EDUCATION

Writing an academic essay:

a practicai guide for nurses
Yannette Booth

tudents taking undergraduate or

diploma courses often spend a substantial amount of time preparing academic
essays. Learning academic writmg skills can
be a major hurdle for students. Some have
limited prior experience and may lack
confidence or have a poor self-image in relation ro writing (Sorrell, 1991; Wilson, 1991).
Anecdotal evidence suggests thar academic
wntmg remains a source of anxiety for many
undergraduates as they lack understanding of
whar rhe wriring process involves and fear
whar may be expected of them.
With this in mind, this arricle provides
practical guidance on essay wriring. The relevant literature is reviewed, and the followmg
key steps are described:
# Analysing the task
# Exploring the subject
0 Planning rhe essay
9 Writing the account
# Revising the drafts.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN ACADEMIC
ACCOUNT
The developmenr of higher order rhinking
skills has been adopted as an educational goal
in order to prepare nurses to meet the challenges of rhe rapidly changing, complex
health-care sysrem. There is almosr universal
agreement that essays at undergraduate level
should be analytical rather than descriptive
and should demonstrate rhe development of
critical thinking (Jones and Brown, 1991;
Bowers and McCarthy, 1993).
Higher order rhinking is characterized by
rhe ability to:
# Present and explore a range of alrernarive
viewpoints and comprehend rhar rhere
may be equally valid inrerpretations on
any one issue
# Challenge accepted knowledge, practice,
ideology and values, and recognize
the difficulties in establishing objective
facts in nursing

Abstract
Writing academic essays can be a maior hurdle and source of anxiety for*
many students. Fears and misconceptions relating to this kind of wrtttng
can be dispeiied If the task Is approached In a Io0cal and systematic
manner. This articie outlines the key steps involved In successfully
completing an essay and provides some practical tips to facllftate crMt
and analytical writing. These steps are: analysing the task; explortng tfie'
subject; ptanning the essay; writing the account; and revising the drafts.
Although this process is chalien^ng, academic writing Is a means of
developing both personally and professionally.

9 Understand the contextual nature of

knowledge, i.e. sound sratemenrs and
arguments may depend on their relevance
ro a specified context
# Offer new possibihries and explanarions
# Make an informed commirmenr to one
perspecrive, while maintaining an understanding of and a respect for the others
(Allen et al, 1989; Miller, 1992; Bowers
and McCarthy, 1993; Jones and Brown,
1993; Glen, 1995).
While nor exhaustive, these criteria indicate
thar writing a scholarly paper involves more
than compiling the relevant information. It
requires studenrs to learn how to comprehend, select and apply that information
(Bowers and McCarthy, 1993). The key point
is thar in order ro wrire well it is necessary to
learn how to think, not just what ro think.
Writing for academic purposes can be a
valuable learning experience. It helps to develop the ability ro critically select knowledge relevant to pracrice and allows an in-deprh
examinarion of chosen topics. Above all, it
encourages organized thmking and reasoned
points of view (Jones and Brown, 1991), skills
which are vital for nursing practice.
THE WRITING PROCESS

No single approach to wriring will suir every

individual or every writing task. It may be
helpful ro divide the assignment into a series

Yannette Booth is Lecturer

in Cancer Nursing. Tbe
Institute of Cancer
Research, The Royal
Martdcn Hospital,!

EDUCATION

Academic
writing often
takes a critical
approach, and it is
likely that more will
be required than a
summary of the
relevant literature.
If there is any
uncertainty about
what sort of
approach to take,
the issue should be
discussed with a
tutor or
supervisor.

