UCCN2043 Lecture Notes

3.0

Transmission Media (Prasad + Glover 1.5)

To exchange information between people separated by a distance has been a necessity

throughout the history of mankind. Long ago, people used fire for communicating over a
limited distance; they used birds and messengers for long distance communication. The
postal system still provides an excellent means of sending written communication across the
globe.
Communication over long distances, not just through written text but using other media such
as voice and video, has been achieved through electrical communication. This discipline
deals with conversion of information into electrical signals and transmitting them over a
distance through a transmission medium.
(Glover 1.5)
The communications path from transmitter to receiver may use physical lines or free space.
Physical Lines Communications:

Wire pairs

coaxial cables

Optical fibres
Free Space Communications:

Radio (Electromagnetic Wave)

Infrared

Optical free space links
Whatever the transmission medium, it is at this point that much of the attenuation, distortion,
interference and noise is encountered.
Attenuation can be compensated for by introducing amplifiers or signal repeaters at
intermediate points along the multiple hop link as shown in figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1: Digital communications (multi-hop) channel

Distortion may be compensated by equalisers, and interference and noise can be minimised
by using appropriate pre-detection signal processing (e.g. matched filters).
The nature and severity of transmission medium effects is one of the major influences on the
design of transmitters, receivers and repeaters.
In this lesson, we will study the various transmission media used for electrical
communication, such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and the radio (Free space).
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We will study the characteristics and the advantages and disadvantages of each for practical
communication systems. Free space (or radio) communication particularly provides the
unique advantage of support for mobilitythe user can communicate while on the move (in a
car or an airplane). However, the radio spectrum is a precious natural resource and has to be
used efficiently. We will also discuss the issue of radio spectrum management briefly in this
lesson.

3.1

Line Transmission (Glover 1.5.1)

The essential advantages of line transmission are:

1. Path loss is usually modest.
2. Signal energy is essentially confined and interference between different systems is seldom
severe and often negligible.
3. Path characteristics (e.g. attenuation and distortion) are usually stable and relatively easy
to compensate for.
4. Capacity is unlimited in that bandwidth can always be reused by laying another line.
The disadvantages of line transmission are:
1. Laying cables in the ground or constructing overhead lines is generally expensive.
2. Extensive wayleaves and planning permission may be needed for underground cables and
overhead wires.
3. Broadcasting requires a physical connection to a complex network for each subscriber.
4. Mobile communications services cannot be provided.
5. Networks cannot easily be added to, subtracted from, or otherwise reconfigured.

The degree to which a signal is attenuated by a transmission line depends on the following:
The material from which the line is made
The lines physical construction
The signals frequency.
Figures 3.2(a) to (e) show some typical attenuation/frequency characteristics for the most
common types of line.
Open wire has particularly low loss but it is expensive to maintain and susceptible to
interference.
Loaded cable, Figure 3.2(c) and Table 3.1, is only effective for speech bandwidth
signals.
Twisted pairs, as used underground, have higher installation costs but lower
maintenance costs.
Low loss circular waveguides can also be used as a transmission medium, but
advances in optical fibre technology have, at least for the present, made this
technology essentially redundant.
Optical fibre cables have an enormous information carrying capacity with typical
bandwidthdistance products of 0.5 GHz km.

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Figure 3.2 (a)

Typical
attenuation/frequency
characteristics for aerial
open wire pair lines.

Figure 3.2(b)
Typical characteristics for
twisted pair cable
transmission lines.

Figure 3.2(c) Comparison

between inductively
loaded and unloaded
twisted wire pairs.

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Figure 3.2 (d)

Typical
attenuation/frequency
characteristic for
coaxial cable.

Figure 3.2(e)
Typical
attenuation/wavelengt
h characteristics for
optical fibres

Table 3.1: Nominal properties of selected transmission lines.

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Table 3.1 summarises the nominal frequency range of selected types of line, their typical
attenuations and transmission delays, and typical repeater spacings. The useful bandwidths of
the lines, which determine the maximum information transmission rate they can carry, are
often, but not always, determined by their attenuation characteristics.

