is sprayed over heat exchanger
tubes as air is pulled through the tower by an induceddraft fan, thus creating evaporative cooling.
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger installation is shown
in Fig. 22-2. Pump C circulates hot jacket water
through the heat exchanger B, or the bypass line, and
on to the cylinder jackets. Water leaving the engine
enters the standpipe A and down to the pump again.
Raw water is shown passing from pump D through an
oil cooler / and then through heat exchanger B. from
which it passes through line F to spray nozzles in (a)

cnroiro

water.
Unless an ample supply of sediment-free, chemicallyinert water is available, the open cooling system is
generally not recommended.
This system provides for
Closed Cooling System
recirculation of purified water in a closed circuit which
basically consists of a circulating pump which forces
the water through the cylinder water jackets, on to a
heat exchanger, and then back to the pump for re
circulation.
When only one water system is used, the hot water
is passed through a radiator where heat is dissipated
directly to the air. Other closed systems use two water
circuits jacket water and raw water. Each water

Surge or Expansion Tank (Hot

Well May be used instead of
Surge Tank)
B Open Vent
C Soft Water Make-up Conn
D Automatic Air Vent
238

(Courtcsv' of Diesel Engine Manufacturers' Association)

Fig. 22-2 Closed Cooling system with shell and tube heat ex
changer.
F Piping to Cooling Tower,
A expansion Tank-Open
Spray Pond or Waste
(Discharge Line Submerged)
Piping from Haw Wafer
C
BHeat exchange
C-Jacket Wat* Pump
H-Brato Vo/ve,
j Lubricating Oil Cooler
D Haw Water Pump
K Thermo

(Courtesy/of Diesel Engine Manufacturers' Association)

Fig. 22-3 Closed System with Cooling Tower.
Heat Exchanger
L Jacket Wafer Pump
F Raw Water Basin
M Row Water Pump
G By-pass Valrlng
N Thermometers
H Tower By-pass Valve
6 Water Discharge From
I Lubricating Oil Cooler
"ooling To*
K Raw Water Make-up Conn.
train Valvt

DIESEL

ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
speed

but should never

500 ft per min tip speed

be operated at more than 12,-

using the conventional

air velocity the larger the
radiator must be and, therefore, the more expensive
the installation. Following
the above rule it will be
found that for larger fan sizes the fan rpm will fall
below 1150 rpm or the lowest recommended speed for
direct connecting the fan motor. This means that pro
vision must be made for reducing fan speed where an
electric motor is used. For small installations using
conventional type fans, the fan may be directly con
nected to the motor. There are, however, some special
ly designed airplane propeller type fans which may be
at higher speeds
and direct-connected to
operated
electric motors running at 1750 or 1150 rpm. Where
belts are used for driving fans, they should be of the
vee-type to prevent slippage. A fan of the conventional
type operating at a peripheral speed of 10,000 ft per
min is somewhat noisy and where noise is a factor, the
fan should be operated at a lower speed. It is always
possible to obtain an average air velocity of 1500 ft
per min using relatively large fans, running at lower
than 10,000 peripheral ft per min, and, in general, it
is best to use a large fan running at a low speed than
a small fan running at a high speed. For one thing,
less power is required.
when

type. The lower the average

Fig. 22-12 Trans horizontal-core cooler on a pipe-line pumping

station.

Two-speed motor drives are frequently used. Control

of air flow is another method of modulating the cool
ing effect. It is also a means of saving fan power when
maximum cooling effect is not required, since power
requirements decrease faster than the degree of cool
ing. At half-speed, fans will produce 50% or more of
total cooling capacity but will require only 20% of the
power needed for full-speed operation.

Radiator Size

Size of radiator

for a spe
cific engine depends not only on the Btu per hour go
ing to the jacket water, but also on the difference be
tween the outlet jacket- water temperature and the tem
perature of the cooling air. The less the difference, the
larger size radiator required for a given Btu per hour
heat-exchange

needed

rate.

Take for example two diesels, both operating under

100 F. If one engine is operated
with a water temperature of 180 and the other at
140, the first engine permits a temperature differential
between the water at 180 and the air at 100 of 80
whereas the second engine permits a temperature dif
ferential between the water at 140 and air at 100 of
40", or one half. The size of radiator required varies
inversely with the temperature differential permitted,
therefore, with the second engine requiring the water
temperature to be maintained at 140, a radiator twice
as large as the one required for the first engine is

air temperatures of

necessary.

Am Velocities
An average air velocity of 1500
ft per min through the core as measured by means of
an anemometer
in front of the core is recommended.
This air velocity causes a slight hum or noise, but the
noise is not objectionable. To obtain this average air
velocity, the fan should be operated at the required
Table 22-2.
Approiimate

ENGINE HP
100 or
100 to
500 to
1000 to
1500 to
2000 to
3000 or
242

lets
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
more

Radiator

Fan Power Required for Engines.

