TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work

This article was published in ASHRAE Journal, February 2015. Copyright 2015 ASHRAE. Posted at www.ashrae.org. This article may not be copied and/or
distributed electronically or in paper form without permission of ASHRAE. For more information about ASHRAE Journal, visit www.ashrae.org.

Part One

Radiant Heating and

Cooling Systems
BY KWANG WOO KIM, ARCH.D., MEMBER ASHRAE; BJARNE W. OLESEN, PH.D., FELLOW ASHRAE

The use of radiant heating systems has several thousand years of history.1,2 The early
stage of radiant system application was for heating purposes, where hot air from flue gas
(cooking, fires) was circulated under floors or in walls. After the introduction of plastic
piping water-based radiant heating and cooling with pipes embedded in room surfaces
(floor, wall, and ceiling), the application increased significantly worldwide. Earlier
application of radiant heating systems was mainly for residential buildings because of
its comfort and free use of floor space without any obstruction from installations. For
similar reasons, as well as possible peak load reduction and energy savings, radiant
systems are being widely applied in commercial and industrial buildings.
This two-part article describes basic knowledge of
radiant heating and cooling systems to give a principle
understanding of the design and operation of this
advantageous system including comfort, system load,
heating/cooling capacity, installation and application of
the system with examples.

Embedded Radiant Heating and Cooling System

Embedded radiant systems are used in all types of
buildings. Due to the large surfaces needed for heat
transfer, the systems work with low water temperature for heating and high water temperature for

cooling. The water temperatures are operated at very

close to room temperature, and, depending on the
position of the piping, the system can take advantage of the thermal storage capacity of the building
structure.
Figure 1 shows the available types of embedded
hydronic radiant systems. The embedded radiant systems, except thermally active building systems (TABS),
are usually insulated from the main building structure
(floor, wall and ceiling), and the actual operation mode
(heating/cooling) of the systems depends on the heat
transfer between the water and the space.

Kwang Woo Kim, Arch.D., is a professor of architecture at Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, and president of Architectural Institute of Korea. Bjarne W. Olesen, Ph.D., is
director, professor, International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, Denmark, and vice president of ASHRAE.
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TECHNICAL FEATURE

Floor

Ceiling

Wall

TABS

FIGURE 1 Examples of water based radiant systems.3

The radiant system is defined as a system where at

least 50% of the heat transfer takes place by radiation.
Figure 2 shows the total heat transfer coefficients between
a heated-cooled surface and a room. The radiant heat
transfer is, in all cases, 5.5 W/mK (0.97 Btu/hftF).
The convective heat transfer then varies between 0.5
and 5.5 W/mK (0.09 and 0.97 Btu/hftF), depending on the surface type and on heating or cooling mode.
This shows that the radiant heat transfer varies between
50% and 90% of the total heat transfer. The heat transfer coefficient for cold ceiling and warm floor will vary
between 9 and 11 W/mK (1.59 and 1.94 Btu/hftF),
depending on the temperature difference between surface and room.
The radiant heat transfer does not directly affect the
room air temperature. The long wave radiation heats or
cools the surrounding surfaces, which then indirectly
heats or cools the room air.

Standard for Radiant Heating and Cooling Systems

As the heat transfer process between water and room
is quite different from conventional air systems, an
international standard on radiant heating and cooling
systems has been developed based on system design and
existing standards from different countries and was
published in 2012.
ISO 11855, Building Environment DesignDesign,
Dimensioning, Installation and Control of the Embedded Radiant
611
Heating And Cooling Systems, consists of six parts:
Part 1: Definition, symbols, and comfort criteria;
Part 2: Determination of the design and heating and
cooling capacity;
Part 3: Design and dimensioning;
Part 4: Dimensioning and calculation of the dynamic
heating and cooling capacity of thermo active building
systems;

Btu/hft2F
2.03
1.85
1.67
1.50
1.32
1.14
0.97
Heating

1.94

1.94

1.41
1.41

1.06
1.23
Cooling

Floor

Ceiling

Wall

FIGURE 2 Heat transfer coefficients between heated/cooled surface and room.4,5

Part 5: Installation; and

Part 6: Control.