3.1.1

Twisted wire pairs are normally limited to (line coded PCM) data rates of 2 Mbit/s.
Coaxial cables routinely carry 140 or 155 Mbit/s PCM signals but can handle symbol
rates several times greater.
Optical fibres have very large bandwidth potential, but may be limited to a fraction of
this by factors such as the spectral characteristics of optical sources and dispersion
effects. Nevertheless, optical fibre PCM bit rates of hundreds of Gbit/s are possible.
Twisted Pair

Twisted pair gets its name because a pair of copper wires is twisted to form the transmission
medium. This is the least expensive transmission medium and hence the most widely used.
This medium is used extensively in the local underground telephone network, in Private
Branch Exchanges (PBX's), and also in local area networks (LANs).
As the electrical signal traverses the medium, it becomes attenuated, that is, the signal level
will go down. Hence, a small electronic gadget called a repeater is used every 2 to 10
kilometers. A repeater amplifies the signal to the required level and retransmits on the
medium.
The data rate supported by the twisted pair depends on the distance to be covered and the
quality of the copper. Category 5 twisted pair supports data rates in the range of 10Mbps to
100Mbps up to a distance of 100 meters.
3.1.2

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is used extensively for cable TV distribution, long-distance telephone trunks,
and LANs. The cross-section of a coaxial cable used in an Ethernet local area network is
shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Coaxial cable used in Ethernet LAN.

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Coaxial cable can support a maximum data rate of 500Mbps for a distance of about 500
meters. Repeaters are required every 1 to 10 kilometers.
The speed of transmission in copper cable is 2.3 108 meters/second. Note that this speed is
less than the speed of light in a vacuum (3 108 meters/second).
Based on the speed of transmission and the distance (length of the cable), the propagation
delay can be calculated using the formula
Delay = distance/speed
For example, if the distance is 10 kilometers, the propagation delay is
Delay = 10,000/(2.3 108) seconds = 43.48 microseconds.

3.1.3

Optical Fiber

Optical fiber is now being deployed extensively and is the most preferred medium for all
types of networks because of the high data rates that can be supported. Light in a glass
medium can carry more information over large distances, as compared to electrical signals in
a copper cable or a coaxial cable.
Optical fiber is the most attractive transmission medium because of its support for very high
data rates and low attenuation.
The challenge in the initial days of research on fiber was to develop glass so pure that at least
1% of the light would be retained at the end of 1 kilometer. This feat was achieved in 1970.
The recent advances in fiber have been phenomenal; light can traverse 100km without any
amplification, thanks to research in making purer glass.
With the state of the art, the loss will be about 0.35dB/km for 1310 nanometers and 0.25dB/
km for 1550nm.
Light transmission in the fiber works on the principle that the light waves are reflected within
the core and guided to the end of the fiber, provided the angle at which the light waves are
transmitted is controlled. Note that if the angle is not proper, the light is refracted and not
reflected. The fiber medium has a core and cladding, both pure solid glass and protected by
acrylate coating that surrounds the cladding.
As shown in Figure 3.3, there are two types of fiber: single mode and multimode.
Single mode fiber has a small core and allows only one ray (or mode) of light to
propagate at a time.
Multimode fiber, the first to be commercialized, has a much larger core than single
mode fiber and allows hundreds of rays of light to be transmitted through the fiber
simultaneously. The larger core diameter allows low-cost optical transmitters and
connectors and hence is cheaper.

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Figure 3.3: Optical fiber.

Gigabits and even terabits of data can be transmitted through the fibers, and the future lies in
optical fiber networks. Currently twisted copper wire is being used for providing telephones
to our homes, but soon fiber to the home will be a reality. The speed of transmission is 2
108 meters/second in optical fiber.

