West Beach, South Australia

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ANP 1105A&E
Anthony Krantis, PhD
akrantis@uottawa.ca

The Respiratory System

Lectures 1&2
These slides contain material to be presented in lecture*.
The information from the lecture should be used in combination with the
relevant chapters of the recommended Text book(s).
Throughout this presentation, there are references to and use of figures
from the text book. In addition, specific animations/videos
are also referenced and can be used by the student for
study purposes, if they wish.
*Slides marked with a STAR will not be covered in the lecture but are
provided as additional learning material
Slides includes material (direct or modified) from 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Human Anatomy & Physiology, Ninth Edition and material
supplied by Dr J Carnegie and other sources as referenced

Basics of the Respiratory System

Functional Anatomy
What structural aspects must be considered in the
process of respiration?
The conduction portion
The exchange portion
The structures involved with
ventilation
Skeletal & musculature
Pleural membranes
Neural pathways

All divided into

Upper respiratory tract
Entrance to larynx

Lower respiratory tract

Larynx to alveoli (trachea
to lungs)

Figure 22.1 The major respiratory organs in relation to surrounding structures

Nasal cavity
Nostril

Oral cavity
Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea
Carina of
trachea
Right main
(primary)
bronchus
Right
lung

Left main
(primary)
bronchus
Left lung

Diaphragm

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Functional Anatomy
Conducting zone-conduits to gas exchange sites
Includes all other respiratory structures;
cleanses, warms, humidifies air
Respiratory zone-site of gas exchange
Microscopic structures-respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
Diaphragm and other respiratory muscles promote
ventilation

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Figure 22.3b The upper respiratory tract.

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone

Frontal sinus

Sphenoid sinus

Nasal cavity
Nasal conchae
(superior, middle
and inferior)

Posterior nasal
aperture
Nasopharynx
Pharyngeal tonsil

Nasal meatuses
(superior, middle,
and inferior)

Opening of
pharyngotympanic tube

Nasal vestibule

Uvula

Nostril

Oropharynx
Palatine tonsil
Isthmus of the
fauces

Hard palate
Soft palate
Tongue
Lingual tonsil

Laryngopharynx

Esophagus
Trachea

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Larynx
Epiglottis
Vestibular fold
Thyroid cartilage
Vocal fold
Cricoid cartilage
Thyroid gland

Hyoid bone

Nasal Cavity
Within and posterior to external nose
Olfactory mucosa contains olfactory
epithelium
Respiratory mucosa
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
Mucous and serous secretions contain
lysozyme and defensins
Cilia move contaminated mucus
posteriorly to throat
Inspired air warmed by plexuses of
capillaries and veins
Sensory nerve endings trigger sneezing

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During inhalation, conchae & nasal mucosa

Filter, heat, & moisten air
During exhalation these structures
Reclaim heat & moisture

Paranasal Sinuses
Lighten skull; secrete mucus; help to warm and moisten air
Rhinitis
Inflammation of nasal mucosa
Nasal mucosa continuous with mucosa of
respiratory tract spreads from nose throat
chest
Spreads to tear ducts and paranasal sinuses
causing
Blocked sinus passageways air absorbed
vacuum sinus headache

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Pharynx
Connects nasal cavity and mouth to larynx and esophagus
Composed of skeletal muscle
Three regions

Pharynx
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

Figure 22.3c The upper respiratory tract.

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Larynx
Continuous with trachea
Provides patent airway
Routes air and food into
proper channels
Voice production
Nine cartilages : All hyaline
cartilage except epiglottis

Trachea

Epiglottis
Thyrohyoid
membrane

Body of hyoid bone

Epiglottis-elastic cartilage;
covers laryngeal inlet during
swallowing; covered in taste
bud-containing mucosa

Thyroid cartilage
Laryngeal prominence
(Adams apple)
Cricothyroid ligament

Cricoid cartilage

Cricotracheal ligament
Tracheal cartilages

Figure 22.4a The larynx.