Comfort
Occupants thermal comfort is the primary objective in radiantly heated or cooled space. To provide an
acceptable thermal environment for the occupants, the
requirements for general thermal comfort shall be taken
into account by using the index of predicted mean vote
(PMV) or operative temperature, to, and local thermal
comfort, e.g., surface temperature, vertical air temperature differences, radiant temperature asymmetry, draft,
etc.
For radiant or convective systems the comfort requirements are the same when expressed by the PMV-PPD
index (0.5 < PMV <+0.5) or expressed as an operative
temperature range corresponding to: 20C to 24C (68F
to 75.2F) for heating season and 23C to 26C (73.4F
to 78.8F) for cooling season in spaces with sedentary
12,13
activity.
14,15
The operative temperature is the combined influence of air temperature and mean radiant temperature.
The operative temperature can be approximated with
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TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work

Y
80%
60%
40%

0F 3.6F 7.2F 10.8F 14.4F 18F

20%

20%

10%
8%
6%
4%

10%
8%
6%
4%

2%

2%
X

1%

X=Air Temperature Difference Between Head and Feet

0F 9F 18F 27F 36F 45F 54F 63F

Y
80%
60%
40%

1%

Y=Dissatisfied

X
X=Radiant Temperature Asymmetry
2=Cool Wall

FIGURE 3Local thermal discomfort caused by vertical air temperature difference.6

Y=Dissatisfied
3=Cool Ceiling

1=Warm Ceiling
4=Warm Wall

to = 0.5(ta + tr)
Where
ta = air temperature F (C)
tr = mean radiant temperature F (C)
The occupants can maintain the same comfort level
with a lower air temperature in a radiantly heated
space, and the same comfort level with a higher air
temperature in a radiantly cooled space in comparison
to convective heating and cooling systems. Therefore,
reduction of the energy loss due to ventilation and infiltration is possible while maintaining the same comfort
level compared with conventional heating and cooling
systems.
As the reference temperature for the transmission heat
loss is closer to the operative temperature than to the air
temperature, there will not be any significant difference
of transmission heat loss between radiantly heated or
cooled spaces.
Interestingly enough, the difference between air- and
mean radiant temperature is normally smaller in radiantly heated or cooled spaces. This is due to the fact
that in winter the windows will have a lower surface
temperature than the air temperature, which is compensated by a higher surface temperature of the radiant
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100

80

0.3
0.2

Dissatisfied (%)

the simple average of air and mean radiant temperature

in spaces with low air velocities (<0.2 m/s [39 fpm]), or
with a small difference between mean radiant temperature and air temperature (<4K, 7F).
The operative temperature (to) is in spaces with low air
velocities determined from the following expression:

50.4F

60

0.1
0.0

40
20

41.4F

0.1

32.4F

0.2
0.3

Acceptability

FIGURE 4 Local thermal discomfort caused by radiant temperature asymmetry.6

1.0
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Relative Humidity (%)
FIGURE 5 Human satisfaction with the IAQ depending on relative humidity and air

temperature.3

system and vice-versa in summer. With air systems the

colder window temperatures in winter will be compensated by a higher air temperature, which will result
in an air temperature higher than the mean radiant
temperature.
For rooms with sedentary and/or standing occupants,
the maximum permissible floor temperature for heating
is 29C (84F), and the minimum floor temperature for
cooling is 19C (66F). For spaces with occupants in bare
feet (bathrooms, swimming pools, dressing rooms, etc.),
the optimal floor temperature for comfort also depends
on the floor covering material.
For wall heating, a maximum surface temperature
range of 35C to 45C (95F to 113F) is recommended.
The maximum may depend on whether the occupants

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TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work

Type A and C

Type B

5
3

1=Floor Covering
3=Thermal Insulation

Type D

Type G

Flooring Material

Joist

2=Weight Bearing and Thermal Diffusion Layer (Cement Screed, Anhydrite Screed, Asphalt Screed or Wood)
4=Structural Base 5=Heat Diffusion Device