FAN HP IN % OF ENGINE HP
5%
4%
3%
2%
1.5%
1.25%
1%

Propeller-type fans require less power than conven

tional types. For best results they should be used as a
blower-type fan and should be located from 6 inches
to 10 inches back of the core with a shroud. Their
cost, including installation, is generally greater.

Selection of Cooling Equipment

Points to be
considered when selecting cooling equipment, such as
dry or wet-type cooling towers, were presented
by
H. E. Degler of the Marley Company before the ASME
in 1951. A summarization of his discussion follows:
'The dry-cooling unit may be used in preference to
a water cooling towrer for applications of "high-level
heat removal" where temperatures of the fluid to be
cooled are above 140 F referred to a 100 F dry bulb
air temperature and where water is scarce, expensive
and/or badly polluted, or where the portable feature
of the dry unit would be desirable.
of the dry-type cooler is higher, it
relative to a cooling tower as the fluid-to-becooled temperature rises.
While

the cost

decreases

The choice of a cooling system will depend upon

(1) cost and availability of water, (2) quality of
water, (3) geographic location, (4) space available,
and (5) desire to utilize waste heat.
The dry-type tower requires negligible make-up
water and scale deposit problems are unlikely. Pro
vision must be made to prevent freeze-up in cold cli
mates. Glycol solutions may be needed during freezing
weather."

Cooling Tower Winter Operation The drysurface, air-cooled heat exchanger is particularly good
for use under severe winter operating conditions. It
eliminates hazards caused by extremely cold water
which does not improve performance to any great ex
tent.

23

EXHAUST SYSTEMS

system of an engine consists of an ex

pipe which leads from the engine to a si
lencer, for damping the exhaust pressure waves and
the resulting noise, and a tail pipe or stack. This si
lencer is sometimes referred to as a muffler or a pul
sation snubber. These names will be used interchange
exhaust

THE
haust

ably.
Design of Exhaust System
Piping layout for an
exhaust system along with location of the silencer and
selection of the correct size and type of silencer, are
very important factors in any engine installation, mo
bile or stationary. Problems will be discussed briefly
in a general manner, but it should be realized that
variation of any item, such as engine speed, engine
size, exhaust-pipe length, and many others, presents a
completely new problem which involves both pulsating
gas flow and acoustics.
Some of the actual answers can best be found ex
perimentally or from practical experience. It is there
fore very advisable to consult with engineering spe
cialists of the silencer manufacturers and thus take
advantage of their wide experience in this field.
The first essential to the successful design of an ex
haust system is a realization of the fact that the gas
column in the exhaust pipe possesses the properties of
inertia and elasticity. While it is necessary to design
for low friction losses along the pipe walls, dynamic
properties of exhaust systems are of major importance.
It is a relatively simple matter to compute the average
velocity of flow of exhaust gas through a pipe with the

assumption that the friction losses are a function of

pipe diameter or velocity of flow through the pipe. It
however, to do more than compute the
is necessary,
velocity.
Flow of gas must actually be smoothed out to at
tain the computed value. Otherwise, an exhaust system
designed for low resistance may be the cause of im
paired scavenging of the engine due to oscillation of
the gas column in the pipe as it passes from the en
average

gine to atmosphere.

Rate of Flow and Pipe Diameter

To determine
to
the atmosphere, it is necessary
to first determine the
cubic feet per minute of intake air. This may be deter
mined by multiplying the total displacement of the en
gine cylinders (in the case of crankcase-scavenged en
gines or 4-cycle engines ) by their volumetric efficien
it is
cies. With blower or pump-scavenged engines,
best to know the manufacturer's rating of the blower
or pump.
Volume of exhaust gas may be determined by use
of a heat-rise factor, the value of which may be deter
mined by referring to the chart, Fig. 23-1, showing ex
haust temperature plotted against heat-rise factor. The
products of combustion, added to this quantity, ac
count for probably a 5% further increase in the vol
ume of exhaust gas. This is a direct and satisfactory
means of determining the cubic feet per minute of ex
haust gas and is probably closer than may be deter
mined by other more complicated formulas.
the cubic feet per minute of exhaust

gas discharged

EXHAUST SYSTEMS

^5 &
^0
ii
HtP'PdiomI.r

FEETPERMINUTE
GASFLOW-CUWC

FN*
4000-7000
Is 3000FPM law
FFM
4000-7000
- 4000.WOOFFM
HighSpd
Poili.
StoM.d- 7000-9000FFM Mdkn
*000-I0,000FFM
FFM HighSp..d - - 000-10.000
f/g. 23-2 Char* For determining diameter of exhaust pipe.