of smaller, more manageable steps. While

these steps are noi always tullowcd m the
same sequence or in the same way by all students, approaching the task in this manner
may offer increased confidence and control
(Norihedgc,
ANALYSING T I C TASK
Spending time thinking carefully about the
essay title and examining precisely what is
required is a vital part of producing a good
essay. Guidelines on referencing style, line
spacing and presentation are usually provided
by tutors or departments.
Addressing the assignment involves highIightmg key words and phrases which will
determme the style, structure and content of
the essay. Directive words, including
'analyse', 'discuss' or 'illustrate' indicate the
required approach. For example, 'discuss'
may mean to break an issue down into its
component parts, discuss and evaluate these,
show how these interrelate with reference to
known authorities, as well as including one's
own views (Rowntree, 1988).
Academic writing often involves a critical
approach and not simply a summary of the
relevant literature. The issue should be discussed with a tutor or supervisor if there is
uncertainty about what approach to take.
EXPLORING THE SUBJECT
Once it is clear what is required, inquiry into
the subiect and the collection of relevant
resources can begin. Carrying out a computerized search is a good way to start collecting
information. CD-ROM data bases are available in most academic libraries and may also

Ke accessed by using the Internet. Further

information may develop independently or
from conversations with colleagues at work,
seminars or newspaper articles. It is helpful to
record ideas and precise references in a journal or card file.
It is worth being selective regardmg what literature to read. Deciding on a deadline for the
completion of a literature search is recommended, otherwise essays/dissertations may
be overcrowded with references and not
show evidence of independent thought
or comment. Rowntree (1988) recommends
formulating a set of initial questions before
searching through the literature. More specific
questions will arise as reading and reflecting
progress.
In order to show evidence of analysis and
critical thinking it is useful to select papers
that relate well to each other and present a
variety of perspectives on the chosen topic. It
is important to compare the different
approaches taken by authors in examining an
issue and also to consider whether the views
expressed are diverse, conflicting or complementary. This form of cross-comparison
will make it easier to draw out the main
themes and points. It will also help to develop diverse perspectives as these will be useful
when It comes to writing the essay. The
questions outlined in Table 1 are intended
as a guide to help formulate conclusions
about the value of an article. These may also
be helpful when deciding on its relevance
to practice.
At this stage all the information necessary
for the essay should be available. The particular focus of the assignment and the
argument it will pursue should have
been decided.

Table 1. Questions to ask in relation to critical reading

Do the authors clearly articulate their perspective, present good arguments or evidence
to support their position?
Can the authors be regarded as authoritative and unbiased?
Do the findings contribute to nursing knowledge or improve nursing practice?

I
I

Do I agree with the perspectives presented? Why might some findings be better than others in particular settings?
Were there important issues or questions that were not addressed?
What are the implications for nursing, now or In the future?
Source: Poltt and Hungler (1993): Price (1994)

WRITING AN ACADEMIC ESSAY: A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR NURSES

PLANNING THE ESSAY

Once notes have been made on the relevant
points In the literature, it Is useful to reorganize
the material and develop an outline for the
answer. This involves organizing themes which
have emerged from the Iiterature as well as
details needed to support, explain or illustrate
ideas. A good essay plan will give direction and
a basic structure with which to work.
SORTING IDEAS
When deciding what to discuss and what message to put across in the essay it Is possible to
work either directly from the notes or to put
them to one side. In both cases it is important
to write down what is known about the subject, including the main points and emerging
themes. Time should be taken to decide what
angle the essay will take and to review different viewpoints on the issues involved.
The evidence relevant to the question
should be reconsidered and re-evaluated.
Relationships between the different pieces of
information should now be established, and
consideration given as to what the Implications of this might be? For example, early in
this article the key themes in the essay writing
process were identified. The literature and
personal perspectives on this subiect were then
organized according to those themes. This
allowed the comparison between the personal
views of the author and those presented in the
literature to occur in an ordered and manageable way. Combining personal views with a
variety of other perspectives is preferable to
reporting each perspective in turn.
ORGANIZING IDEAS
In order to present a structured and logical
account, ideas should be organized using rhe
basic framework of introduction, main body
and conclusion.
The introduction
The introduction gives an outline of what will
be said later in the essay. It should make some
comment on the topic and summarize the
approach that is to he taken. This may include
emphasizing the importance of the subject, giving a definition of key terms or outlining the
main issues. Marshall and Rowland (1983)
suggest that an introduction may include:

# A question that will be answered later

# A statement of the case to be argued
# An outline of the reasons for focusing on
specific aspects of a general topic
# A selection of data to establish that an
issue is worth writing about
# A quotation which conveys the key ideas
ro be discussed.
It is vital that the reader can understand
how the question is to be answered in the
essay. An overview of the issues to be discussed and the reasons why, and a summary
of how the essay will develop gives the reader useful guidance. One way of linking
the introduction to the conclusion is to
suggest what the main findings will be.
For example:
This paper will provide practical
guidance on the process of academic
essay writing. Following a review of the
requirements of an academic account,
the key steps will be described. These
include...
The main body of the essay
This IS where the main ideas and arguments
of the essay and the material to support them
are presented. Examples, illustrations and
personal reflections should be drawn from a
knowledge of the literature, personal experience and professional practice.
It is helpful to begin the main body of the
essay by referring back to the essay title/question and to consider how each idea contributes to the overall essay. In this way, irrelevant or repetitive material can be discarded,
and ways of weaving relevant arguments into
the text can be found. Points should follow
on from each other in a logical sequence and
lead clearly to the conclusion. Once the essay
plan has heen sketched out, issues can be listed under each point and substantiated by
referring to the literature. Personal observations may also be included.
The conclusion
The conclusion is a summary of the essay's
main ideas and should not introduce new
arguments. Either a tentative or a more definite conclusion can be offered, depending on
which IS more appropriate, bur it must be
based on the preceding discussion. Wider
implications for the nursing profession
should be highlighted, as well .is future trends
or scof>e for futurt consideration. The fin.il

The main body

of the essay is
where the main
ideas and
arguments...and the
material to support
them are presented.
Examples,
illustrations and
personal reflecdons
should be drawn
both from a
knowledge of the
literature and
from persona]
experience and
professional
practice.

EDUCATION

Table 2 . Link words and signposts

To indicate a contrast: but: however; on the other hand
To provide an illustration: for example; that is
To extend a point: similarly: however; furthermore
To indicate a conclusion: therefore; consequently; as a result; thus
To indicate the next step: then; after; ultimately
In short
As we have seen
Or more directly
To summarize
Having dealt with X we can now consider Y

(1992) suggests that the purpose of personal

experiences is to illustrate what is meant
when a particular point is made and not to
prove a case. He suggests that personal observation should never be used as reliable evidence on which to base an argument.
All ideas and information taken from other
authors must be referenced accurately.
Authors' work used in the essay but not
acknowledged constitutes plagiarism, or
literary theft, which is an academic crime.
Direct quotations should be used sparingly,
and only to emphasize a specific point. When
quotations are used, they must be precise,
and usually the number of the page on
which they appear in the original publication
is given.

Source: Marshall and Rowland (1983): Northedge (1992)

conclusion may be less important than the
thoroughness and effectiveness with which
the issues are examined.
BEGINNING TO WRITE
Once the research is completed and the outline has been sketched out, writing can begin.
Misconceptions about academic writing can
make expressing ideas effectively on paper
more difficult. The following practical suggestions may be helpful.
Writer's block
Often, the hardest part of any writing proiect
is the first sentence (Pagana, 1989). Beginning
with familiar material gives a feeling of confidence and can help to minimize this difficulty. Paragraphs do not need to be written in
the order in which they will be read. The
main poini is to scan writing without worrying about grammar, references and spelling.
The 'madman role' may be helpful
(Flowers, 1981). In this role, writing is done
in a burst of enthusiasm without iudgments
being made on what is appearing on paper.
This helps to get thoughts quickly into focus,
and may prevent long periods in front of a
blank sheet of paper. Making use of the madman role can result in pages of creative material which provide a first draft.