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Developmental Aspects
At birth, respiratory centers activated, alveoli
inflate, and lungs begin to function
Two weeks after birth - lungs fully inflated
Respiratory rate highest in newborns and slows
until adulthood
Lungs continue to mature and more alveoli
formed until young adulthood
Respiratory efficiency decreases in old age

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Processes of Respiration
Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)movement of air into and out
of lungs
External respiration-O2 and CO2
exchange between lungs and blood
Transport-O2 and CO2 in blood
Internal respiration-O2 and CO2
exchange between systemic blood
vessels and tissues

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Respiratory
system

Circulatory
system

Trachea
Windpipe from larynx into
mediastinum
3 layers
Mucosa-ciliated pseudostratified epithelium with
goblet cells

Esophagus
Posterior
Mucosa

Submucosa

Submucosa-connective tissue
Adventitia-outermost layer of
connective tissue; encases Cshaped rings of hyaline
cartilage

Trachealis
muscle

Seromucous gland
in submucosa

Lumen of
trachea

Hyaline cartilage
Adventitia
Anterior
Cross section of the trachea
and esophagus

Figure 22.6a Tissue composition of the tracheal wall.

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Figure 22.10c Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.

Esophagus
(in mediastinum)
Vertebra

Right lung
Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura
Pleural cavity

Posterior

Root of lung
at hilum
Left main
bronchus
Left pulmonary
artery
Left pulmonary
vein
Left lung
Thoracic wall

Pericardial
membranes
Sternum

Pulmonary trunk
Heart (in mediastinum)
Anterior mediastinum

Anterior
Transverse section through the thorax, viewed from above. Lungs, pleural
membranes, and major organs in the mediastinum are shown.

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Figure 22.7 Conducting zone passages

Trachea

Superior lobe
of left lung
Left main
(primary)
bronchus
Superior lobe
of right lung

Lobar (secondary)
bronchus
Segmental (tertiary)
bronchus

Middle lobe
of right lung
Inferior lobe
of right lung

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Inferior lobe
of left lung

Conducting Zone Structures

Trachea right and left main (primary) bronchi
Each main bronchus enters hilum of one lung
Right main bronchus wider, shorter, more
vertical than left
Each main bronchus branches into lobar
(secondary) bronchi (three on right, two on left)
Each lobar bronchus supplies one lobe
Air passages undergo 23 orders of branching
bronchial (respiratory) tree
From tips of bronchial tree conducting zone
structures respiratory zone structures

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Figure 22.11 A cast of the bronchial tree.

Right lung
Right
superior
lobe (3
segments)

Left lung

Left superior
lobe
(4 segments)

Right
middle
lobe (2
segments)

Right
inferior lobe
(5 segments)

Left inferior
lobe
(5 segments)

Lobar bronchus branches into segmental (tertiary) bronchi

segmental bronchi divide repeatedly
Branches become smaller
Bronchioles- <1 mm in diameter
Terminal bronchioles - < 0.5 mm

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Respiratory Zone
Begins as terminal bronchioles respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts alveolar sacs
Alveolar sacs contain clusters of alveoli
~300 million alveoli make up most of lung volume
Sites of gas exchange

Alveoli
Alveolar duct

Respiratory bronchioles

Alveolar duct

Terminal
bronchiole

Alveolar
sac

Figure 22.8a Respiratory zone structures.

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Figure 22.9a Alveoli and the respiratory membrane.

Terminal bronchiole
Respiratory bronchiole

Alveolar and capillary walls and

their fused basement membranes
~0.5m thick; gas exchange by
simple diffusion
Smooth
muscle

Elastic
fibers

Alveolus

Capillaries
Diagrammatic view of capillary-alveoli relationships

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Figure 22.9c Alveoli and the respiratory membrane

Red blood
cell
Nucleus of type I
alveolar cell
Alveolar pores

Capillary
Capillary
Macrophage
Endothelial cell
nucleus

Alveolus

Respiratory
membrane

Alveoli
(gas-filled
air spaces)

Red blood
cell in
capillary

Type II
alveolar
cell

Type I
alveolar
cell

secrete surfactant and

antimicrobial proteins

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Alveolus

Alveolar
epithelium
Fused basement
membranes of
alveolar
epithelium and
capillary
endothelium
Capillary
endothelium

Blood Supply

Pulmonary circulation (low P, high V)

Pulmonary arteries deliver systemic venous blood to lungs for
oxygenation
feed into pulmonary capillary networks
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones to
heart

Bronchial arteries provide oxygenated blood to lung tissue

Arise from aorta and enter lungs at hilum
Part of systemic circulation (high P, low V)
Supply all lung tissue except alveoli
Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins
Pulmonary veins carry most venous blood back to heart

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Lungs and Pleura

Around each lung is a flattened
sac of serous membrane called
pleura
Parietal pleura outer layer
Visceral pleura directly on lung