kCai. Stawngjd

cannot arbitrarily
be said that the velocity
through an exhaust system should be, for example,
5000
comparatively
per min. The reason for this
multi-cylinder, high-speed en
simple. In the case of
rela
gine of 100 hp, flow of gas to the exhaust pipe
single-cylinder engine
tively smooth, as compared to
obvious,
running at 300 rpm, developing 100 hp.
single-cylinder
at
glance, that an exhaust pipe for
100-hp engine would be much too large in diameter for
use with an automotive engine of 100 horsepower.
has been necessary
to es
This being the case,
tablish
range of velocities through exhaust pipes
suitable for various types of engines, as listed in Fig.
is

it

It

is

ft

is

It

*U*mHigh
MakSc*dF

fwrn^i.

fig. 23-3 Straight run of pipe to long-sweep ell.

23-2.

This chart, devised by Burgess-Manning Company,

may be conveniently used to determine exhaust-pipe
diameter. Gas velocity
plotted against cfm at atmos
pheric pressure for any pipe size.

|j

is

KK\\\\\\\<J/\PPPVU

Pipe Layout
The pipe layout with the lowest pres
sure drop through
ordinarily the advisable one.
The layout in Fig. 23-3 illustrates how
direct line
with
minimum of bends may be obtained even
though the silencer must be placed outside the build

'

II

it
is

II

ji

l|f

flexible connection-

in Fig. 23-4, the exhaust line

direct and
of
length of flexible hose enables the
gases to enter the muffler without any abrupt right
angle turn. When
permissible to install the silencer
in the engine room, the sketch in Fig. 23-5 shows how
low pressure drop may be
an arrangement with
made. The silencer
supported by braces (not shown
from the roof, and these should have springs or rubber
that the gas pulsa
connectors. The reason for this
tions may set up vibrations in the silencer shell and
there
not some kind of isolation between the silencer
and building steel, the latter may vibrate in unison
with the gas impulses.
is

Similarly,

the presence

is

if

is

is

it
is

fig. 23-4 Flexible hose changes direction of line. With runs of

this length, flexible metal hose may require support.

&

ing.

is

somewhat long exhaust system

shown in Fig.
noticeable back pres
Certainly there may be
sure but the arrangement
by no means uncommon.
By using
large diameter pipe line, this objection can
probably be corrected.

is

Fig. 23-5 Silencer inside plant. Flexible metal hose section isolates
engine vibration from silencer that
normally rigidly attached
to structure.

is

23-6.

249

DIESEL

ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
air-cell wrapper
amount of pipe movement
pansion.

asbestos

ir\KN\l\l/l/l/1/17%

ft
1
1

-r|l
i

i^g^'l J...

ii

ll flexibleCtmeciion

irr"

.... ... L. XV... ......

Fig. 23-6 Long under-floor line to silencer. Piping should be In

corered trench for accessibility.

Pipe Material Although cast-iron pipe would be

preferable due to its resistance to corrosion and rust
ing, the lighter wrought-iron or steel pipe is most com
monly used for exhaust lines. Steel pipe between en
gine and silencer may be very noisy if not of heavygauge material.
The Diesel Engine Manufacturers Association does
ducts,
not consider masonry desirable for exhaust
stacks, or chambers. Under no circumstances should
brickwork or tile be used.
Exhaust piping of automotive engines is frequently
of one of the nickel-bearing heat-resisting alloys
such as stainless steels. Corrosion and rusting, com
mon enemies of exhaust piping, are somewhat accen
tuated in vehicular applications and the added cost
of the superior materials is justified.

able to stand a certain

due to contraction and ex

is

Exhaust Line Expansion

Exhaust piping changes
from atmospheric temperature while the engine is shut
down to exhaust gas temperature while the engine
runs. Consequently, provision must be made to com
lines re
pensate for the changing length of exhaust
sulting from expansion and contraction.
In some instances rigid exhaust lines can be ar
ranged to swing enough to take care of expansion
without breaking any of the connections. In close
quarters, particularly in marine installations such ar
should be avoided. Various kinds of slip
rangements
joints have been tried and found unsatisfactory. At
present universal practice is to insert a section of cor-

made

(Courtesy of Atlantic Metal Hose Co.)

a. Metal hose formed of helically Interlocked strip material.

Flexible Metal Hose

Every effort is made to iso

from the building structure. This
may be done by foundation design including use of
vibration isolation materials or springs. Similarly, it is
desirable to isolate vibration from piping systems
which may be rigidly connected to the building struc
ture. Flexible hose is commonly used for this purpose.
It serves another purpose in correcting for minor pip
ing misalignment and thus relieving strains on both
the engine and piping system. Additionally,
it is use
ful in obtaining long-sweep changes in direction, thus
keeping restriction to flow at a minimum.
Two general types of metal hoses are made in a wide
variety of materials and sizes. The two principal types
are: (a) hoses formed with a series of peripheral cor
rugations and (b) those formed by interlocking a con
tinuous strip of metal. Both types are illustrated in
Fig. 23-7. Suitable types and sizes are available for all
late engine vibration

applications.

