Lecture 1 PDF

Foundations of Computing I
Agi Kurucz
Room S1.17
E-mail: agi.kurucz@kcl.ac.uk
URL:
http://www.inf.kcl.ac.uk/staff/kuag/
Course structure
11 weeks, with a reading week in between:
Lectures: 2 hours per week
Large tutorials: 1 hour per week, right after the lectures
Small group tutorials:
1 hour every second week, alternating with SGTs for ELA
different times for different groups
first SGTs for FC1 are on week 3
Exam: in January (resit in August)
4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I
c
A.
Kurucz, Kings College London, 2015
Course material
All the material needed for a successful exam is covered by

the lecture slides, tutorial problem sheets, and courseworks.
Everything is (or will be) available on KEATS.
Please download and print out
each package of slides before the corresponding lecture
each problem sheet before the corresponding tutorial

(answers will be put onto KEATS the following day for LGTs,
and at the end of the week for SGTs)
Recommended textbooks:
K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications.
6th ed., McGraw Hill, 2007. ISBN 9780072880083
E. Kinber and C. Smith, Theory of Computing: A Gentle Introduction.
Prentice Hall, 2001. ISBN 0130279617
c
A.
Coursework, exam
Coursework:
You do not need to submit the coursework solutions, the courseworks are
so-called self tests. Their solution will be published usually two weeks after
their issue dates, so you will be able to compare your solutions with the given
ones.
There will be four courseworks, please consult KEATS regularly.
Exam: in January (resit in August).

There will be 4 questions, carrying equal marks. Youll have to answer 3 of
the 4 questions.
A mock exam paper will be provided by the end of term. Also, if you put
together the 4 courseworks, you may obtain another sample exam paper.
c
A.
Recommended background reading
J.L. Hein, Discrete Structures, Logic, and Computability.

2nd ed., Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2002.
ISBN 0-7637-1843-2
R. Johnsonbaugh, Discrete Mathematics.

7th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009.
ISBN 0-13-135430-2
D. Makinson, Sets, Logic and Maths for Computing. Springer, 2008.

ISBN 978-1-84628-844-9
H.R. Lewis and C.H. Papadimitriou, Elements of the Theory of Computation.

2nd ed., Prentice Hall, 1998.
ISBN 0-13-272741-2
c
A.
FOUNDATIONS?? What is this course for?
This course provides the common mathematical background for many

other computer science courses:
data structures, algorithms, databases, compilers, computer security,
operating systems, . . .
But DONT PANIC!

You are NOT expected to know topics that you have never seen before,
everything is developed from scratch.
You DONT have to have Mathematics A-level. (Nowhere in the course will
we use differentiation nor any trigonometry.)
The course aims to develop your problem solving skills and your ability to
express yourself in a more precise manner.
c
A.
Foundations of computing: topics
Sets
Relations
Functions
Basic combinatorial principles
Discrete probability
Graphs
Trees
Finite automata
Regular languages
c
A.
Sets: what is a set?

To communicate, we sometimes need to agree on the meaning of certain
terms. If the same idea is mentioned several times in a discussion, we often
replace it with some new terminology and shorthand notation.
A set is a collection of things, any things, called its elements.
If S is a set and x is an element in S , then we write
xS
If x is not an element in S , then we write
x
/S
If both x S and y S , we often denote this fact by the shorthand notation
x, y S
c
A.
Describing sets by listing

To describe a set we need to describe its elements in some way.
The simplest way to describe a set is to explicitly name its elements.

F OR
EXAMPLE :
We can form a set A by collecting three things:

Cinderella, Tasmania and Tuesday.
Any set defined this way is denoted by listing its elements, separated by
commas, and surrounding the listing with braces:
A = {Cinderella, Tasmania, Tuesday} .
Anything can be an element of a set.

