Introduction

Wastewater?
W/W may be define as water in which impurities are present in such quantities and of such nature as to impure
its use for the stated purpose (Designated use).
Sustainable Development?
Sustainable development is the development that meeting needs of the present generation without comprising the
ability of future generation to meet their own needs.
The goal of sustainable development cant be achieved through waste treatment.
Like
treating w/w
bi-product (sludge)
deposited somewhere

(Carrying capacity of land decreases)

Waste Minimization excludes waste treatment. When we treat some waste before disposal we have to check the
standards (i.e. effluent standards).
In the form of bi-product one waste is transformed to another waste (in waste-water treatment).
Carrying capacity: carrying capacity of an environment of an ecosystem is the threshold limit of that system
without damaging the system.
Waste Minimization: waste minimization is the process or policy of reducing the amount of waste produce.
A) Minimization before generation of Waste.
Reduce
B) Minimization after generation of waste.
Reuse
3R
Recycle
3R+Recovery
4R
4R+Rethink
5R
Reuse:-Using the same material in the same cycle(e.g.-Gas cylinder: refilling : used in the same cycle.
Recycle:-Breakingdown of the rawmaterials which are used to make new items (e.g.- the Newspaper of our house
recycled to make paper packets).
Waste Recovery:It is using waste to replace other non-waste material to achieve a beneficial outcome in an
environmentallysound manner (e.g. solventrecovery from paint industry or waste oil).

Abhisek Roy

Page 1

Criteria Air Pollutant :NAAQS

NAAQS:NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
1994: NAAQS first published.
1996: NAAQS first revision.
2009: Last revision of NAAQS.
Air Pollution: Air pollution may be defined as Presence in the atmosphere of substance or substances added
directly or indirectly in such concentration and of such duration as to affect or try to affect receptors (like:
humans, animals, vegitation, materials,climate etc.) adversely generally by an anthropogenic activities.

Now in defination of Air pollution:

1st term:Atmosphere:When we are talking about air or atmosphere, we are generally talking about 1-2km height
of the whole atmosphere (i.e. breathing layer or friction layer of troposphere).
Most of the Airpollution problem related with this layer .But there arefew problem which are not confined only in
this layer (such problem like : ozone depletion, green house effect).
2nd term: Substance and Substances: Air pollution problem may be related with group of pollutants or single
pollutant(like: Asphyxiation problem is related to Criteria Air Pollutant : CO : Major-one single pollutant.).
3Rd term: Directly or In-directly:
Direct emmission:
Pollutant directly coming out of sources: Primary Pollutant.
In-direct emmission:
Pollutants directly not-coming out of sources but fomed in the atmosphere : Secondary
pollutant
[ like pollutant responsible for Acid rain: H2SO4, H2SO3, HNO3
Abhisek Roy

Page 2

H2SO4, H2SO3

: Forms in atmosphere from Primary pollutant:SO2

{N2O5
NO2
NO: Nitrogen cycle(90% is NO).
NO is readily oxidisable to N2O5 :Which forms HNO3 (by absorbing H20 molecule)
4 NO+O2
2N2O5
2N2O5+2H2O
4HNO3}
So, to control acid rain: we have to control SO2 ].
Sources may be of three type: Point Sources (like: Stack).
Line Sources (like: Moving Vehicle in Road).
Area Sources (like: one confined industrial area).
4th term: in such concentration and of such duration:
In such concentration:
concentration.
Of such duration:
exposure time.
Dosage = (Conentartion Time of exposure)
Dosage: related with responses (mortality, injuries).
All Research starts after an alarming health effect (like:mortality).
Like in UK: after London Episode (1952): Air-pollution study started.
Like in USA: after Donora episode (20 death out of 14000 population: highest death rate) :Air-pollution
study started.
Like in India: after Bhopal Gas tragedy (1984: due to MIC) : Hazardous waste management study
started.
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY: monitoring outdoor air quality standard.
But, Indoor air quality : More stringent
(because
Quality of the receptors : like patient, pregnant women, old man,
infant.
More exposure time.).
Epidemiological study:
Toxicological Study:

Done by questioneir survey, where the pollutant is present in sufficient quantity.

By injecting the substance in test specimen(e.g. Miece/rat).
Like : LD50, LC50
After that criteria of a pollutant is decided.