Insulation

Heat transfer

from exhaust lines to

the engine room may be materially reduced by cover
ing the pipe with insulating material, frequently mag
nesia compounds, and this covered with a light metallic
cover. If the remainder of the exhaust piping is cover
ed with heat insulation, it is frequently desired to also
insulate the flexible hose. For this purpose various
manufacturers supply duplex hose. This consists of an
inner and outer section hose, Fig. 23-8. The inner hose
is attached to the flanges while the outer hose is at
tached to a ring on the flange. Other methods of heat
isolation include magnesia and asbestos air-cell wrap
pers. The solid magnesia insulation may break in serv
ice unless carefully applied and held with wiring. The
250

(Courtesy of Atlantic Metal Hose Co.)

b. Corrugated hose may be bare or braid-covered tor protection and
greater strength.

(Courtesy of Allied Metal Hose Co.)

c. Corrugated hose can be welded or brazed to connectors, here a
threaded nipple.

(Courtesy of Allied Metal Hose Co.)

d. Use of one floating flange permits bolt hole alignment without
twisting hose.
Fig. 23-7 Types of metal hose and typical methods of attachment

EXHAUST SYSTEMS
NOMinal

1. D.

(Inches)

21/2

MAXimum

0.

(inches)

3k

3 5/8

41/8

5 7/K

6>l<

D.

Min. Ret Straight Lgth.*

Approx.

Weight,

12

10

739/32 9 27/32 1113/1*

14

U'l'

16

16

18

18

20

1931/322131/32

(Inches)

14

16

17

21

23

25

28

32

35

38

40

43

48

Lbs./Ft.

2.8

3.2

3.5

5.4

6.6

10.7

13.5

17.1

20.2

23.35

26.9

31.1

35.2

22

24

26

28

30

32

38

42

46

50

56

62

68

Min. Rec. Bend Radius for 90 Bend

37

40

42

46

49

52

62

68

74

81

92

101

110

Min. Rec. Bend Radius for 45 Bend

33

36

39

42

45

48

57

63

69

75

84

93

102

Hose Length for Above

(Inches)

28

31

33

35

37

40

46

52

57

62

69

75

82

'

1/2

1/4

1/8

1/8

1/16

1/16

1/32

1/32

1/32

1/32

1/32

1/2

1/2

1M

1/8

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16

1 W4

1 1M

3/4

1/2

3/8

1/4

1/4

1/4

1/2

1/2

1/4

3/4

5/8

5/8

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

Hose Length for Above

1/2

7/8

3/4

5/8

5/8

10

1/8

3/16

3/16

3/16

3/16

1/4

1/4

1/4

1/4

1/4

1/4

1/4

1/4

1/4

3/8

3/8

1/2

1/2

3/4

3/4

3/4

24

24

24

36

36

36

36

36

48

50

47

43

35

27

23

19

15

13

11

Mjn

Length Req
for Above Total

Max. Press. Unrestrained Ends, (PSI)

48

48

48

"CL;

48

Max. per

Tot. for any Lgth.

12

5ft

13/4

(Inches)

J (

Contraction

or

Expansion

4m

ft.

/)

(Inches)

3 h-

1 1/2

Movement

1 3/4

(
(I

3/8

Lateral

3/8

2 (t

Maximum

ft.

(Inches)

Ti

Permanent
Bend
Using45 Elbows
CL,

of

of

Amount offset,measured
fromcenterlineto centerline.
Distancefromface to face flanges.
Amount hosecontractionfrom installedposition.
Amount hoseexpansionfrom installedposition.
Reproducedby courtesy

of

of

of of

E C D

of

L R A

CL- Distancefromcenterline to centerline.

- Angle fromcenterline of straighthosesections.
- Radius actualhosebend.
- Hose lengthfromface to face flanges.

Allied Metal Hose Co.

is

is

Recommendedradii and hose lengths for bends are intended for permanent bends only and for installations where normal vibration exists. On
90-deg bend installations, two 45-deg elbows and
straight length of pipe
preferable where installation permits. This avoids possibility of ex
rapid change of direction of gas flow. When expectedlateral movementexceeds that of normal vibration, maximum
cessive vibration due to
lateral movementfigures for the hose lengths given must be considered.Where large amountof offset exists, two 45-degelbows and straight
length of hose should be considered.Note that 24 inches
the minimum length of hose recommendedfor any expansionor contractioninstallation.
Table 23-1. Flexible hose INSTALLATION

RECOMMENDATIONS

hangers and their supports. In Fig. 23-9

shown several typical forms of pipe supports.