In particular, a set can be an element of another set.
F OR
EXAMPLE :
The set B = {x, {x, y}} has two elements:

one element is x ,
and the other element is the set {x, y} .
(So we can write x B and {x, y} B .)

c
A.
Important features of sets

The only thing that matters about a set:
what is IN it and what is NOT IN it.
Repeated occurrences of elements dont matter:

{H, E, L, L, O}, {H, H, H, E, L, L, O}, and {H, E, L, O} describe the same set
(namely, the set having four elements: the letters H, E, L, and O ).
So it is best to be economical and list everything only once: {H, E, L, O}.
The order of listing doesnt matter either:

{H, E, L, O}, {E, H, L, O}, {E, H, O, L}, and {O, L, E, H}
all describe the same set.
c
A.
10
Special sets
The set with no elements is called the empty set. The empty set is denoted
by { } or more often by the symbol
The empty set has no elements. So no matter what thing x denotes, x

/ .
On the other hand, the empty set can be an element of another set.
F OR
EXAMPLE :
{a, , Joe}
or
{}.
Any set with one element is called a singleton.

F OR
EXAMPLE :
{a} and {Monday} are singletons,

but {x, } is not.
c
A.
11
Equality of sets
Two sets are equal if they have the same elements.
We denote the fact that two sets A and B are equal by writing
A=B
If the sets A and B are not equal, we write
A 6= B
F OR
EXAMPLE :
{u, g, h} = {h, u, g}
{a, b, c} =
6 {a, c}
{Monday} =
6
{1, 2} = {1, 1, 1, 2, 2}
{2} =
6 {{2}}
c
A.
12
Finite and infinite sets

Suppose we start counting the elements of a nonempty set S , one element
per second. If a point of time is reached when all the elements of S have
been counted (we might need to have one of our descendants to finish up),
then we say that S is finite.
If the counting never stops, then S is an infinite set.
E XAMPLES
OF INFINITE SETS :
N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
N+ = {1, 2, 3, . . . }
natural numbers,
positive natural numbers,
odd natural numbers,

Z = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
integers,
the set of rational numbers,
the set of real numbers,
R+
the set of positive real numbers.
c
A.
13
Describing sets by properties

Describing an infinite set by listing, using . . . , might sometimes be possible
(like we did with N), but even then a bit imprecise.
But listing, say, rational numbers can be quite tricky. Instead of listing elements,
we can describe a property that the elements of the set satisfy.
If P is a property, then the set S whose elements have property P is denoted by
S =
x | x has property P
We read this as
S is the set of all x such that x has property P.
Or, if we also know that all the elements in S come from a larger set A,
then we can write

S = x A | x has property P
c
A.
14
Describing sets by properties: an example

Let Odd be the set of all odd integers. Then we can describe Odd in several
ways:
Odd = {. . . , 5, 3, 1, 1, 3, 5, . . . }
= {x | x is an odd integer}
= {x Z | x is odd}
= {x | x = 2k + 1 for some integer k}
= {x | x = 2k + 1 for some k Z}
We can also use expressions for the elements on the left hand side:
Odd = {2k + 1 | k is an integer}
= {2k + 1 | k Z}
c
A.
15
Russells paradox
Not every property is suitable for describing sets. Here is a tricky one.
Let T be the set of all sets that are not elements of themselves:
T = {A | A is a set and A
/ A}
Q UESTION :
Is T T or not?
Well, either T T or T
/ T . Let us examine both cases:
If T T , then the property we used to describe T must hold for T .

But then T
/ T . So this case is impossible.
If T
/ T , then the property we used to describe T does hold for T .
So it is not the case that T is a set and T
/ T .
So either T is not a set, or T T .
But as T is a set, T T follows. So this case is impossible as well.
c
A.
16
Describing sets by induction

An inductive description of a set S consists of three steps:
(1) Basis:
Specify one or more elements of S.
(2) Inductive step:
Give one or more rules to construct new elements of S from existing
elements of S.
(3) Closure:
State that S consists only of the elements obtained by the basis and
inductive steps, nothing else is in S.
(This step is usually assumed rather than stated explicitly.)
c
A.
17
Describing sets by induction: examples
The set N of natural numbers can be defined inductively:

Basis:
Inductive step:
If n N then n + 1 N.
The set Odd of odd integers can be defined inductively:

Basis:
Inductive step:
0N
1 Odd
If n Odd then n + 2 Odd and n 2 Odd.
The set A = {3k + 1 | k N} can be defined inductively:

Basis:
Inductive step:
1A
If x A then x + 3 A.
c
A.
18
Subsets
A set B is a subset of a set A, if every element of B is also an element of A.
Notation:
BA
.
Venn diagram of B A
A
.
F OR
EXAMPLE :
{a, c} {a, b, c, d}
{0, 1, 5} N
SS
NZ
We always have, for every set S:
If B A and there is some element in A that is not in B,

then we say that B is a proper subset of A, and write
NN
BA .
c
A.
19
How to show that A B ?