5th term: Affect or try to affect:

6th term : Receptors:

Material receptors: Taj Mahal area: Taj-trpezion.
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 () + H2CO3
H2CO3 easily washed out and CaSO4 precipitated. This is called Stone Cancer. Main cause: Acid Rain due to SO2
emmission from heavy industries. But due to that even some small scale (& less responsible) industries are also
closed.
7th term: Generally by an anthropogenic activity: Although sources of some air pollution is natural (i.e. not by
human), like:
1)Volcanos: Source of SO2
2)Forest fire:Source of NOX
But Air pollution due to natural sources is not considered generally.
Abhisek Roy

Page 3

 Criteria Air Pollutant: Criteria air pollutants are1) Which are regulated and are used as indicators of air quality.
2) Are related to health and/or environmental effects.
3) are generally widely distributed across the country.
4) are measurable.
US-EPA: Air quality criteria document: USA (multivolume sets).
NAAQS: Air quality criteria document: INDIA.
BAT:Best available technology (Available to the common people & measurable: technologically and
Economically).
Why CO is a criteria air pollutant but CO2 is not?
CO2 concentration at 5000ppm: It is harmful.
Present concentration of CO: 400ppm.
Concentration of CO before industrialization (: nearly 250years): 250ppm.
-So, it took 250 years to reach concentration level of 400ppm from 250ppm.
-it will take so many years to reach 5000ppm that at present (or in near future) it will not effect our
health.
Even in catalytic converter where both oxidation and reduction of some air pollutant (Reduction:
NO2N2) takes place, we are oxidizing CO to CO2.
[Notes: catalytic converter is temparature sensitive. Work properly in warm condition but dont work
properly in cold condition : Cold Start Problem].
In NAAQ2009 list of criteria air pollutants :
1) CO
2) SO2
4) Tropospheric Ozone
5) NH3
7) Ni
8) Pb
10) NOX
11) As
Just mentioned: 13) Hg (standard is not given).

3) Benzene-a-pyrene (BaP)
6) Respirable perticulate matter (RPM or PM10)
9) Fine perticulate matter (FPM or PM2.5)
12) Benzene

[As controlling/measurement of Hg: reqires Best available technology- within our economic condition).
NAAQS first introduced in 1994.
Then first revised in 1996: include NH3[as at that time it is not possible to include PM2.5: due to
unavailability of BAT: so, we have include NH3 to controll PM2.5 indirectly : As SO2 & NH3 mainly
responsible for secondary particulate genaration].
Again revised in 2009: Included: Ni, As, Benzene, Bnezene-a-pyrene, PM2.5, Hg(just mentioned),
Tropospheric ozone( as ozone is only mentioned in NAAQS1996
list).

Abhisek Roy

Page 4

1) CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

Most abununed criteria air pollutant.

Present in sufficient quantity in atmosphere.
Easily measurable (in order: SO2> NO2> particulate matter> CO).
Can be monitored by CO monitoring measurable.
Health effects: Due to bad characteristice of haemoglobine.
Asphyxiation: CO combines with blood leads to a situation: No oxygen(O2) in
blood.

Why CO is regarded as a single source pollutant?

As CO is only coming from single source majorlymobile source.
[ due to incomplete combustion yielding CO instead of CO2 results when any of the following four
variables are not kept sufficiently high (like 85.7 million tons CO emission in USA from transportation
and 17.0 million tons from other sources in 1977) (Result of Source-Appointment Study in Calcutta fot
last 30-40years by NEERImore than 80% CO is coming out from vehicle).
C+O2CO2
C+ 0.5O2CO
following four variables1) O2 supply
2) temparature of combustion
3) gas residence time at high temparature
4) combustion temparature turbulance
-this parameters are generally under much higher control in stationary sources rather than in mobile
sources (or vehicular sources).
From vehicle, emitted pollutants are:
a) CO
b) NOX (according to NEERI (1/3)rd from vehicle, (1/3)rd from residential, (1/3)rd from Industry).
c) HC (in USA 11.5 metric ton/yr from vehicle and 16.8 metric ton/yr from other sources).

Abhisek Roy

Page 5

2) NITROGEN OXIDES (NOX)

NO and NO2 important pollutant.