FIGURE 6 Embedded radiant system types.7

may easily get contact with the surface or whether occupants are more sensitive persons such as children or the
elderly. Wall cooling is limited by the risk of condensation and the development of a downdraft of cold air.
A vertical air temperature difference between head
and feet of less than 3K (5.4F) is recommended. Most
heating and cooling systems will, in modern buildings,
normally have vertical air temperature differences
within this limit. In high ceiling spaces it is, for energy
reasons, important to avoid large vertical temperature
differences. This is why floor heating is especially recommended here (atrium, foyer, industrial space, etc.)
People are very sensitive to radiant temperature
asymmetry from a cold window and a warm ceiling.
Occupants may feel discomfort caused by a temperature
asymmetry of 5K (9F) for warm ceiling, and a temperature asymmetry of 10K (18F) for walls or windows (Figure
4, Page 30). The critical factor at cold surfaces (windows,
walls) is, however, the risk of downdraft that may cause
discomfort.
The radiant heating and cooling system operates with
less dust transportation, as it is not a convective system,
and does not require the cleaning of heat emitters or
filters. With the radiant floor heating systems, carpets
are not necessary. Thus, the possible allergen sources of
emitting pollutants and a sink source can be eliminated.
The higher mean radiant temperature in radiantly
heated space means that the air temperature can be
kept lower than in convectively heated space. This has
the advantage that the relative humidity in winter may
be a little higher. Studies show that lower air temperature and lower air humidity have a significant effect
3
on perceived air quality (Figure 5 ). Due to the higher
heating surface temperatures, there is less chance
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for condensation and mold growth. The relationship

between air temperature and humidity is one of important comfort issues in radiantly cooled spaces. Where
the humidity is not controlled by the air system, as in
naturally ventilated spaces, radiant cooling capacity will
be limited to avoid the forming of condensation on the
radiant surface (see section on control in Part 2 of this
article in next months Journal).
With air heating or cooling system more air has to
be circulated than the amount needed for providing
acceptable air quality. This may increase the noise level
in a space and also increase the risk for complaints
related to draft. When a part of sensible heating and/
or cooling load is taken care of by a water-based radiant system, the ventilation system may have reduced
duct size and lower air velocity because it will only
treat the air renewal for required IAQ and, if needed,
dehumidification.
In buildings with thermally active building systems
(TABS) you will normally prefer to have free access to
the concrete surface to increase the heat transfer with
the room. This may require special solutions for the
acoustics. Acoustic panels on the ceilings and suspended
ceiling panels will reduce heat transfer. It will be more
16
efficient to hang down vertical acoustical panels. The
application of the raised floor or the thermal/acoustic
insulation in floor will decrease the upper heat flow
from the TABS, which normally is much less than the
heat exchange from the ceiling.

Load Calculations and Heating/Cooling Capacity

At a given average surface temperature and indoor
temperature (operative temperature, to), a surface
will deliver the same amount of heat flux to a space

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TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work

Structure S4
q=0

qup=112.6 Btu/h
q=0

Material

Temperature (F)
78.8

Floor Covering
=0.08 Btuin/hft2F
s=0.6 in.

77

Screed
=0.40 Btuin/hft2F
s=2.4 in.

73.4

75.2

71.6

Thermal Insulation
=0.01 Btuin/hft2F
s=1.2 in.

69.8
68

Concrete
=0.70 Btuin/hft2F
s=7.1 in.

66.2
64.4
qdown=22.3 Btu/h

FIGURE 7 Temperature distribution and cooling effect up and down for a floor system calculated by FEM software for a floor cooling system with 19C (66.2F) water tem-

peratures and 26C (78.8F) room temperature.

regardless of the embedded radiant system type.

