PART 1
INTRODUCTION
The endocrine system is a collection of ductless glands that secrete chemical
messages, known as hormones.
The role of the endocrine system is to maintain homeostasis and long-term
control of the human body using chemical signals (the hormones). Also, the
endocrine system works in parallel with the nervous system to control growth and
maturation along with body homeostasis.
The hormones produced by the glands of the endocrine system are passed
through the blood circulation to arrive at a target organ, which possesses a series
of cells that bear an appropriate hormone receptor. This receptor binds with the
hormone molecule and triggers a series of chemical reactions inside the cell.
As mentioned before, the endocrine system is constituted by the endocrine
glands which secrete hormones.
The major human endocrine glands include:
the hypothalamus
the pituitary gland
the thyroid gland
the pancreas
the adrenal glands
the gonads or sex organs
Gonads
HORMONES
A hormone is a messenger molecule synthesized and secreted by a group of
specialized cells that constitute an endocrine gland. These glands are
ductless, which means that their secretions (hormones) are released directly
into the bloodstream and travel elsewhere in the body to target organs, upon
which they act. Note that this is in contrast to the exocrine glands, which have
ducts for releasing the substances that they produce. Exocrine glands (not part of
the endocrine system) secrete products that are passed outside the body. Sweat
glands and salivary glands are examples of exocrine glands.
There are three general groups of hormones. These are classified as follows
according to their chemical structure:
Amino acid derivatives (like epinephrine) which are derived from amino
acids, especially tyrosine.
Peptide hormones (like insulin) which are the most numerous/diverse
group of hormones.
There are two different mechanisms of hormone action on all target cells:
Nonsteroid Hormones
Nonsteroid hormones (water soluble) do not enter the cell but bind to plasma
membrane receptors, generating a chemical signal (second messenger) inside
the target cell. Five different second messenger chemicals, including cyclic AMP
have been identified. Second messengers activate other intracellular chemicals
to produce the target cell response.
The action of
nonsteroid
hormones
Images from:
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee
Steroid Hormones
The second mechanism involves steroid hormones, which pass through the
plasma membrane and act in a two step process. Steroid hormones bind, once
inside the cell, to the nuclear membrane receptors, producing an activated
hormone-receptor complex. The activated hormone-receptor complex binds to
DNA and activates specific genes, increasing production of proteins.
The action of
nonsteroid
hormones
Images from:
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee
Anterior Pituitary
Hormones produced and released:
Growth hormone
Thyrotropin
Adrenocorticotropin
Leutinizing hormone LH
Follicle stimulating hormone FSH
Prolactin
Endorphins
GONADOTROPINS
Posterior Pituitary
Hormones released:
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Anti diuretic hormone (ADH)
2. THYROID GLAND
Isthmus
Right
lobe
Left
lobe
The thyroid gland is located in the front of the neck, below the larynx. The small,
two-inch gland consists of two lobes, one on each side of the windpipe,
connected by tissue called the isthmus.
The microscopic structure of the thyroid is quite distinctive. Thyroid epithelial
cells - the cells responsible for synthesis of thyroid hormones - are arranged in
spheres called thyroid follicles. Follicles are filled with colloid, a proteinaceous
depot of thyroid hormone precursor. In the low (left) and high-magnification (right)
images of thyroid below, follicles are cut in cross section at different levels,
appearing as roughly circular forms of varying size.
Images from:
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pat
hphys/endocrine/thyroid/
In addition to thyroid epithelial cells, the thyroid gland houses one other important
endocrine cell. Nestled in spaces between thyroid follicles are parafollicular or C
cells, which secrete the hormone calcitonin.
Most of the thyroid tissue consists of the follicular cells, which secrete iodinecontaining hormones called thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The
parafollicular cells secrete the hormone calcitonin. Iodine is essential in order for
the thyroid to produce the hormones.
Thyroid hormones are poorly soluble in water, and more than 99% of the T3 and
T4 circulating in blood is bound to carrier proteins. The principle carrier of thyroid
hormones is thyroxine-binding globulin, a glycoprotein synthesized in the liver.
Two other carriers of import are transthyrein and albumin. Carrier proteins allow
maintenance of a stable pool of thyroid hormones from which the active, free
hormones are released for uptake by target cells.