Source Monitoring 90% of NOX : NO
But if ambient air monitoring is performed more than 90% of NOX : NO2
Formation of NO and NO2:
Source:

N2 + O2 2NO (electrolysis,temp: 1400C)

Ambient air: NO + O2 NO2

Types of NO:
1) Fuel NO [ Fuel produced due to fossilization of animal-proteine (which contaons Nitrogen)
NO produced from Nitrogen of fuelfuel NO]
2) Thermal NO [Reaction of atmospheric N2 & O2]
For this reason you cant minimize the NO by only contolling source (or by change of raw
material) but can minimize by Change of Process ( reducing thermal peak-flame temparature).
Although NO2 is a secondary pollutant of primary pollutant NO . But still it is treated as a primary
pollutant.
NO is a criteria air pollutant.
NO + O2 NO2
4NO2+ O2 2N2O5
N2O5 + H2O2 HNO3 (acid rain)
Vehicular Pollution:
C7H13 ( or CH1.85) a representative of hydro-carbon ( used as fuel in vehicle).
C7H13+ 10.25 O2 7CO2 + 6.5 H2O
Assuming air have 79% of N2 and 21% of O2
Molecular wt. of O2 reqd=10.2532=328
Molecular wt of N2 (which is in air)={(79/21)10.25}28=38.5628=1079.68
Molecular wt. of Air=328 + 1079.68=1407.68
Molecular wt. of fuel= 7 12 + 13 1=97
Air-fuel ratio (AFR) =(1407.68/97)=14.51 (generally from fuel AFR=14.7).

CO & HC Main criteria air pollutant we want to control during control of vehicular pollution.
Abhisek Roy

Page 6

for that reason we always try to keep air fuel ratio in Lean mode (14.7).
[We want to keep minimum air-fuel ratio=14.7.
To get1) Low value of CO
2) Low value of HC
3) Best fuel economy ]
So, NO has an increasing rate.
Moreover if combustion temperature is high thermal NO will be produced ( by reaction of N2 & O2 of air)
whatever may be the nitrogen content in fuel.
For this reason global NO2 has an increasing trend unlike the other criteria air pollutants.
The best minimization option for NO : Change of process of combustion by which peak-flame
temperature is reduced.
NOX cant be controlled by change of raw material(as discussed earlier). It can be controlled by Change
of Process (by controlling or minimizing peak-flame temperature). Now a days to control peak-flame
temperature EGR (Exhaust gas recirculation) technology is used in vehicle.EGR dilutes the fuel by
increasing air (air-fuel ratio also increased) as a result peak flame temperature decrease.

Direct effect of NO2: NO2 can irritate the lungs, may cause bronchitis, pneumonia and lower resistance to
respiratory infection.
In-direct effect of NO2:
1) Formation of photo-chemical smog.
2) Formation of nitric acid (by reaction with free radicals like hydroxyl), which ultimately lead to acid
rain or acidic deposition.
It may cause eutrophication (nutrients-N, P, K more in water).

Abhisek Roy

Page 7

3) SULPHUR DI-OXIDE (SO2)