Pipe Brackets
necessary to support exhaust
piping on brackets or hangers. Usually the silencer
held rigidly by braces or its own weight gives
rigidity, so that the pipe line expands away from the
silencer. To accommodate this expansion, the pipe sup
ports should be provided with rollers or should be
from hangers supported
the roof steel.
suspended
vibration occurs, some form of isolation, such as
rubber doughnuts or springs, should be interposed be

Pressure Waves in Exhaust Line When the ex

haust valve, or port, of a single-cylinder engine
pressure of 50 psig, or
opened, exhaust gases under
assumed to be
higher, enter the exhaust pipe, which
open with no silencer. The gas possesses mass and
elasticity and the slug of high-pressure gas rushes out
of the pipe. This action, coupled with cooling of the
remaining gas and condensing of the vapors, creates
partial vacuum in the pipe behind the slug. When
is

is

are

If

by

it is

is

tween

It

rugated flexible metallic hose in the line to permit free

movement of the pipe caused by expansion.

251

ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Frequency of these pressure waves depends

pri
marily on the length of the pipe and to a lesser de
gree on the pipe diameter and gas temperature.
Due to these waves, pressure existing at the exhaust
valve, or ports, at the time of closing may be above or
below atmospheric pressure, depending upon the pipe
length and the engine speed.
In a 2-cycIe engine, increased pressure at this point
would interfere with scavenging and a low pressure
might remove some of the air charge from the cylinder.
In a 4-cycle engine, these waves may interfere with
scavenging and cause an increase in the pumping loss
on the exhaust stroke. The condition in a multi-cylin
der engine with a single exhaust pipe would be similar
to a single-cylinder engine running at a correspond
ingly higher speed.
The silencer, or muffler, is required to reduce the
amplitude of the exhaust pressure waves since they
affect engine performance and to reduce the sudden
ness with which gas slugs leave the pipe causing ob
jectionable noise. This should be done with the least
possible exhaust back pressure.
On many turbocharged engines it has been found
that the turbine smoothes out the flow of exhaust gas
to such a degree that no additional silencing is re
quired.

Silencer Volume and Proportions

Desirable
volume of a silencer for low-speed engines may be es
timated as approximately 20 times the exhaust slug
volume of one cylinder, the slug volume being equal
to the piston displacement of the cylinder times its
volumetric efficiency
times the heat-rise factor from
Fig. 23-1.
The common minimum ratio of length to diameter,
r, or (L/D), is 4. although many are made with ratios
of 6 or even 8. A short large-diameter muffler will si
lence very well over a narrow band of frequencies. A
long slim muffler will give less attenuation but will be
effective over a wider band of frequencies.
L. H. Billey, of the Donaldson Company, suggests
252

equation to determine the approximate

volume required in a muffler for high-speed 4-cycle en
gines :
the following

rpm

, cu in.

where

V muffler volume, cu in.

= piston

rpm

displacement of engine, cu in.

revolutions per minute, maximum operating
speed

= number of cylinders
K = constant, varying with
N

=5000

application

for farm tractors

10,000 for off-highway and contractors'

equipment
= 35,000 for over-the-highway trucks
= 50,000 for passenger cars
The diameter and length can then be calculated:

0.7854 r
where r

L/D

For 2-cycle
v
V

ratio, and

Dr

KD

engines,

V"l
"

rpm

2/V

, cu in.

Silencer Location Pressure waves in the exhaust

pipe, at a frequency determined chiefly by pipe length
and gas temperature, are acted upon by each succeed
ing slug of exhaust coming from the cylinders setting
up standing waves along the pipe length. Each wave
form has one or more nodes, or regions of minimum
pressure, and corresponding anti-nodes, or regions of
maximum pressure. Location of the nodes and antinodes depends

upon engine speed.

When a silencer is located at an anti-node, it causes

less back pressure and does more silencing than when
located at a node.
Effect of muffler location is illustrated by Billey in
results of tests shown in Table 23-2 for a truck in
stallation using an exhaust system having a total length
in. from manifold flange to end of tail pipe.
of 23
The engine was
200-bhp diesel operated at full load
at 2100 rpm.
typical truck muffler was used (not
straight-through type).

oscillation condition. Pressure waves with

peak values of over 5 psi will be reflected back and
forth in the exhaust pipe at the velocity of sound.
In air, velocity of sound is 1266 feet per second at
212 F and 1814 at 932 F; it is slightly higher in
water vapor and somewhat lower in CCK. Velocity of
sound in exhaust gas is often assumed to be 1400 fps.
a violent

the slug is out of the pipe, air is sucked in, setting up

Fig. 23-9 Stcndcrd exhaust-pipe supports.

double-insulated exhaust hose, asbestos plus

ft,

Fig. 23-8 Atlantic

dead-air space.