3.2

Radio Transmission (Glover 1.5.2)

The advantages of radio transmission are:

1. It is relatively cheap and quick to implement.
2. Wayleaves and planning permission are often only needed for the erection of towers to
support repeaters and terminal stations.
3. It has an inherent broadcast potential.
4. It has an inherent mobile communications potential.
5. Communications networks can be quickly reconfigured and extra terminals or nodes
easily introduced or removed.

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The principal disadvantages of radio are:
1. Path loss is generally large due to the tendency of the transmitted signal energy to spread
out, most of this energy effectively missing the receive antenna.
2. The spreading of signal energy makes interference between different systems a
potentially serious problem.
3. Capacity in a given locality is limited since bandwidth cannot be reused easily.
4. Path characteristics (i.e. attenuation and distortion) tend to vary with time, often in an
unpredictable way, making equalisation more difficult and limiting reliability and
availability.
5. The time varying nature of the channel can result in anomalous propagation of signals to
locations well outside their normal range. This may cause unexpected interference
between widely spaced systems.
6. Points 2 and 5 mean that frequency coordination is generally required when planning
radio systems. Such coordination is difficult to achieve comprehensively and is expensive.

In radio transmissions, frequency of the transmitting electromagnetic wave determines the

following:
The appropriate radio propagation model for a communication system
The dominant fading and noise processes
The typical system range

3.2.1

Radio Wave Propagation (UCCN2023 Notes) (Prasad)

Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves when they are transmitted, or propagated
from one point on the Earth to another, or into various parts of the atmosphere. As a form of
electromagnetic radiation, like light waves, radio waves are affected by the phenomena of
reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering.
Radio waves at different frequencies propagate in different ways.
Surface Wave / Ground Wave Propagation (Figure 3.4)

Figure 3.4: Surface Wave Propagation (Below 2 MHz)

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At extra low frequencies (ELF) and very low frequencies the wavelength is very much larger
than the separation between the earth's surface and the D layer of the ionosphere, so
electromagnetic waves may propagate in this region as a waveguide.
Surface wave propagation more or less follows the contour of the earth and can propagate
considerable distances, well over the visual horizon. This effect is found in frequencies up to
about 2 MHz. The best-known example of ground wave communication is AM radio.

Sky Wave Propagation (Figure 3.5)

Figure 3.5: Sky Wave Propagation (2 MHz to 30 MHz)

At frequency from 2 MHz to 30 MHz, signal from an earth-based antenna is reflected from
the ionized layer of the upper atmosphere (ionosphere) back down to earth. Sky wave
propagation is used for amateur radio, CB radio, and international broadcasts such as BBC.
A sky wave signal can travel through a number of hops, bouncing back and forth between the
ionosphere and the earths surface to reach thousands of kilometers.

Both surface wave and sky wave propagations involve the interaction of radio waves with the
ionized regions of the atmosphere which makes radio propagation more complex to predict
and analyze than in free space.
Ionospheric radio propagation has a strong connection to space weather. The solar flares that
cause sudden ionospheric disturbance can disrupt HF radio propagation.
Since surface wave and sky wave radio propagation is not fully predictable, services such as
emergency locator transmitters, in-flight communication with ocean-crossing aircraft, and
some television broadcasting have been moved to communications satellites. A satellite link,
though expensive, can offer highly predictable and stable line of sight coverage of a given
area.

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Line-of-Sight (LOS) / Space Wave Propagation (Figure 3.6)

Figure 3.6: LOS / Space Wave Propagation (Above 30 MHz)

Above 30MHz, communication will be by line of sight. For satellite communication, a signal
can be transmitted between an earth station and a satellite overhead that is not beyond the
horizon. For ground-based communication, distance between the transmitter and receiver is
dependent on the frequency/wavelength of the signal.
Note: Relationship between frequency and wavelength is given by the formula
C
=
f
where
C
= Speed of light
f
= Frequency

= Wavelength

Table 3.2 shows the electromagnetic spectrum used for radio transmissions and summarises
these models and processes.

Table 3.2: Frequency bands commonly used for radio communication.