Pleural cavity slit-like potential space filled with pleural

fluid
Lungs can slide but separation from pleura is resisted
(acts like film between 2 plates of glass)
Lungs cling to thoracic wall and are forced to expand
and recoil as volume of thoracic cavity changes
during breathing

22

Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity

Atmospheric pressure (Patm)
P exerted by air surrounding body
760 mm Hg at sea level = 1 atmos
Respiratory pressures described relative to Patm
Negative respiratory pressure- less than Patm
Positive respiratory pressure- greater than Patm
Zero respiratory pressure = Patm

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Intrapulmonary Pressure
Intrapulmonary (intra-alveolar) pressure (Ppul)
Pressure in alveoli
Fluctuates with breathing
Always eventually equalizes with Patm

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Intrapleural Pressure
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)
Pressure in pleural cavity
Fluctuates with breathing
Always negative
Fluid level must be minimal
Pumped out by lymphatics
If accumulates positive Pip lung collapse
Disruption of the integrity of the pleural
membrane will result in a rapid
equalization of pressure and loss of
ventilation function = collapsed lung or
pneumothorax
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Figure 22.12 Intrapulmonary and intra-pleural pressure relationships.

Atmospheric pressure (Patm)
0 mm Hg (760 mm Hg)

Parietal pleura
Thoracic wall

Visceral pleura
Pleural cavity

Transpulmonary
pressure
4 mm Hg
(the difference
between 0 mm Hg
and 4 mm Hg)
4
0

4 mm Hg
(756 mm Hg)

Lung

If Pip = Ppul or Patm lungs collapse

(Ppul Pip) = transpulmonary pressure
Keeps airways open
Greater transpulmonary pressure
larger lungs

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Intrapleural
pressure (Pip)

Diaphragm

Intrapulmonary
pressure (Ppul)
0 mm Hg
(760 mm Hg)

Figure 22.13 Changes in thoracic vol. and sequence of events during

inspiration

Sequence

Changes in anterior-posterior &

superior-inferior dimensions

Changes in lateral dimensions

(superior view)

1 Inspiratory muscles

Inspiration

contract (diaphragm
descends; rib cage rises).
2 Thoracic cavity V

increases.

3 Lungs are stretched;

intrapulmonary V
increases.

Ribs are
elevated and
sternum
flares as
external
intercostals
contract.

4 Intrapulmonary P

External
intercostals
contract

drops (to 1 mm Hg).

5 Air (gases) flows into

lungs down its P gradient

until intrapulmonary
P is 0 (= Atmos P).

*** ACTIVE PROCESS

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Diaphragm
moves inferiorly
during
contraction.

During deep or forced inspiration,

additional muscles recruited:
Scalenes
Sternocleidomastoid
Pectoralis minor
Quadratus lumborum on 12th rib
Erector spinae

Figure 22.13 Changes in thoracic vol. and sequence of events during expiration

Sequence

Changes in anterior-posterior and

superior-inferior dimensions

Changes in lateral dimensions

(superior view)

Expiration

1 Inspiratory muscles relax

(diaphragm rises; rib cage
descends due to recoil of
costal cartilages).
2 Thoracic cavity volume
decreases.
3 Elastic lungs recoil
passively; intrapulmonary
Volume decreases.

Ribs and
sternum are
depressed
as external
intercostals
relax.

External
intercostals
relax

4 Intrapulmonary P rises
(to +1 mm Hg).
5 Air (gases) flows out of
lungs down its P gradient
until intrapulmonary
pressure is 0.

Diaphragm
moves
superiorly
as it relaxes.

PASSIVE PROCESS.but forced expiration- is active process; uses

abdominal (oblique and transverse) and internal intercostal muscles
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Pressure inside lung

decreases as lung vol
increases during
inspiration; pressure
increases during expiration.
Intrapleural P
Pleural cavity pressure
becomes more negative as
chest wall expands during
inspiration. Returns to initial
value as chest wall recoils.
Volume of breath. During
each breath, the pressure
gradients move 0.5 liter of
air into and out of the lungs.