The thyroid hormones play an important role in regulating the body's metabolism
and calcium balance. The T4 and T3 hormones stimulate every tissue in the body
to produce proteins and increase the amount of oxygen used by cells. The
calcitonin hormone works together with the parathyroid hormone to regulate
calcium levels in the body. Levels of hormones secreted by the thyroid are
controlled by the pituitary gland's thyroid-stimulating hormone, which in turn is
controlled by the hypothalamus.
3. PANCREAS
The pancreas serves two principal functions. Firstly, it acts as a ducted gland,
secreting digestive enzymes into the small intestine. It also serves as a
ductless gland in that the islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon
to regulate the blood glucose level. The islet cells secrete glucagon, which
causes the liver to catabolise stored carbohydrates in order to raise a low
glucose sugar level. The islet cells also secrete insulin which causes the liver
to take excess glucose out of circulation to lower a high blood glucose level.
Insulin is required by almost all of the body's cells, but its major targets are liver
cells, fat cells and muscle cells. Insulin serves the following actions:
As shown in this
diagram, insulin and
glucagon have an
opposite effect on
liver and other tissues
for controlling bloodglucose
levels.
Together,
they
regulate the amount
of
glucose
that
circulates
in
the
blood.
4. ADRENAL GLANDS
The adrenal glands are situated on
top of the kidneys. They consist of
the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The medulla secretes epinephrine
(also known as adrenaline) and other similar hormones in response to
stressors such as fright, anger, caffeine, or low blood sugar. The cortex
secretes several classes of steroid hormones (glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoids). Despite their organization into a single gland, the medulla
and cortex are functionally different endocrine organs, and have different
embryological origins.
Cells in the adrenal medulla synthesize and secrete norepinephrine and
epinephrine. Following release into blood, these hormones bind adrenergic
receptors on target cells, where they induce essentially the same effects as direct
sympathetic nervous stimulation.
The adrenal cortex is a factory for steroid hormones. In total, at least two to three
dozen different steroids are synthesized and secreted from this tissue, but two
classes are of particular importance:
Class of Steroid
Major Representative
Physiologic Effects
Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol
http://www.martindalecenter.com/Medical1_1_EaGa.html#Endo - general
information on endocrinology
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds5_go
nads.html - a tour of the endocrine system
http://www.innerbody.com/image/endoov.html
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookENDOCR.ht
ml
THYROID GLAND
PANCREAS
ADRENAL GLANDS
GONADS
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds5_go
nads.html - sex hormones
2. Hypothyroidism
Primary hypothyroidism, the most common form, is probably an autoimmune
disease, usually occurring as a result of Hashimoto's thyroiditis and is associated
often with a firm goiter or, later in the disease process, with a shrunken fibrotic
thyroid gland with little or no function. Iodine deficiency and rare inherited
enzymatic defects can also cause hypothyroidism.
Patients with hypothyroidism have a dull facial expression and their voice is
hoarse and speech is slow. Other symptoms are facial puffiness and periorbital
swelling. In addition to that cold intolerance may be prominent; eyelids droop;
hair and the skin is coarse and dry. Weight gain is modest and is largely the
result of decreased metabolism of food and fluid retention. Patients are forgetful
and show other evidence of intellectual impairment, with a gradual change in
personality. Some appear depressed. There may be frank psychosis (myxedema
madness).
A decrease in both thyroid hormone and adrenergic stimulation causes
bradycardia. The heart may be enlarged, partly because of dilation but chiefly
because of the accumulation of a serous effusion of high protein content in the
pericardial sac. Pleural or abdominal effusions may be noted. The pericardial and
pleural effusions develop slowly, and only rarely result in respiratory or
hemodynamic distress. Patients generally note constipation. Women with
hypothyroidism often develop menorrhagia, in contrast to the hypomenorrhea of
hyperthyroidism. Hypothermia is commonly noted. Mild anemia is often present,
usually normocytic-normochromic and of unknown etiology, but it may be
hypochromic owing to menorrhagia, and sometimes macrocytic because of
associated pernicious anemia or decreased absorption of folic acid.
Myxedema coma is a life-threatening complication of hypothyroidism. Its
characteristics include a background of long-standing hypothyroidism, coma with
extreme hypothermia (temperatures 24 to 32.2 C [75.2 to 90 F]), areflexia,
seizures, CO2 retention, and respiratory depression.
Hypothroidism can be treated by oral thyroid hormone replacement. A variety of
thyroid hormone preparations are available for replacement therapy, including
synthetic preparations of T4 (L-thyroxine), triiodothyronine (liothyronine),
combinations of the two synthetic hormones, and desiccated animal thyroid.