Therefore, it is possible to establish basic formulas or
characteristic curves of heating and cooling for the all
heating and cooling surfaces independent of the embedded system types. The heat transfer between the surface
and the space do, however, depend on the different surface heat transfer coefficients (Figure 2).
The heat transfer between the water and surface is different for each system configuration. Therefore, the estimation of heating/cooling capacity of systems is very important
for the proper system design. Two calculation methods
7
included in ISO 11855-2 are simplified calculation methods depending on the type of system, and finite element
method (FEM) or finite difference method (FDM). Given
system types are Types A and C, Type B, Types D and G.
The simplified calculation methods are specific for the
given system types within boundary conditions. Based
on the calculated average surface temperature at given
heat transfer medium temperature and space temperature, it is possible to determine the steady state heating
and cooling capacity. In case a simplified calculation
method is not applicable for the considered system,
either two- or three-dimensional finite element or finite
difference method, or laboratory testing may be applied.
The temperature distribution in floor cooling system,
calculated using FEM software, is shown in Figure 7.
Heat exchange coefficient is the parameter that
determines the amount of heat transferred between
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surface and the space in relation with the system type.

Acceptable surface temperature is determined based on
comfort considerations and the risk of condensation.
7
Heating/cooling capacity of the systems is:
Floor heating and ceiling cooling, q = 8.92 (to tS,m )1.1;
Wall heating and wall cooling, q = 8 (|to tS,m |);
Ceiling heating, q = 6 (|to tS,m |);
Floor cooling, q = 7 (|to tS,m |).
Where
to (C) is the operative temperature in the space
tS,m (C) is the average surface temperature
The ceiling has the capacity up to 100 W/m (31.7
Btu/hft) for sensible cooling and 40 to 50 W/m (12.7
to 15.9 Btu/hft) for heating. The floor has the capacity up to 100 W/m (31.7 Btu/hft) for heating and
40 W/m (12.7 Btu/hft) for sensible cooling. When
direct sunlight strikes on the floor, the sensible cooling
capacity of the floor may be more than 100 W/m (31.7
Btu/hft). This is why floor cooling is often adopted in
spaces with large window area like airports, atria and
lobby halls.
For the thermally active building systems (TABS), the
steady-state heating/cooling capacity calculation is not
sufficient, and analysis with a dynamic computational
program that can predict the dynamic behavior and
performance of the system together with the building

TECHNICAL FEATURE

17,1

Cooling Power (Btu/h)

is needed. Several programs exist such

Energy Plus, TRNSYS and IDA-ICE.
One of the main advantages of TABS are
4
reduced building height. For each story, you
2
may save 500 to 600 mm (1.8 to 2 ft) of build1
3
ing height, which for a seven-story building amounts to an entire story and related
building materials. As no suspended ceiling
is needed to cover air ducts, significant saving of building materials is possible. It is also
possible to operate the system at 30% to 50%
lowered peak loads allowing reduced plants
1=Heat Gain
2=Power Needed for Conditioning the Ventilation Air
sizes and possible operation of heating/cool3=Power Needed on Water Side
4=Peak Heat Gain Reduction
ing systems with temperatures close to room
FIGURE 8 Example of peak-shaving (reducing the peak load) effect (time vs. cooling power).17
temperature, allowing increased plants efficiency and use of renewable energy sources
over 24 hours and by an air system normally over 8 to
(ground heat exchanger, evaporative cool10 hours. After the water circulation in the slab may
ing, etc.).
have been stopped during the day and will be started
Thermally active building systems exploit the high
thermal inertia of the slab to perform peak shaving. The again in the evening, there will be a high peak cooling load between the heated slab and the cool water;
peak shaving reduces the peak in the required cooling
7
but this should not be used to size the chiller as it is a
power, so that it is possible to cool the structures of the
very short peak and the capacity needed will after some
building during a period in which the occupants are
minutes decrease significantly. It can be somewhat comabsent (during nighttime in office premises). This way,
the cooling can be delayed and lower nighttime electric- plicated to calculate the needed capacity on the water
side (chiller, heat pump); therefore, a dynamic building
ity rates can be used. At the same time, a reduction in
simulation is recommended.
the size of heating/cooling system components (including the chiller) is possible.
System Design
During daytime, the heat is extracted from the occuRadiant system design requires determining heatpied space by the ventilation system and stored in the
ing/cooling
surface area, type, pipe size, pipe spacing,
concrete slabs. Then, during nighttime, the level of vensupply temperature of the heat transfer medium, and
tilation is reduced and the circulation of cool water in
design medium flow rate. The design steps are as follows
the slabs will remove the stored heat.
8
(ISO 11855-3 ):
For the conventional air system, the space load will
1. Calculate the design heating and sensible cooling
be the instantaneous system load, because all the heat
load in accordance with a standard for heating and cooldelivered to the space is immediately removed by the
ing load calculation based on operative temperature.
air system. For the radiant system and especially for
2. Determine the minimum supply air quantity
a TABS the calculated design space load should not be
needed
for ventilation and dehumidification. In cooling
used as system load. For both an air system and a TABS,
application, calculate latent cooling and sensible cooling
it is important that the room load over a 24-hour day
available from supply air. Determine remaining sen(Curve 1 in Figure 8) is removed within the 24 hours, else
sible cooling load to be satisfied by radiant system. Also,
the room will get warmer and warmer day by day if the
designate or calculate the relative humidity and dew
weather stays the same. The difference is that with a
point, because the cooling system should operate within
TABS this load is removed from the space in three ways:
absorption in the concrete slab, removed by the ventila- a surface temperature range above the dew point, which
shall be specified depending on the respective climate
tion system and removed by the water circulating in the
conditions in the country. By limiting supply water
slabs. Therefore, the load is removed by a slab system
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TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work