We are not monitoring other oxides of SOX: as other oxides of sulphur are not present in environment in
sufficient concentration (they are very unstable).
Sulphur (S) mainly present as basic impurities in fuel:
1) Organic-Sulphur:
[Source: Protein
As protein have C, H, O, N, S, P
Here sulphur is bound with other substances and part of the basic structure
So, cant be removed easily].
2) In-organic Sulphur: As incorporated in the Biomass impurities like FeS2they are bound to
fossil fuelsso, can be removed easily by brushing and washing the coal (fossil fuels) very
cairfullythis waste minimization process is known as washing or pulverization of coal.
In coal sulphur content is 1-6%. We can remove 50% of sulphur content by pulverization
process. So, sulphur or sulphur-di-oxide can be controlled by change of (or treatment of) raw
material.
SO2 Colorless, low irritant smell.
Very much water soluble (Second in water solubility among all the criteria air pollutants. First:
NH3)
SO2
Have specific health effect on respiratory system e.g. lungs (alveoli).
But, in general SO2 alone cannot reach alveoli because SO2 will get dissolved in mucus.
But, if there is particulate matter present along with SO2 then due to synergy effect SO2
can reach lower part of lungs or alveoli (because SO2 can be absorbed by the surface of the
suspended particulate particle and they can reach the lower part.
Also, Brooming activity or sneezing in respiratory system is disturbed.
SO2 also have some effect on the cylia present in upper respiratory track, i.e. brooming activity
is reduced & some SO2 can reach the alveoli. Its called synergy effect).
Synergy effect is very important. As all the pollution related problem is related to synergy
effect.
[Like,
1952London (UK) more than 4000 death (Pollutant SO2 and particulate matter; at that time coal
is used more in industries and in residency, so, SO2 level is high).
1948Donora(USA) Small town but death around 20(officially 17) death rate is very high
with respect to population(city population is very less- nearly 14000).]
London Episode:-Horizontal movement is restricted by topography; and vertical movement is restricted
by inversion lapse rate (subsidence inversion is there for around 1months). Combination of meteorology
and manmade reasons for this episode.
SO2It produces H2SO4 (main pollutant responsible for acid rain)( H2SO4 is an secondary air pollutant ;
but H2SO4 is not a criteria air pollutant).
Secondary Particulate:- H2SO4 molecules produced from SO2 and SO3 rapidly become particles by
condensing on existing particles present in the atmosphere or merging with water vapour to form
H2O-H2SO4 droplets. Often a significant action of particulate matter present in ambient atmosphere
includes such sulphate aerosols (particulate-gaseous). Such sulphate particles have an effective size less
than 2.5m; with most of them being in the range of 0.2-0.9 m. This size is comparable to the
wavelength of visible light & their presence greatly affects visibility. The secondary particulates also have
deep penetration in the respiratory system.
Abhisek Roy

Page 8

PARTICULATE MATTER (4) PM10 & 5) PM2.5)

TOTAL PARTICULATE MATTER

SUSPENDED (SPM)

SETTLEABLE

RESPIRATORY(RPM or PM10)

PM2.5
In the previous NAAQS1996 listNow, In the NAAQS2009list-

NON-RPM (NRPM)

>PM2.5
PM10 & SPM
PM10 & PM2.5 (In NAAQS2009 SPM excluded. PM2.5 included).

Aerodynamic Diameter:- It is an equivalent diameter. Aerodynamic diameter of an irregularly shaped

particulate is defined as the diameter of a spherical particle with unit density that has the same settling
velocity as the irregular particle in question. Such spherical particles are sometime termed as perfect
particulate or standard particulate.
Atmospheric particulate matter includes any dispersed matter: solid or liquid in which the individual
aggregate may range in between 0.005 m to 100 m. Size, chemical composition along with atmospheric
concentration are important characteristics of particulate matter.
(0.005 m to 20 m): Suspended particle
Overlapping Region
(10 m to 100 m): Settleable particle
Number terms are used to categorize particulate depending on their size and phase:
1) Aerosol:-An aerosol is defined as a suspension of solid and/or liquid particles present in a gas. It includes
both the particles and the gas (which is usually air). A primary aerosol has particles that are introduced
directly into the air. Secondary aerosols are formed when gas to particle conversion occurs.
E.g. Sulphate aerosols (SO2) and Ammonia aerosols (NH3).
NH3 is incorporated in NAAQS1996 [as we are not able to include FPM (PM2.5) at that time as
monitoring cost of FPM is too high at that time].
2) Dust:-Small solid particles creat by the breakup of larger masses through crushing, grinding etc. Dust
may come directly into the atmospherefrom the processing and handling of materials (such as coals,
cement, stone-chips, grain etc.).
Main problem associated with dust is no point source (so, we cant control it very easily); sourcearea
source (so, it is very difficult to control).
But if we can control dust (primary pollutant); then controlling of secondary particulate dust is much
easier.
To reduce re-entrainment of dust particles in the environment1) Water sprayer and
2) Green belts used.
3) Smoke:- smoke is fine gas borne solid particle resulting from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
consisting predominantly carbon and other fuel (combustible matter). It does not include water vapour.
Abhisek Roy

Page 9

4) Fumes:-Fumes are dispersion of fine solid particles in air generally formed by condensation, from the
vapour phase (fumes smaller in size compare to smoke).
5) Mist:-Dispersion of liquid particulate in air.
From the size distribution Aerosol maybe divided into 3categories.
Aerosols

Nucleic Mode
(0.005-0.1 m)

Accumulation Mode
(0.1-2.0m)

Mechanical generation mode

(>2 m)

6) SPM:-Suspended particulate matters are air borne particulate as measure by High-Volume-Sampler

[(flow rate>1.1m3/min), By this equipment air is sucked by a machine Air is passes through a filter paper
The difference in weight is recorded over a specific time period dividing wt difference by air
volume SPM concentration based on gravimetric analysis].