3. Acromegaly
Acromegaly is a condition resulting from excess growth hormone production and
it results in excessive growth.
Symptoms of acromegaly vary depending on how long the patient has had the
disease. The most common symptoms are:
headaches
loss of vision
irregular menstrual cycles in women
breast milk production in women
impotence in men
The glands in the endocrine system and the hormones they secrete influence
practically every cell, organ and function of our bodies. The body s equilibrium,
the reproductive system, the immune system, the emotional well-being, blood
pressure, cholesterol, tissue function, sexual function, stress, metabolism, growth
and development, all these are influenced by healthy endocrine glands. So, it is
very important to maintain a healthy endocrine system.
However, poor nutrition and stress puts a burden on the glands, often leading to
a depleted state. For example, our adrenals release adrenalin which is produced
during stress. When our adrenals become exhausted by repeated stress, it leads
to reactive hypoglycemia. Our pancreas, in charge of sugar metabolism, can
then also become exhausted which lead to diabetes.
Like all organs, our glands need good nutrition. Vital nutrients include vitamins,
minerals, and amino acids such as C, E, B-complex, zinc, chromium, selenium,
alanine, glycine, and glutamic acid. These nutrients are necessary for proper
glandular function and as building blocks by which the glands construct their
corresponding hormones. Healthy endocrine glands help ensure our bodies get
adequate amounts of necessary hormones such as adrenalin, insulin,
testosterone, and estrogen. Without these important glands we cannot handle
stress or sugars properly, nor can we reproduce healthy children.
To sum up, a wellness plan for support of endocrine and glandular system
includes:
Regular exercise
Healthy diet emphasizing fruits and vegetables
Stress management
Avoid prolonged exposure to pesticides and other man-made chemicals
INTERNET LINKS
Http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body-nasics/endocrine.html
http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section2/chapter3d
http://www.umm.edu/endocrin/acromegaly.htm
http://www.rxwellmescenter.com/Endocrine20%and20%glandular.asp-4ok
http://www.longevityplus.net
http://www.meditationcenter.com/lecture/storms.html
BIBLIOGRAPHY (for parts 1 2)
Williams Textbook of Endocrinology Wilson, Foster, Kronenberg, Larsen Saunders
autoimmun
e
Example in
context
Primary
hypothyroidism
, the most
common form,
is probably an
autoimmune
disease
Longstanding
adjective
A condition that
results from
sensitization to
products of ones
own organs
Greek
translation
coma
hormone
injection
insulin
metabolism
polydipsia
polyuria
hypothyroidism
, coma with
extreme
hypothermia
The glands in
the endocrine
system and the
hormones they
secrete
influence
practically
every cell,
organ and
function of our
bodies.
regular insulin
injections help
the patients to
control their
blood sugar
levels
The
pancreas fails
to produce
enough
insulin
body s
equilibrium,,
metabolism,
growth, are
influenced by
healthy
endocrine
glands
Symptoms
include hunger,
polydipsia,
polyuria
Symptoms
include hunger,
polydipsia,
noun
noun
noun
noun
noun
Insensibility, stupor,
sleep
A substance
produced in one
organ, which excites
functional activity at
a distant site
Introduction of
material
under pressure into
tissues
A poly-peptide
hormone, secreted
by the -cells of the
Langerhans in the
pancreas
Chemical process
taking place in living
cells which may be
divided into
constructive or
building-up process
(anabolism) and
destructive or
breaking-down
process
(catabolism)
noun
Abnormal thirst
noun
Excessive
stroke
symptoms
polyuria
It can cause
multiple longterm
complications
including and
stroke
Symptoms of
acromegaly
vary depending
on.
production of urine
noun
Cerebrovascular
accident
A noticeable change
in the body and its
functions, evidence
of disease
noun
congenital
function
Example in
context
It can cause
multiple long-term
complications
including kidney
problems
Viruses have some
role, most clearly
shown in the
congenital rubella
syndrome;
hormones,,
controlling the body
functions
heterogeneous diabetes mellitus
is actually a group
of disorders that
are heterogeneous,
treatment
The goal of
treatment is to
restore the pituitary
gland to normal
function
Existing at birth ,
noun
The normal
special work of
an organ
Differing in
kind or in
nature
A way of curing
a disease
adjective
noun