DIESEL

EXHAUST SYSTEMS

I.0

..
0

ft ft

4
ft

13
ft ft ft

can be seen that No.

position gives the greatest
reduction of noise level with the smallest muffler back
pressure, while No.
position
nearly as good. Least
reduction of noise level occurs at No.
position while
the highest back pressure
at position No.
developed

often assumed

be located as close

that

is

It

4.

is

II.

J\

0 1
ft ft

..
0

ft
2
in

.0

is

654321

OQOOOO

It

000

1/

ooo

II

/II.

13

Table 23-2.
Variation of Sound Level and Back Pressure
Diesel Truck.
with Muffler Location on
Sound
Back
Muffler
Sound
Tail
Muffler
Exhaust
Drop
Coming Pressure
Pipe
Pipe
Back
Location
Rise
Length Length Pressure Decibels Through
No.
.95"Hg
lift
5%
135%
.71" ""
7ft
13
I6.S
2'A%
100%
10
10
.83"
7.5
18%
117%
1.01"""
I0.S
7ft
142%
%
16
4Vj%
.73"
4ft
13.5
103%
"
lft
.72"
8.0
*%
102%
None
23
Base
Bah
Bat*
100%

muffler, or silencer, should

to the engine as possible. These

show that this

re

IF

ft

ft

is

V F

is

is

is

Length of pipe from exhaust manifold to

snubber,
Velocity in feet per second of the propaga
tion of the pressure wave through the ex
haust pipe
= Rate of firing per second of the engine
per sec
may be considered as 1400
distance
This locates the inlet to the snubber at
quarter wave
from the engine equal to two-thirds of
frequency matching the rate of firing
length having

When

of

is

&

Engineering, Inc.)
Kittcll Muffler
fig. 23-/0 Different muffler designs and characteristics, from
top: (IJ Baffle-type muffler has advantage of low cost con
common on small engines; (2) Resonant-type
struction and
most effective on
muffler causes little or no back pressure,
fairly good
high frequencies; (3) Off-set tube-type muffler
relatively
cheap to
pressure
and
back
for avoiding excessive
make; (4) Louvre-type muffler modulates or smooths out
wave fronts In engine exhaust without creating excessive back
excellent but
pressure; (5) Three-pass tube-type muffler
fairly expensive to make.
(.Courtesy

If

is

is

not necessarily true since No.

position produces next to the highest back pressure
and noise level
not reduced as much as in No.
or
No.
positions. These test results serve to point out
that an exhaust system presents
very complicated
problem.
the engine speed had been changed in these tests,
the best muffler position would probably have been
found to be some place other than No.
position.
Silencer location for low-speed 2-cycle engines, par
ticularly crankcase scavenged, has been calculated in
the past by the following equation:

sults

of the engine.
Types of Silencers or Snubbers
Many designs
of silencers are in use, all tending to (a) smooth out
pressure waves, and (b) quiet exhaust noise. Actual

Fig. 23-11 Burgess-Manning snubber.

r
fig.
OUTLET

23-12 Two designs of

Maxim silencers.

253

DIESEL

ENGINEERING

HANDBOOK
Fig. 23-13. At left:
Cutaway of 51 series

Kit tell

Fig.

23-M. C
Cutaway of i
Universal spark

Fig. 23-15. At right:

Burgess - Manning
snubber incorporating
a spark arrester.
Vanes at inlet impart
swirl to

design varies with engine size and installation, allow

able back pressure, and permissible noise level, as well
as with the builders. A series of different designs with
their characteristics are shown in Fig. 23-10.
The snubber principle, Fig. 23-11,
retards the
velocity of flow only when it is higher than the com
puted mean velocity, thus damping or snubbing off the
oscillating gas column.
The silencer at the top in Fig. 23-12 consists of dif
ferent size expansion chambers in series. The passage
between
the chambers is designed to give desired
acoustic properties and still offer low resistance to gas
flow. The muffler at the bottom in Fig. 23-12 is in
tended for high-quality silencing.

Spark-Arrester Silencers Many diesel installa

tions are so situated that dirt and live sparks in the
exhaust must be removed for safe and satisfactory per
formance. While the problem of noise is a matter of
degree only and depends in each case upon individual
circumstances of plant location, there is no such com
promise with exhaust carbon and live sparks. If these
are objectionable at all they must be eliminated 100%
for complete owner satisfaction and removal of un
necessary risk.
As may be seen in the sectional view, Fig. 23-13, the
silencer muffles the exhaust impulses
and at the same time extracts sparks and solids en
trained in the exhaust gases.

of the ejector cone situated at the exhaust end of the

muffler.