Figure:- High volume Sampler

7) PM10:-It is the mass concentration of suspended particulate matter corresponding to a cut-off diameter of
10 m.
8) PM2.5:-PM2.5 is the corresponding concentration for a cut-off diameter of 2.5m.

Abhisek Roy

Page 10

6) Lead (Pb)
Engine: mainly of two types:
A) EC- Engine:
External Combustion.
Size of engine is bigger Because combustion not at the place where energy is required
so, basically carrying energy to other place so, big in size.
Steam mainly used as a carrier of energy. so, it is also called steam engine.
Outside the engine.
First designed/discovered by James Watt at the year of 1776.
B) IC-Engine:
Internal Combustion.
Combustion at the place where energy/ power is required.
Inside the engine.
First discovered/ designed by Auto Van Geric at the year of 1876.
IC-engine mainly of two type:
1) SI Engine:
Spark ignited engine.
Discovered by Auto-Van-Geric at the year of 1876.
Fuel used for it is: Gasoline (petrol).
Fuel must have a good Octane number (means good resistance against self
ignition of fuel).
SI-Engine may be of two types: 2-stoke 4-stoke.
2) CI-Engine:
Compression ignited engine.
Discovered by Diesel at the year of 1885.
Fuel for this type of engine: Diesel.
Fuel must have a good Cetane number (means self ignition capacity of
fuel is very high).
CI-Engine may be of two types: 2-stoke 4-stoke.
CI-Engine working principle:
Ignition takes place in a very small place
TDC: Top dead Centre
BDC: Bottom dead Centre
(C+D) amount of fuel is compressed into a volume
of C,
Compression ratio=(C+D)/C
In case of CI-Engine the value of compression ratio
is very important around 70 to 80; which is only 8
to 9 in case of SI-Engine.
So, generally CI-Engine have larger size than
SI-Engine.
The characteristics of CI & SI engine fuel are totally different.
Self ignition is a positive characteristics in a CI- engine fuel (i.e. diesel); whereas it is a negative
characteristics in a SI-Engine fuel (i.e. gasoline-petrol).
What is the problem related with self ignition in SI-Engine?
In SI-Engine we provide a spark with a spark plug to combust the fuel. So, if you provide spark for
Abhisek Roy

Page 11

ignition along with a fuel which have a self ignition capacity: you may generate much more energy than
the actual energy required to move the axle.there may be some excess amount of energy; which will
transform into other forms of energy (mainly sound energy). So, there will be a knocking sound.
Some, Substances are used along with gasoline to prevent self ignition of gasoline (or to increase its Octane
value); they are popularly known as Anti-knocking agent.
Till the last decade of previous century popular anti-knocking agent is: Tetra ethyl lead [(T.E.L)
formulae Pb(C2H5)4].
T.E.L. was the main source of lead; even it is the main source of lead till now. Because lots of lead are still
available in trees and grass ; as it is a compound which is not degenerated very easilyMoreover few
days before in INDIA , oil used in auto is a petrol extract(in local language it is popularly known as kanta
tel) which contains T.E.L.
Now a days T.E.L not used as anti-knocking agent.
Most commonly know MTBE (Methyl tertiary butyl ether) is used as anti-knocking agent.
Now a days only unleaded petrol is used in modern vehicle. As all SI-Engine vehicle is now equipped with
catalytic converter; which cant work in presence of lead.
[Pollutant from vehicular emission: CO, HC, NOX.
Previously: NOX is not considered as a criteria air pollutant. So,only oxidation type of catalytic converter
is used to convert CO & HC to CO2 & H2O (not considered as pollutant).
But now a days NOX is considered as a criteria air pollutant. So, now a days in vehicle both Oxidation
converter (to convert CO & HC to CO2 & H2O) and Reducing converter (to reduce NOX to N2) is used;
both simultaneously called catalytic converter].