Saying it clearly
There is a difference between spoken and
written language. Words must be selected
carefully and abbreviations avoided. It is
absolutely vital to make sure that the meaning
of each sentence is clear. Ir is wrong to assume
that the reader will understand if the sense is
at all vague. Writing for an academic essay
should be simple and direct, e.g. short sentences and clear paragraphs. Imposing words
or complex sentences get in the way of
intended thoughts.
Guiding the reader
The reader needs to be guided through the
essay. The introduction provides an outline of
the author's aims and intentions. The main
body of the essay should lead the reader from
one section to the next. Finally, the conclusion draws together the key points and
presents rhe final position. Some useful
link words which help to mamtain continuity
and examples of signposts which help direct
readers through the essay are provided
in Table 2.
Paragraphs should deal with one main
theme only and should link sequentially and
thematically with preceding/following paragraphs. In order to present a coherent argument, ideas, points and concepts should be
linked to one another in a logical way.
REVISIONS

Supporting arguments
Academic essays must be supported with
appropriate research and theory rather than
pcrson.il nbservjtiuns al)ntr. Northcdge

Once some of the essay has been written revisions can then be made. In order to facilitate
this editing process it is a good idea to double

WRITING AN ACADEMIC ESSAY: A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR NURSES

space the type and to begin each topic on a

separate sheet of paper. It is recommended
that m the cjrly stages of revising the essay
emphasis should be placed on the appropriateness of the content and the clarity
of expression used. Attention to detail,
i.e. specific word choices, grammar and punctuation can be dealt with In final revisions.
Table 3 outlines questions to be considered
during revision.
Leaving a few days between rewrites makes
it easier to be objective and to approach revision with a fresh point of view. Reading the
assignment aloud or asking colleagues to critique it can also be extremely helpful In determining whether or not the essay flows well
and IS readable. It may be encouraging to
know that Ernest Hemingway rewrote the
ending of A Farewell to Arms 39 times
(Pagana, 1989).
CONCLUSION
The skills needed to write academic essays
will continue to be of paramount importance
in higher education. Many individual fears
and misconceptions relating to this kind of
writing can be dispelled if the task IS

Table 3. Essay checklist

Have I answered the question?
Do I discuss material or merely
report it?
Have I argued my point, admitted
alternative views and avoided bias?
Do I apply theory to a situation?
Have I considered implications for
the future?
Do I present a coherent and logical
argument?

approached in a logical and systematic manner, and adequate time is set aside for this
process.
In this article many of the key steps
involved In successfully completing an academic essay are presented and practical tips to
facilitate critical and analytical writing provided. Although the process Is challenging.
Immense personal and professional satisfaction may he gained from successfully completing an essay.
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to learn: a reconccptualization of thinking and
writing in the nursing curriculum. J Nurs Educ
28(11:611
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Fairburn G, Winch C (1992) Reading, Writing jnd
Reasoning. A Guide for Students. Open
University Press. Buckingham
Flowers S (1981) Madman, architect, carpenter,
judge: roles and the writing process. Language
Arts 58: 834-*
Glen S (1995) Developing critical thinking in higher education. Nurse Educ Today 15: 170-6
Jones A, Brown L (1991) Critical thinking: impact
of nursing education, j Adv Nurs 16: 529-33
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definmg critical thinking through the nursing
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Polit D. Hungler B (1993) Essenttais of Nursing
Research. Methods, Appraisai and Utiiization.
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Price B (1994) Nice work. Nurs Times 90(2): 73-5
Rowntree D (1988) Learn How to Study A
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KEY POINTS

Are the aspects covered complete,

up to date and relevant?

TTie skills needed to write academic essays will continue to be of

paramount importance in higher education.

Are main points supported by

published sources, acknowledged
and referenced correctly?

At an undergraduate level essays should demonstrate the

development of higher order thinking skills.

Have I avoided mistakes of spelling,

punctuation and grammar?
Is the length and presentation
appro pn ate
Source: Rowntree (1986); Fairburn and
(1992); Northedge (1992)

^m

Fears and misconceptions relating to this kind of writing can be

dispelled if the task is approached in a logical and systematic manner.
uiai
Strategies can used to facilitate critical and analytical writing.
stn

^m

Writing IS often a means of developing both personally and

Wri'
ifessionally.