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At the lowest frequencies (ELF & VF) propagation is best modelled by oscillating
electromagnetic modes which exist in the cavity between the concentric conducting spheres
formed by the earth and its ionosphere.
From a few kilohertz up to a few hundred kilohertz (VLF & LF), vertically polarised radio
energy will propagate (by diffraction) around the curved surface of the earth for thousands of
kilometres. This is called surface wave propagation and is the mechanism by which long
wave radio broadcasts are received.
At slightly higher frequencies in the medium frequency (MF) band some radio energy
propagates as a surface wave and some is reflected from the conducting ionosphere as a sky
wave. The relative path lengths and phasing of these two signals may result in destructive
interference causing fading of the received signal, which will vary in severity as the relative
strengths and phases of the sky wave and surface wave change. The exact condition of the
ionosphere may be critical in this respect, making the quality of signal reception vary, for
example, with the time of day or night.
In the high frequency (HF) band the sky wave is usually dominant and ranges of thousands of
kilometres are possible, sometimes involving multiple reflections between the ionosphere and
ground.
At very high frequency (VHF) and above, signals propagate essentially along line-of-sight
(LOS) paths although reflection, refraction and, at the lower frequencies, diffraction can play
an important role in the overall characteristics of the channel.
At ultra high frequency (UHF), currently used for both TV transmissions and cellular radio
communications, multipath (i.e. multiple path) propagation caused by reflections from, and
diffraction around, buildings and other obstacles in urban areas is the principal cause of
signal fading.
In the super high frequency (SHF) band (usually called the microwave or centimetric wave
band) applications tend to be point-to-point (or fixed-point) communications and the firstorder outdoor fading problem is often due to rain induced attenuation. These frequencies are
also used for indoor radio local area networks (LANs).
Extra high frequency (EHF) and higher frequencies are not yet widely used for
communication systems, partly due to the significant gaseous background attenuation and
large fades that occur in rain. However, millimetre wave wideband links are under
consideration. As the electromagnetic spectrum becomes more congested, however, and as
the demand for communications becomes yet greater (in terms of both traffic volume and
service sophistication), the use of these higher frequency bands will almost certainly become
both necessary and economic.

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3.2.2

Terrestrial Radio (Prasad)

Free space as the medium has the main advantage that the receiver can be fixed or mobile.
Free space is called an unguided medium because the electromagnetic waves can travel freely
in all directions. Depending on the frequency of the radio waves, the propagation
characteristics vary, and different frequencies are used for different applications, based on the
required propagation characteristics.
Radio is used for broadcasting extensively because a central station can transmit the program
to be received by a large number of receivers spread over a large geographical area. In this
case, the transmitter transmits at a specific frequency, and all the receivers tune to that
frequency to receive the program.
Radio as a transmission medium has the main advantage that it supports mobility. In addition,
installation and maintenance of radio systems are very easy.
In two-way communication systems such as for voice, data, or video, there is a base station
located at a fixed place in the area of operation and a number of terminals. As shown in
Figure 3.7, a pair of frequencies is used for communicationone frequency for transmitting
from the base station to the terminals (the downlink) and one frequency from the terminal to
the base station (the uplink). This frequency pair is called the radio channel.

Figure 3.7: Two-way communication using radio.

Note: A radio channel consists of a pair of frequenciesone frequency is used for uplink
and one frequency is used for downlink. However, in some radio systems, a single
frequency is used in both directions.