Abhisek Roy

Page 12

 All over the world (Including INDIA ): Lead (Pb) have a decreasing trend: because of waste minimization:
Change of Process.
Lead is a very harmful pollutant. Nearly every system is affected by lead.
Pb is a developmental toxicant and the harmful effect on children: Development is not proper [ like ,
IQless].
Lead can affect Nervous system, kidney, circulatory system, reproductive system, skeletal system,
Immune system etc.

Abhisek Roy

Page 13

7) Tropospheric Ozone (O3)

Total Ozone pool:
A) Tropospheric Ozone: 10%: Ground level Ozone: Criteria Air Pollutant.
B) Stratospheric Ozone: 90%: It is not a pollutant : rather it act as a protective shield: protect us from
other harmful material (like UV rays)
So, Ozone as a whole is not a pollutant; rather tropospheric ozone is a criteria air pollutant.
Formation of tropospheric Ozone or photochemical smog:
General equation of formation of ozone:
NO2 + Hydrocarbon + Sunlight Photochemical smog
Constituent of Photochemical smog:
1) 90% tropospheric ozone;
2) Formaldehyde ( HCHO);
3) Acetaldehyde (CH3CHO);
4) Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN);
5) Peroxybenzoil nitrate;
6) Acrolien etc.
[NO2 is the only criteria air pollutant which can be photolytically dissociated by absorbing UV ray (which is very
near to the visible spectra) breaks up into NO & free radical O*. O* combines with O2 of air to form
tropospheric ozone (O3).

]
Effects: Tropospheric ozone which is present in the atmosphere & is responsible for the effects on the main
receptor human beings. It is also effects the plants as well.
Eye irritation is the main effect of photochemical smog.
Although tropospheric ozone is responsible for many of the undesirable properties of photochemical
smog, from chest contraction (lesser diameter of trachea) and irritation of the mucus membrane in human
beings to the tracking of stretched rubber products (like tire) and damaged to vegetation; but it is not a
cause for eye irritation.
Eye irritation is mainly caused by formaldehyde, PAN, peroxybenzoil nitrate, acrolien etc.
Other important effects of tropospheric ozone include reduced lungs function (exhale capacity reduced),
Disease like asthma, increase of susceptibility to respiratory infection etc also increase.
Ozone also affects vegetation by closing stomata, slowing down photosynthesis, damaging internal cells
etc.

Abhisek Roy

Page 14

8) Benzo-a-pyrene (BaP)
Benzo-a-pyrene: is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs).
[Simplest form of PAH compound: Napthalene: two benzene rings only.
Pyrene: four benzene rings together].
Formulae:

C20H12 (No. of hydrogen atom< No. of carbon atom)

BaP included in NAAQS2009 list.

It is an organic, carcinogenic, criteria air pollutant.
PAHs are form when carbon containing materials or fossil fuels (coal, petrol) is not completely oxidized
during combustion. They are released as gases but weakly condensed on particles of soot. Specific sources
of PAHs include tobacco smoke, motor vehicle etc. They are also found in some cooked food. Studies
show that high level of PAHs are found in meat cooked at high temperature such as grilling, some of the
PAHs like BaP are of concern because they are identified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, terratogenic.
BaP is a category-A human carcinogen known to cause lungs and human cancer.
Four Carcinogenic pollutant included in NAAQS2009: As(A), Nickel(A), Banzene(B2), BaP(A).
[As per USEPA classificationGroup-A Human Carcinogen

There is enough evidence to conclude that it can cause cancer in

humans.

Group-B1 Probable Human Carcinogen

There is limited evidence that it can cause cancer in humans, but at

present it is not conclusive.

Group-B2

Probable Human Carcinogen"

There is inadequate evidence that it can cause cancer in humans but at

present it is far from conclusive

Group-C

"Possible Human Carcinogen"

There is limited evidence that it can cause cancer in animals in the

absence of human data, but at present it is not conclusive.

Group-D

"Not Classifiable as to Human

There is no evidence at present that it causes cancer in humans.