Let
A = {x | x is a prime number and 42 x 51},

B = {x | x = 4k + 3 and k N}.
E XERCISE 1:
Show that A B.
S OLUTION : We need to show that for every element in A is also in B.

Take some x A. Then x is a prime number and 42 x 51.
So either x = 43 or x = 47.
We can have 43 = 4 10 + 3. So the choice of k = 10 shows that 43 B.
We can have 47 = 4 11 + 3. So the choice of k = 11 shows that 47 B as well.
Therefore, we have shown that A B.

E XERCISE 2:
Show that A B.
S OLUTION : We have just shown that A B. So it remains to find an element x B

such that x
/ A. For example, x = 3 is such:
As 0 N and 3 = 4 0 + 3, we have 3 B.
On the other hand, 42 6 3, so we have 3

/ A.
c
A.
20
How to show that A 6 B ?

Let
A = {3k + 1 | k N},
B = {4k + 1 | k N}.
E XERCISE :
Show that A 6 B, that is, A is not a subset of B.
S OLUTION : We need to find an element in x A such that x

/ B.
For example, x = 4 is such:
4 = 3 1 + 1. So k = 1 shows that 4 A.
We need to show that 4

/ B, that is, there is no k N such that 4 = 4k + 1.
Let us see. If k = 0, then 4k + 1 = 4 0 + 1 = 1 6= 4.
If k 1, then 4k + 1 4 1 + 1 = 5 > 4.
So it is not possible to find a k N such that 4 = 4k + 1, and so 4
/ B.
Therefore, we have shown A 6 B.

c
A.
21
How to show whether A = B or A 6= B ?

A = B means that A B and B A.
So:
If the task is to show that
A=B ,
then we need to show BOTH
If the task is to show that
AB
AND
BA .
A 6= B ,
then we EITHER need to find an element in A that is not in B,

OR to find an element in B that is not in A.
c
A.
22
The power set of a set

The set of all subsets of a set S is called the power set of S, which we denote by
P (S)
F OR
EXAMPLE :
For EVERY set S, we have P (S) and S P (S) .

P {u, v, w} = , {u}, {v}, {w}, {u, v}, {u, w}, {v, w}, {u, v, w}

P {Joe, Tuesday} = , {Joe}, {Tuesday}, {Joe, Tuesday}
P (N) = {X | X N}.
So, say, {453, 11, 5} P (N),

but {3, 1}
/ P (N).
c
A.
23
Set operations: union

The union of sets A and B is the set
A B = {x | x A or x B}
A B consists of those elements that are either in A, or in B, or in both.
.
Venn diagram of A B
.
F OR
EXAMPLE :
A = {4, 7, 8}
and
B = {10, 4, 9} .
Then A B = {4, 7, 8, 9, 10} .
c
A.
24
Properties of union
A=A
AB =BA
(A B) C = A (B C)
commutativity of
associativity of
So we can meaningfully write, say, A B C D E or
n
[
Ai .
i=1
AA=A
if A B then A B = B
if A B = B then A B
c
A.
25
Set operations: intersection

The intersection of sets A and B is the set
A B = {x | x A and x B}
A B consists of those elements that are both in A and in B.

.
Venn diagram of A B
.
F OR
EXAMPLE :
A = {4, 7, 8}
and
B = {10, 4, 9} .
Then A B = {4} .
If A B = , then A and B are called disjoint.
c
A.
26
Properties of intersection
A=
AB =BA
(A B) C = A (B C)
commutativity of
associativity of
So we can meaningfully write, say, A B C D E or
n
\
Ai .
i=1
AA=A
if A B then A B = A
if A B = A then A B
distributive laws: A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
but watch out! often:
A (B C) 6= (A B) C
So writing A B C might NOT make sense!

c
A.
27
Set operations: difference

The difference of sets A and B is the set
A B = {x | x A and x
/ B}
A B consists of those elements that are in A but not in B.