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Radio as the transmission medium has special characteristics that also pose special problems.
Path loss: As the distance between the base station and the terminal increases, the received
signal becomes weaker and weaker, even if there are no obstacles between the base station
and the terminal.
The higher the frequency, the higher the path loss. Many models are available (such as Egli's
model and Okomura-Hata model) to estimate path loss. To compensate for path loss, we need
to use high-gain antennas and also develop receivers of high sensitivity.
Note: Path loss causes a heavy attenuation of the radio signal. Hence, the radio receiver
should be capable of receiving very weak signals. In other words, the receiver should
have high sensitivity.
Fading: Where there are obstacles between the base station and the terminal (hills, buildings,
etc.), the signal strength goes down further, which is known as fading.
In densely populated urban areas, the signal can take more than one pathone signal path
can be directly from the base station to the terminal and another path can be from the base
station to a building and the signal reflected from the building and then received at the
terminal.
Sometimes, there may not be a line of sight between the base station and terminal antennas,
and hence the signals received at the terminals are from different paths. The received signal is
the sum of many identical signals that differ only in phase. As a result, there will be fading of
the signal, which is known as multipath fading or Rayleigh fading.
Note: Multipath fading is predominant in mobile communication systems. The mobile
phone receives the signals that traverse different paths.
Rain attenuation: The rain affects radio frequency signals. Particularly in some frequency
bands, rain attenuation is greater. When designing radio systems, the effect of rain (and hence
the path loss) needs to be taken into consideration.
Note: Radio wave propagation is very complex, and a number of mathematical models have
been developed to study the propagation in free space.

3.2.3

Radio Spectrum

The radio spectrum is divided into different frequency bands, and each band is used for a
specific application. The details of the radio spectrum are discussed in this section.
Electrical communication is achieved by using electromagnetic waves, that is, oscillations of
electric and magnetic fields in free space. The electromagnetic waves have two main parts:
radio waves and light waves.
Distinguishing between radio waves and light waves reflects the technology used to detect
them. The radio waves are measured in frequency (Hz), and the other types of waves in terms
of wavelength (meters) or energy (electron volts).

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The electromagnetic spectrum consists of the following:
Radio waves

: 300GHz and lower (frequency)

Sub-millimeter waves

: 100 micrometers to 1 millimeter (wavelength)

Infrared

: 780 nanometers to 100 micrometers (wavelength)

Visible light

: 380 nanometers to 780 nanometers (wavelength)

Ultraviolet

: 10 nanometers to 380 nanometers (wavelength)

X-ray

: 120eV to 120keV (energy)

Gamma rays :

: 120 keV and up (energy)

The radio spectrum spans from 3kHz to 300GHz. This spectrum is divided into different
bands. Because of the differences in propagation characteristics of the waves with different
frequencies, and also the effect of atmosphere and rain on these waves, different bands are
used for different applications.
Table 3.3 gives the various frequency bands, the corresponding frequency ranges, and some
application areas in each band.
Frequency Band
Very Low
Frequency (VLF)
Low Frequency
(LF)
Medium
Frequency (MF)
High Frequency
(HF)
Very High
Frequency (VHF)
Ultra-High
Frequency (UHF)

Frequency Range
3kHz to 30kHz

Application areas
Radio navigation, maritime mobile
(communication on ships)

30kHz to 300kHz

Radio navigation, maritime mobile

300kHz to 3MHz

AM radio broadcast, aeronautical mobile

3MHz to 30MHz

Maritime mobile, aeronautical mobile

30MHz to
300MHz

Land mobile, FM broadcast, TV broadcast,

aeronautical mobile, radio paging, trunked radio
TV broadcast, mobile satellite, land mobile, radio
astronomy
Aeronautical radio navigation, radio astronomy,
earth exploration satellites
Space research, fixed satellite communication
Fixed satellite communication, meteorological
satellite communication
Fixed satellite broadcast, space research
Mobile and fixed satellite communication, satellite
broadcast
Mobile and fixed satellite communication
Inter-satellite communication, mobile satellite
communication

300MHz to 1GHz

L band

1GHz to 2GHz

S band

2GHz to 4GHz

C band

4GHz to 8GHz

X band

8GHz to 12GHz

Ku band

12GHz to 18GHz

K band

18GHz to 27GHz

Ka band

27GHz to 40GHz

Millimeter

40GHz to
300GHz

Space research, Inter-satellite communications

Table 3.3: The radio frequency spectrum and typical applications

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International Telecommunications Union (ITU) assigns specific frequency bands for each
application. Every country's telecommunications authorities in turn make policies on the use
of these frequency bands. The specific frequency bands for some typical applications are
listed here:
AM radio