Carcinogenicity"

Group-E

"Evidence of Non-Carcinogenicity

There is strong evidence that it does not cause cancer in humans.

for Humans"

As per IARC classificationGroup Description

1
Carcinogenic to humans
2A
Probably
2B
Possibly
3
Not classifiable
4
Not carcinogenic
Abhisek Roy

Human Evidence
Sufficient
Limited
None/Inadequate
None/Inadequate
Suggests not carcinogenic

Animal Evidence
None/inadequate/limited/sufficient
Sufficient
Sufficient
Limited
Suggests not carcinogenic
Page 15

9) Benzene

Benzene is found in the air from emissions of burning coal & oil, gasoline service station and motor
vehicle exhaust; as it is a constituent of naturally occurring coal and petroleum deposits.
It is also used as solvents, chemical intermediates and manufacture of detergents, explosives,
pharmaceuticals etc.
Sometimes also it is used as additive to gasoline, as it increases gasolines octane rating
Acute inhalation exposure of human may cause drowsiness, laziness, and headaches, as well as eye, skin
and respiratory track irritation and at high level: unconsciousness.
Chronic exposure has caused various disorders in the blood, including reduce in number of RBC and
platelets. It may cause acute leukemia and bone-marrow failure (fails to make RBC).

10) Ammonia (NH3)

Almost all atmospheric emission of ammonia results from agricultural activities. Only a small fraction may
originate from road transport and stationary combustion.
It is a colorless gas with characteristic pungent smell.
NH3 is most water soluble criteria air pollutant.
Its main role as a criteria air pollutant is: as a secondary particulate precursor.

11) Arsenic (As)

A metalloid which is included in NAAQS2009Arsenic.

12) Nickel (Ni)

Source of Nickel in Air: Secondary Smelting.

13) Mercury (Hg)

Only mentioned in NAAQS2009 but standards are not given; as BAT ( Best Available Technology) is not
available considering socio-economic effect.

Abhisek Roy

Page 16

Abhisek Roy

Page 17

METEOROLOGY
Lapse Rate: - Means rate of decrease.
If nothing mentioned then lapse rate means lapse rate of temperature.
-ve lapse ratemeans +ve slope.

Lapse rate in troposphere is +ve means temp in

decreasing.
Height vs temperature have a positive decreasing.
What is the difference at a particular instance at
different layer that is Environmental lapse rate (elr).
[Generally done by using a gas balloon equipped with a
thermometer.
Although, balloon is not measuring the temperature of
different layers at same time, but that we are neglecting].
The rate of change of temperature of a warm parcel of
air if it is released in the atmosphere.

Warm; so, air surrounding it have lesser temperature.

So, the warm gas layer also has buoyant force.

So, it goes upward.

It is also subjected to lesser pressure.

So, Volume increases.

But, to increase volume some work has to be done.

But, as it is adiabatic process in nature; so, cant take energy from outside.

Work done by the system (internally).

So, Temperature decreases. With Plume Rise.

Abhisek Roy

But, if it is possible i.e. the emitted gas have a lesser

temperature than the surroundings than it will get
some -ve buoyant force Stack Downwash.

Page 18

It can be proved that the air parcel emitted from stack have a specific rate of temperature decrease (if it
have a constant moisture content) and it is called Adiabatic lapse rate.
Adiabatic lapse rate

Dry Adiabatic lapse rate (dalr)

Saturated Adiabatic lapse rate (salr)

1C per 100m

1C per 100m

Air parcel released from plume, changes its temperature in between dalr and salr (i.e. Air parcel released
from stack is neither completely dry nor completely saturated).
When it is only said that adiabatic lapse rate, then it is generally meant dry-adiabatic lapse rate.

Why saturated lapse rate is less than dry adiabatic lapse rate?
In general when air parcel goes upward temperature of air parcel decreases Capacity to hold
temperature also get decreased .In case of saturated adiabatic lapse rate (salr) at that time condensation
takes place due to which, latent heat is released So, rate of decrease of temperature is also decreased.
Thats why saturated lapse rate is less than dry adiabatic lapse rate.

Meteorology is so important becausePollutant

SOURCE

TRANSPORTATION
RECEPTOR

Pollutant source have some affects on receptors depending on transportation of pollutant.

Transportation affected by meteorology.
Pollutant can be diluted in two ways:
1) Horizontal Mixing: Related to Horizontal transportation of pollutant: related to
meteorological effect and topographical effect.
2) Vertical mixing: Related to Vertical transportation of pollutant: related to meteorological
effect.
Three situation may arise:
A) Environmental lapse rate is more than dry-adiabatic lapse rate (elr>dalr).
As elr>dalr so, Super adiabatic condition.
elr and dalr these two straight lines only touch at infinity height.
i.e. Mixing height is more.
so, it is favorable condition for us, as pollutant concentration is decreasing
by dilution [as more air is available for dilution].
as dalr<elr, so for increase in height, air parcel emitted from chimney/stack
will lose temperature at lesser rate.
for that reason temperature of air parcel will be always greater than the
surroundings.
So density of air parcel will be less.
so, air parcel will continue to climbthat is called Unstable Condition.