Volume (L)

Intrapulmonary P

Pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure (mm Hg)

Figure 22.14 Changes in intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures during inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration
+2

Expiration
Intrapulmonary
pressure

0
2
4

Transpulmonary
pressure

Intrapleural
pressure

Volume of breath
0.5
0
5 seconds elapsed

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Pulmonary Ventilation: Inspiration and Expiration

Mechanical processes due to volume changes in thoracic
cavity
Volume (V) changes P changes
P changes gases flow to equalize P

Boyle's Law
Pressure (P) varies inversely
with volume (V): P1V1 = P2V2

Three factors hinder

air passage & pulmonary ventilation;
1. Airway resistance
2. Alveolar surface tension
3. Lung compliance
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Airway Resistance
Friction- major nonelastic source of resistance to
gas flow; occurs in airways
Relationship between flow (F), pressure (P), and
resistance (R) is:

P - pressure gradient between atmosphere and

alveoli (2 mm Hg or less during normal quiet
breathing)
Gas flow changes inversely with resistance

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Figure 22.15 Resistance in respiratory passageways

Conducting
zone

Respiratory
zone

Resistance

Medium-sized
bronchi

Terminal
bronchioles

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10
15
Airway generation
(stage of branching)

20

23

Homeostatic Imbalance
As airway resistance rises, breathing
movements become more strenuous
- Severe constriction or obstruction of
bronchioles
- Can prevent ventilation
Eg. acute asthma attacks; stops ventilation

Epinephrine dilates bronchioles, reduces air

resistance

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Alveolar Surface Tension

Surface tension
Attracts liquid molecules to one another at gas-liquid
interface
Resists any force that tends to increase surface area
of liquid
Waterhigh surface tension; coats alveolar walls
reduces them to smallest size
Surfactant
Detergent-like lipid protein complex produced by type II alveolar
cells
Reduces surface tension of alveolar fluid and discourages
alveolar collapse
Insufficient quantity in premature infants causes infant
respiratory distress syndrome alveoli collapse after each
breath
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Lung Compliance
Measure of change in lung V that occurs
with given change in transpulmonary P
Higher lung compliance easier to
expand lungs
Normally high due to
Distensibility of lung tissue
Alveolar surface tension

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Pulmonary Function Tests

Spirometer- measures respiratory volumes and
capacities
Spirometry can distinguish between
Obstructive pulmonary diseaseincreased
airway resistance (e.g., bronchitis)
TLC, FRC, RV may increase
Restrictive disordersreduced TLC due to
disease or fibrosis
VC, TLC, FRC, RV decline

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Figure 22.16a Respiratory volumes and capacities.

6000

5000
Milliliters (ml)

Inspiratory
reserve volume
3100 ml

4000

Inspiratory
capacity
3600 ml

3000
Tidal volume 500 ml
Expiratory
reserve volume
1200 ml

2000

1000

Residual volume
1200 ml

Spirographic record for a male

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Functional
residual
capacity
2400 ml

Vital
capacity
4800 ml

Total lung
capacity
6000 ml

Figure 22.16b Respiratory volumes and capacities.

Measurement

Respiratory
volumes

Respiratory
capacities

Adult male
ave value

Adult female
ave value

Description

Tidal volume (TV)

500 ml

500 ml

Amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting

conditions

Inspiratory reserve
volume (IRV)

3100 ml

1900 ml

Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal

volume inspiration

Expiratory reserve
volume (ERV)

1200 ml

700 ml

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal

volume expiration

Residual volume (RV)

1200 ml

1100 ml

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration

Total lung capacity (TLC) 6000 ml

4200 ml

Maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a maximum

inspiratory effort: TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

Vital capacity (VC)

4800 ml

3100 ml

Maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximum

inspiratory effort: VC = TV + IRV + ERV

Inspiratory capacity (IC) 3600 ml

2400 ml

Maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal

volume expiration: IC = TV + IRV

Functional residual
capacity (FRC)

1800 ml

Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume

expiration: FRC = ERV + RV

2400 ml

Summary of respiratory volumes and capacities for males and females

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Dead Space
Anatomical dead space
No contribution to gas exchange
Air remaining in passageways; ~150 ml
Alveolar dead spacenon-functional alveoli
due to collapse or obstruction
Total dead space-sum of anatomical and
alveolar dead space

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Alveolar Ventilation
Good indicator of effective ventilation
Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)-flow of gases into and out of
alveoli in one minute - rough estimate of respiratory efficiency

AVR

(ml/min)

frequency

(breaths/min)

(TV dead space)

(ml/breath)

Dead space normally constant

Rapid, shallow breathing decreases AVR
AVR
Normal at rest = ~ 6 L/min
Normal with exercise = up to 200 L/min

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Table 22.2 Effects of Breathing Rate and Depth on Alveolar ventilation

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