A B is also called the complement of B with respect to A.
.
Venn diagram of A B
.
F OR
EXAMPLE :
A = {4, 7, 8}
and
B = {10, 4, 9} .
Then A B = {7, 8} and B A = {10, 9} .

c
A.
28
Set operations: (absolute) complement

In certain contexts we may consider all sets under consideration as being
subsets of some given universal set U .
Given a universal set U and A U , the complement of A (w.r.t. U ) is the set
A = U A = {x U | x
/ A}
.
U
Venn diagram of A
A
c
A.
29
More properties of set operations
A A = U
A A =
A = A
U =
= U
De Morgans laws: A B = A B
A B = A B
AB =AB
A
if A B then B
A then A B
if B
c
A.
30
Exercise 1.1
Show that, for any X, Y and Z, we always have X (Y Z) = (X Y ) (X Z).
S OLUTION : According to slide 22, we need to show both
(1) X (Y Z) (X Y ) (X Z), and
(2) (X Y ) (X Z) X (Y Z).
Watch out! It is not enough to give (or draw) some example sets X, Y, Z for
which (1) and (2) hold. We need to show (1) and (2) using no assumptions
on the sets X, Y, Z, using only the properties of set operations and .
For (1): We need to show that every element of X (Y Z) is also an element
of (X Y ) (X Z). Take an arbitrary x X (Y Z). Then both x X and
x Y Z. There are two cases: either x Y or x Z. In the first case, x X Y .
In the second case x X Z. So in either case, x (X Y ) (X Z).
For (2): Take an arbitrary x (X Y ) (X Z). Then there are two cases: either
x X Y , or x X Z. In the first case, both x X and x Y . In the second
case, both x X and x Z. So x X in both cases, and either x Y or x Z,
so x Y Z. So, x X (Y Z).
c
A.
31
Exercise 1.2
6= A B.
Show that in general A B
and
S OLUTION : We need to find and describe some sets A and B such that A B
A B are different sets. There can be many possible solutions, here is one.
Let the universal set be U = {1, 2, 3}. Let A = {1} and B = {2}.
= {1, 3}. So A B
= {1, 3} and A B = {2, 3}.
Then A = {2, 3} and B
but 1
These are two different sets as, for example, 1 A B,
/ A B.
c
A.
32

Lecture 1 PDF

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Deskripsi Asli:

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Lecture 1 PDF

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Foundations of Computing I

Lectures: 2 hours per week

Large tutorials: 1 hour per week, right after the lectures

Small group tutorials:

1 hour every second week, alternating with SGTs for ELA

different times for different groups

first SGTs for FC1 are on week 3

Exam: in January (resit in August)

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

All the material needed for a successful exam is covered by

each package of slides before the corresponding lecture

each problem sheet before the corresponding tutorial

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

Exam: in January (resit in August).

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

Recommended background reading

J.L. Hein, Discrete Structures, Logic, and Computability.

R. Johnsonbaugh, Discrete Mathematics.

D. Makinson, Sets, Logic and Maths for Computing. Springer, 2008.

H.R. Lewis and C.H. Papadimitriou, Elements of the Theory of Computation.

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

FOUNDATIONS?? What is this course for?

This course provides the common mathematical background for many

But DONT PANIC!

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

Foundations of computing: topics

Basic combinatorial principles

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

Sets: what is a set?

If x is not an element in S , then we write

If both x S and y S , we often denote this fact by the shorthand notation

Describing sets by listing

The simplest way to describe a set is to explicitly name its elements.

We can form a set A by collecting three things:

Anything can be an element of a set.

The set B = {x, {x, y}} has two elements:

and the other element is the set {x, y} .

(So we can write x B and {x, y} B .)

Important features of sets

Repeated occurrences of elements dont matter:

The order of listing doesnt matter either:

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

The empty set has no elements. So no matter what thing x denotes, x

Any set with one element is called a singleton.

{a} and {Monday} are singletons,

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

If the sets A and B are not equal, we write

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

Finite and infinite sets

odd natural numbers,

the set of rational numbers,

the set of real numbers,

the set of positive real numbers.

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

Describing sets by properties

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

Describing sets by properties: an example

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

If T T , then the property we used to describe T must hold for T .

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I

Describing sets by induction

4CCS1FC1 Foundations of Computing I