Abhisek Roy

Page 19

B) Environmental lapse rate is less than dry-adiabatic lapse rate (elr<dalr).

elr<dalr
Sub-adiabatic condition.
Stable condition.
Not a favorable condition.

C) Environmental lapse rate is equal with dry-adiabatic lapse rate (elr=dalr).

elr=dalr.
Neutral condition.

Certain Specific Lapse rate:

A) Inversion Lapse rate:
dalr

ht

Elr
(Inverted)

Mixing height is very small

less air is available for dilution
Stable condition

Mixing ht
Temp

B) Isothermal layer:

dalr

Stable condition.
In environment, no change in temperature due to
Increase in height.

Ht

Elr
(Isotherm)

Temp
Abhisek Roy

Page 20

 Types of Inversion: Inversion is of so many types but we will consider only two to discuss air pollution
related problem.
1) Radiation Inversion:
During night time; or particularly during winter night.
Ground radiates more heat than atmosphere.
Ground level air cools in high rate than atmospheric air.
For that reason with increase in height, temperature get increased.
This type of inversion usually in between 150meter to 200meter.
This type of inversion breaks down with temperature or sunrise [ ground heats up
Inversion breaks down].
This type of inversion has very short life (almost few hours).
This type of inversion very common everywhere.
2) Subsidence inversion:
This type of inversion mainly happens due to presence of anticyclone.
In anticyclone: Air in the middle of a high pressure zone is descending, in the edges it is
rising. Air near ground moves outward from the centre as air in the middle is descending
it experiences greater amount of pressure compressed heated.
For that reason with increase in height, temperature get increased.
Mainly occurs in Summer.
It may last for months.
Subsidence inversion generally occur at a height 1km to 1.5km.
London Smog: Subsidence inversion stays for a month.

Conditional Stability:
If elr is in the shaded
region then (just only
knowing
the
two
extreme lapse rate of
the stack emitted air
parcel) we cant say
really whether the
condition is stable or
unstable (as we dont
know what is the actual
lapse rate of that air
parcel).
For that reason if
(dalr<elr<salr) then we
have to know the actual
condition or the actual
adiabatic lapse rate of
that stack emitted air
parcel.
that is called
conditional stability.

Abhisek Roy

Page 21

 Different types of plume pattern:

1) Looping:

dalr>elr Super adiabatic lapse rate Unstable Condition (strong instabilities) Mixing
height is more.
But, so much unstable that it touches ground very near of stack.
High degree of convective turbulence.
High probabilities of high concentrations sporadically at ground level close to stack.
Associated with clear daytime conditions accompanied by strong solar heating & light winds.
2) Coning:

Abhisek Roy

Stable with small-scale

turbulence
Stable with small-scale
turbulence
Associated
with
overcast moderate to
strong winds
Roughly 10 cone
Pollutants travel fairly
long distances before
reaching ground level
in significant amounts
Occurs
in
neutral
(elr=dalr) atmospheric
conditions

Page 22

3) Fanning:

Occurs under large negative lapse rate

Strong inversion at a considerable distance above the stack
Extremely stable atmosphere
Little turbulence
If plume density is similar to air, travels downwind at approximately same elevation.

4) Lofting:-

Favorable in the sense that fewer impacts at ground level.

Pollutants go up into environment.
They are created when atmospheric conditions are unstable above the plume and stable below

Abhisek Roy

Page 23

5) Fumigating:

Most dangerous plume: contaminants are all coming down to ground level.
They are created when atmospheric conditions are stable above the plume and unstable below.
This happens most often after the daylight sun has warmed the atmosphere, which turns a night
time fanning plume into fumigation for about a half an hour.

A
6) Trapping:

Plume is trapped in between

subsidence
inversion
and
radiation inversion.

7) Neutral Plume:

Abhisek Roy

when
elr=dalr
and wind
speed is
also very
less, at that
time this
type of
plume may
occur.

Page 24