535 to 1605 MHz

Citizen band radio

27MHz

Cordless telephone devices

43.69 to 50 MHz

VHF TV

54 to 72 MHz, 76 to 88 MHz, 174 to 216 MHz

Aviation

118 to 137 MHz

Ham radio

144 to 148 MHz

420 to 450 MHz

UHF TV

470 to 608 MHz

614 to 806 MHz

Cellular phones

824 to 849 MHz, 869 to 894 MHz

Personal communication services

901902 MHz, 930931 MHz, 940941 MHz

Search for extra-terrestrial intelligence

1420 to 1660 MHz

Inmarsat satellite phones

1525 to 1559 MHz, 1626.5 to 1660.5 MHz

Note: Some frequency bands such as ham radio band and the Industrial, Scientific, and
Medical (ISM) band are free bandsno prior government approvals are required to
operate radio systems in those bands.

3.2.4

Satellite Radio (Prasad)

Arthur C. Clarke proposed the concept of communication satellites. A communication

satellite is a relay in the sky. If the satellite is placed at a distance of about 36,000 km above
the surface of the earth, then it appears stationary with respect to the earth because it has an
orbital period of 24 hours. This orbit is called a geostationary orbit, and the satellites are
called geostationary satellites.
As shown in Figure 3.8, three geostationary communication satellites can cover the entire
earth.

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Figure 3.8: Three geostationary satellites covering the entire earth.

On Earth, we need satellite antennas (which are a part of the Earth stations) that point toward
the satellite for communication. A pair of frequencies is used for communication with the
satellitethe frequency used from Earth station to the satellite is called the uplink frequency,
and the frequency from the satellite to the Earth station is called the downlink frequency.
The signals transmitted by an Earth station to the satellite are amplified and then relayed back
to the receiving Earth stations.
The main attraction of communication satellites is distance insensitivity. To provide
communication facilities across the continents and also to rural and remote areas where
laying cables is difficult, satellite communication will be very attractive.
However, satellite communication has a disadvantagedelay. The propagation time for the
signal to travel all the way to the satellite and back is nearly 240 msec. Also, because the
signal has to travel long distances, there will be signal attenuation, and high-sensitivity
receivers are required at both the satellite and the Earth stations.
To develop networks using satellite communications, there are two types of configurations
mesh and star, which are shown in Figure 3.9. In mesh configuration, Earth stations
communicate with each other directly; in star configuration, the Earth stations communicate
via a central station.

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Figure 3.9: Satellite communication network configurations.

In mesh configuration, two Earth stations communicate directly via the satellite. In this
configuration, the size of the antennas at the Earth stations is large (starting from 4.5 meters
diameter).
In star configuration, there will be a central station (called the hub) and a number of Earth
stations each with a Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT). When a VSAT has to
communicate with another VSAT, the signal will be sent to the satellite, the satellite will
relay the signal to the hub, the hub will amplify the signal and resend it to the satellite, and
then the satellite will relay it to the other VSAT.
In this configuration, the roundtrip delay will be double that of the mesh configuration.
However the advantage is that smaller Earth stations can be used. VSAT communication is
now used extensively for communication networks because of the low cost.
Note: In star configuration, the size of the antenna will be very small, so the cost of an Earth
station will be low. However, the disadvantage of star configuration is that the
propagation delay is high.
ITU allocated specific frequency bands for satellite communications. Some bands used for
satellite communications are 6/4GHz, 14/12GHz, and 17/12GHz bands. As the frequency
goes up, the size of the antenna goes down, and use of higher frequencies results in lower
cost of equipment.
However, the effect of rain on signals of different frequencies varies. Rain attenuation is
more in 14/ 12GHz bands as compared to 6/4GHz bands. In addition to the geostationary
satellites, low Earth orbiting satellites also are being deployed for providing communication
facilities.
Note: The size of the satellite Earth station antenna decreases as the frequency of operation
increases. Hence, the higher the frequency of operation, the smaller the size of
antenna.
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3.2.5

Radio Spectrum Management (Prasad)