temperature to be maintained above

dew point, the risk of condensation
can be easily avoided.
3. Determine the surface area for
radiant system, excluding any area
covered by objects immovable or
fixed to the building structure.
4. Establish a maximum permissible surface temperature and a minimum permissible surface temperature in consideration of the dew point.
5. Determine the design heat flux,
including the design heat flux of peripheral area and the design heat flux
of occupied area. For the design of the
cooling systems, determine the room
with the maximum design heat flux.
6. Determine the radiant system
such as the pipe spacing and the covering type, and design heating and
cooling medium differential temperature based on the maximum design
heat flux and the maximum and
minimum surface temperature from
the field of characteristic curves.
7. If the design heat flux cannot
be obtained by any pipe spacing
alternatives for the room of design, it
is recommended to provide supplementary heating/cooling equipment.
In this case, the maximum design
heat flux for the embedded system
may now occur in another room.
8. Determine the thermal resistance of backside insulating layer
and the design heating/cooling
medium flow rate.
9. Estimate the total length of
circuit.
Hydronic radiant surface systems
are very often coupled with an airhandling system. The air-handling
system usually operates only with
the amount of air needed for acceptable indoor air quality, the required
IAQ standard, or amount of air
needed to remove latent heat from
36

TABLE 1 
System design example for panel cooling.
STEP

FIND

A = 10 m2 (108 ft2), V = 30 m3 (1,059

ft3) Room is Given to be Installed with
Radiant System and HVAC System

Calculate Cooling Load Based on Operative Temperature

Cooling Load (Latent)
Cooling Load (Sensible)

Qc,latent = 150 W (512 Btu/h)

Qc,sensible = 1,000 W (3,416 Btu/h)

Determine Minimum Supply Air Quantity

VHVAC,min = 0.7 ACH = 21 CMH (12.4 CFM)

Calculate Latent Cooling Available From

Supply Air

QHVAC,latent = Qc,latent = 150 W (512 Btu/h)

Sensible Cooling Available From Supply

Air

Assuming the SHF (Sensible Heat Factor) of HVAC, SHF =

(QHVAC,sensible / QHVAC,total) = 0.7
QHVAC,total = QHVAC,latent / (1 - SHF)
= QHVAC,latent / 0.7 = 500 W (1,708 Btu/h)
Then, QHVAC,sensible = QHVAC,total QHVAC,latent
= 500 W 150 W = 350 W
(1,196 Btu/h) is available from
supply air of HVAC

Design the Relative Humidity

And Dew Point

EXAMPLE

RH = 50 %, Tdew = 14.8C (58.6F)

Determine Remaining Sensible Cooling

Load to be Satisfied by Radiant System Remaining Qc,sensible = Qc,sensible - QHVAC,sensible
= 1,000W 350 W
= 650 W (2,220 Btu/h)
3

Determine the Available Surface Area

Aavailable = 5 m2 (53.8 ft2), 50% of ceiling area is available

for radiant system

Establish a Minimum Permissible

Surface Temperature

Tsurf,min = 17C (62.6F) is acceptable for cooled ceiling*

(which is higher than dew point temperature)

Determine Maximum Design Heat Flux

Qc,max = 99 W/m2 (31.4 Btu/hft2) is allowed for cooled

ceiling*

Determine Radiant System

Selected Radiant System has cooling capacity of 80 W/m2

(25.4 Btu/hft2).