Noise suppression is provided by perforated concen

tric baffles which dissipate the energy of exhaust pul
sations in the muffling chamber by effecting a series of
rapid expansions in exhaust gas volume.

Materials for Silencers Most silencers are fab

ricated from black iron, low-alloy iron, or steel sheets,
although various grades of stainless steel, terne plate,
and aluminized steel are sometimes used. Stainless
steel is rather prohibitive except in the smaller sizes
since increased difficulty of fabrication and cost of the
material may increase the silencer cost to over 10 times
that for black iron. Terne plate is of little value ex
cept under moderate temperature conditions since it
burns away at high temperatures.
The aluminum coating on aluminized steel is trans
formed into an iron-aluminum alloy which protects
the surface from rust and corrosion, and does not
crack off when dented. Assembled silencers may be

spark-arresting

The centrifugal principle is used to whirl the gases

around a slotted tube to throw out the foreign matter
into the traps provided for easy periodical cleaning.
Two more types of spark-arrester silencers are shown
in Figs. 23-14 and -15. In Fig. 23-14 the sparks are
collected in the cone near the top. Fig. 23-15 shows a
snubber incorporating a spark-arrester.

Air-Cooled

Mufflers

An induced-draft air-cool
The muffler proper
is surrounded by an air shell through which air is in
duced, partly by convection and partly by the action
ed muffler is shown in Fig. 23-16.

2S4

Fig. 23-16 Maxim air-cooled

silencer. Air enters jack
eting just above flange
at engine.

EXHAUST SYSTEMS

galvanized, but this coating will burn away at tem

peratures slightly higher than terne plate.
Some silencers are being given a ceramic dip coat
ing after fabrication. Ceramics of a refractory nature
have high resistance to oxidation, corrosion and ther
mal shock.

Waste Hf.\t Recovery

Each pound of fuel burn

cylinder releases approximately 18,600
Btu of heat. Of this amount approximately one-third
goes to develop power at the shaft; another small
amount, around 900 Btu goes to overcome friction.
About one-third is still in the exhaust gases when they
leave the cylinder. The remainder is lost in the jacket

ed in a diesel

between the two fluids. In addition, exhaust gases con

tain superheated steam ( about one pound per pound of
oil burned I and if the gases are cooled to the tem
perature at which the steam will condense into water,
corrosion will set in.
Waste-heat boilers on the market at the present time
can be classified in the same general manner as con
ventional boilers; that is, (1) fire-tube type, Fig. 2317 and; (2) water-tube type, Fig. 23-18.
In order to approximate the quantity of heat re
coverable from the exhaust of an engine, Bradford and
Clarkson developed the formula

H = bhp

water.
heat can be re
Only a portion of the exhaust-gas
covered. This is due to the fact that to obtain heat
transfer from the gases to another medium, say, for
steam generation, hot water heating or air heating,
there must be a considerable temperature difference

Where H

= Total

XCX-J

heat recovered in Btu per hr

Engine brake hp
= 12 for 4-cycle engines
= 20 for 2-cycle engines
D = Temp drop of gases, F

bhp
C

\\/.8/9'
As-l8"stee/pipe
EI.8l2'-6"
Topcrone

Section A-A

rail

E/.d09'
Fig. 23-79 Plan deviled by G. C.
Bayer tor building heating.

Ac/justable
-f>A;
! damper
2'-4"-.^?0'i<28
y o/uct
n - suppor ts on
dampen
4" centers
7.780-6'
\-;"'?V<;-"".';

-ft4/ / sheer metal-*

->j

4-3"/!.

Adjustable

^ -^L
9

,-Fan
1I I

255

DIESEL

ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 23-3. Steam Obtainable

from Diesel Exhaust Gases

4-Cycle Diesel Engines

H. P.

LB. STEAM PER HR. FULL LOAD

10lb. per
IS lb. per
5 lb. per
sq. in.
sq. in.
sq. in.

77~

72~

75
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

92
154
212
327
392
483
550
638
700
780

74
89
150
205
316
380
466
530
617
675
750

87
147
199
309
372
455
520
600
664
735

75
103
200
300
400
500
609
700
800
900
1000

63
78
165
229
300
370
450
525
600
675
750

60
74
157
217
285
351
427
498
570
640
710

57
71
150
208
273
336
410
477
545
615
682

LB. STEAM PER HR.

in lb. per
5 lb. per
sq. in.
sq in.
60
72.5
122
167
257
310
380
432
504
550
612
2-CYCLE

Table 23-3 gives data as

Wheeler Corp. on the amount
exhaust gases. This tabulation
used is reliable, but it may not

58~
70
118
160
248
298
366
417
481
530
588

computed by Fosterof steam generated by

is general and as so
apply to a specific en

Hot Water Recovery In place of steam genera

tion, the exhaust heat can be used to heat water. This
may be part of the cylinder jacket water or the raw
water of the cooling system, passed through a wasteheat boiler.