In the electromagnetic spectrum that spans from 0Hz to 1025GHz (cosmic rays), the radio
spectrum spans from 3kHz to 300GHz in VLF, LF, MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF, and EHF
bands. The only portion of the radio spectrum not allocated to anyone is 3 to 9 kHz (rather, it
is allocated to every individual for freedom of speech).
The radio spectrum is a limited natural resource, and hence international and national
authorities regulate its use. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), through the
World Administrative Radio Conferences (WARC), allots frequency bands for different
application areas. For administrative convenience, the world is divided into three regions.
The allocations for these regions differ to some extent.
All nations are bound by these regulations for frequency use. The WARC regulations are
only broad guidelines, because a centralized authority in every country manages the radio
spectrum. In the United States, the frequency spectrum is managed by the FCC (Federal
Communications Commission). In Malaysia, the agency is MCMC (Malaysian
Communications and Multimedia Commission).
The complexity of radio spectrum management results from several factors:
There are some frequency bands for the exclusive use of governmental agencies and some
for non-governmental agencies. Some frequency bands are shared. When the same band is
shared by different agencies for the same application or for different applications, it is
necessary to ensure that there is no interference between various systems.
When a frequency band is allocated for a particular application (e.g., cellular mobile
communication), the service can be provided by different operators in the same area.
Without a coordinated effort in band allocation, the spectrum cannot be used efficiently to
support a large number of users for that service in the same frequency band.
Because of higher user demands, the frequency band allocated for a particular service may
become congested and new bands need to be allocated. For example, in the case of mobile
communications, the 900MHz band got congested, and the 1800MHz band was allocated.
This type of new allocation of bands calls for long-term planning of spectrum use.
As new application areas emerge, accommodating these applications along with the
existing applications in the required frequency bands is another challenge in spectrum
management.
New technologies (better techniques for reducing bandwidth requirements, new frequency
reuse technologies, antenna technologies, etc.) lead to better utilization of spectrum.
Ensuring that the new technologies are incorporated is important in spectrum management.
Agencies will be allocated fixed frequencies for use. For various reasons, however, these
frequencies may not be used at all or may not be used efficiently. A periodic review of the
use of the spectrum is also required. A review process needs to be followed by which an
application for frequency allotment will be processed, frequencies allocated, and use
monitored.
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Radio spectrum management ensures that the allotted spectrum is being used efficiently, to
ensure that there is no interference between different radio systems and to allocate new
frequency bands for new services.
All these aspects make spectrum management a difficult task, and the need for an efficient
spectrum management methodology cannot be overemphasized.

3.2.6

Spectrum Management Activities (Prasad)

Radio spectrum management involves three major activities:

1. Spectrum assignment and selection.
Involves recommending a specific frequency band of operation for use in a given
location. For this, extensive databases containing all the information regarding the
present uses of radio spectrum have to be developed and maintained so that the effect
of the proposed frequency band uses on existing systems can be studied. Depending
on the interference considerations, specific frequency bands can be allocated.
2. Spectrum engineering and analysis.
Involves computations for installations of radio equipment at specific locations and
for predicting the system performance in the radio environment.
3. Spectrum planning.
Involves long-term/emergency planning, keeping in view, among other things, the
demands for new services and technological changes.
Because all these activities involve huge computation, various national authorities are
deploying computerized spectrum management systems. Expert systems are also being
developed to manage the spectrum efficiently.

3.2.7

Cost of Spectrum

Radio spectrum is a limited natural resource, and its optimal utilization must be ensured.
Government agencies charge users for the spectrum. The charges are generally on an annual
basis.
Nowadays, the government agencies are also using innovative methods for making money
out of the spectrum. The present trend is to auction the spectrum. The highest bidder will be
given the spectrum for a specific application. For the 3rd Generation (3G) wireless systems,
this approach has been followed, and it turned out that in most countries the spectrum cost is
much higher than the infrastructure (equipment) cost.
Operators that obtain specific frequency bands for radio services need to pay for the cost of
the spectrum.

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