Pipe Spacing
Covering Type
Design Cooling Medium Differential
Temperature
Design heating capacity of radiant
system,

mT = 0.2 m (8 in.)
punched aluminum sheet
Tm = 2C (3.6F)
5 m2 = 400 W (1,366 Btu/h)

Select Supplementary
Cooling Equipment

Required cooling capacity of Supplementary

Cooling Equipment
Qout = Remaining Qc,sensible Qdes
= 650 W 400 W = 250 W (854 Btu/h)

Determine Thermal Resistance of

Backside Insulating Layer
Cooling Medium Flow Rate

Rcover = 0.021 m2K/W (0.12 hft2F/Btu)

m = 0.0478 kg/s (6.3 lb/min),
ensured of fully developed flow in pipe
If the resistance of backside insulation is high, the cooling
medium flow rate could be lowered.

Estimate Total Length Of Circuit

Lcir = Aavailable / mT = 5 m2 / 0.2 m = 25 m (82 ft)

*ISO 11855-2: Building environment design Design, dimensioning, installation and control of embedded radiant
heating and cooling systems Part 2: Determination of the design heating and cooling capacity.

A S H R A E J O U R N A L ashrae.org FEBRUARY 2015

TECHNICAL FEATURE

the space and control air humidity level, while the hydronic
system supplies or removes the sensible heat depending on
the seasonal conditions. In the cooling mode, the air system
can play a key role in avoiding surface condensation.
Part 2 of this article will cover control, operation,
installation and application of the system.

Acknowledgments
This article was supported by VELUX guest professorship, and a grant
from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the
Korean government (MEST) (No. 2014-050381).

References
1. Bean, R., Olesen, B.W., Kim, K. W. 2010. History of Radiant
Heating & Cooling Systems, Part 1. ASHRAE Journal (1):4046.
2. Bean, R., Olesen, B.W., Kim, K. W. 2010. History of Radiant
Heating & Cooling Systems, Part 2. ASHRAE Journal (2):5055.
3. REHVA. 2007. Guidebook No 7: Low Temperature Heating and
High Temperature Cooling.
4. Olesen, B.W. 1997. Possibilities and limitations of radiant floor
cooling. ASHRAE Transactions 103(1):4248.
5. Olesen, B.W., Michel, E., Bonnefoi, F., De Carli, M. 2000. Heat
exchange coefficient between floor surface and space by floor cooling: theory or a question of definition. ASHRAE Transactions, Part I.
6. ISO 11855-1:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimensioning, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling

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systems Part 1: Definition, symbols, and comfort criteria.

7. ISO 11855-2:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimensioning, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling systems Part 2: Determination of the design and heating and cooling capacity.
8. 8. ISO 11855-3:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimensioning, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 3: Design and dimensioning.
9. ISO 11855-4:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimensioning, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 4: Dimensioning and calculation of the dynamic heating and
cooling capacity of Thermo Active Building Systems (TABS).
10. ISO 11855-5:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimensioning, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 5: Installation.
11. ISO 11855-6:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimensioning, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 6: Control.
12. ASHRAE Standard 55-2010, Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy.
13. ISO EN 7730-2005, Moderate thermal environmentsdetermination of
the PMV and PPD indices and specification of the conditions for thermal comfort.
14. 2012 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment.
15. ISO EN 7726-1998, Ergonomics of the thermal environment- Instruments for measuring physical quantities.
16. Weitzmann, P., Pittarello, E., Olesen, B.W. 2008. The cooling
capacity of the thermo active building system combined with acoustic ceiling. Presented at Nordic Symposium on Building Physics.
17. Olesen, B.W. 2012. Thermo active building systems using
building mass to heat and cool. ASHRAE Journal 54(2):4452.

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