Air Heating It is possible to heat air either in the

engine room or part of a plant by passing the air
supply across the silencer.
Building heating has been successfully accomplished
by enclosing the engine exhaust silencers and forcing

LOAD
15lb. per
sq. in.

44
53
90
122
188
226
277
317
368
414
450

56
67
115
156
240
290
354
404
468
515
572

37
45
94
133
176
216
260
305
358
393
440

34
42
88
124
165
202
244
285
320
368
410

~~42
50.4
85
116
178
215
265
301
348
383
425

SQ. FT.
HT. SURF.

171
205
253
287
334
366
416

72
72
72
72
144
144
192
192
240
240
288

12
14
30
42
55
68
82
96
109
123
136

72
72
144
144
192
240
288
336
384
432
480

40
48.5
81.5

III

17
21
44
60
80
98
118
139
158
178
198

14
17
36
50
66
80
98
115
130
147
163

air through the enclosure by means of a fan. One

method for accomplishing this is shown in Fig. 23-19.
While no exact formulae are available for calculating
the probable heat recovery from such a system, tests at
Bloomington, 111., show that with 2-cycle-engine ex
of 320 F, inlet heating air tem
haust temperatures
perature of 71 F, and outlet temperature of 115 F,
a heat recovery of 138,000 Btu per hour was realized
when circulating 3,000 cfm of heating air around the
silencer. During this test, the engine was operating at
approximately half load of 320 hp. From these data it
of this character will
that heating systems
appears
heat for a
serve satisfactorily and furnish sufficient
power plant building when 5 cu ft of air per minute
per rated engine horsepower are circulated around the
silencer. This "rule-of-thumb"
guide in designing a
heating system may not always prove to be correct. It
appears that the problem of designing a satisfactory
heating system as shown in Fig. 23-19 resolves itself
into a question of passing sufficient air over the out
side of the silencer in a given time to absorb up to a
maximum of 30% of the heat in the exhaust gas. Put
ting this into the form of an equation:
0.30 H

Fig. 23-20 Cut-away view of

Maxim waste heat silen
cer. This type can oper
ate either wet or dry.

LB. STEAM PER HR. Vi LOAD

5 lb. per
15lb. per
10lb. per
sq. in.
sq. in.
sq. in.

DIESEL ENGINES

40
49
102
144
191
234
282
330
378
425
475

gine.
A more accurate value of steam recovery can be de
termined by the weight of the gases and the tempera
ture change.

li

0.013

V (120

t),

or

16.7//
t

120

where

= total

heat in Btu passing through the exhaust

silencer per minute
V ~ cu ft of heating air circulated around silencer
per minute
/ = inlet temperature of heating air, F

This equation is based upon the

temperature of hot air entering the
120 F with the heat carried per cu
this temperature being 0.018 Btu per
256

assumption that
room would be
ft of dry air at
F.

EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Heat-Recovery

Fig. 23-21 Burgess-Manning waste-heat boiler with water tubes

in path of exhaust gas How.

Silencers

There are occasions

when a small amount of heat is desirable. This is pos
sible without installing a complete waste-heat recovery
system by using a combination silencer and waste-heat
boiler as shown in Figs. 23-20 and 23-21. These pro
vide an economical means of obtaining a limited
amount of steam. The approximate rate of heat re
covery, realized in a marine installation, is reported at
1 lb of steam per bhp hr.

QUESTIONS
1. Why is exhaust back pressure at the exhaust valves or ports
an important factor in engine operation?
2. Why is a section of flexible metal hose used in the engine
exhaust line in many diesel plants?
3.

How may exhaust-pipe heat loss to the engine room be

reduced?

4.

How may pressure waves in the exhaust line affect cylinder

scavenging?

5. What factors determine the pressure-wave effect

exhaust system?

in the

6. What are the requirements for a good muffler design?

What materials are used

mufflers or silencers?

the fabrication

of

exhaust

8. Discuss the relative merits of stainless-steel, aluminizedsteel, and galvanized-steel silencers.

9. What would be the approximate rate of heat recovery in a
waste-heat boiler from the exhaust gases of a 500-bhp 4cycle diesel engine if the temperature drop of the gases is
300eF?
10. Engine-room air is heated by circulation around an enclosed
exhaust silencer of a 500-bhp engine which delivers 25,000
Btu per minute to the silencer. If air to the silencer jacket
is 50 F, air delivered to the engine room is I20F, and
30% of the exhaust heat is absorbed by the air, how much
air must be circulated around the silencer per minute?

2S7