Early theories

Materialism
Plant growth in the Hoh Rainforest
Herds of zebra and impala gathering on the Maasai Mara plain
An aerial photo of microbial mats around the Grand Prismatic Spring of Yellowsto
ne National Park
Some of the earliest theories of life were materialist, holding that all that ex
ists is matter, and that life is merely a complex form or arrangement of matter.
Empedocles (430 BC) argued that every thing in the universe is made up of a com
bination of four eternal "elements" or "roots of all": earth, water, air, and fi
re. All change is explained by the arrangement and rearrangement of these four e
lements. The various forms of life are caused by an appropriate mixture of eleme
nts.[31]
Democritus (460 BC) thought that the essential characteristic of life is having
a soul (psyche). Like other ancient writers, he was attempting to explain what m
akes something a living thing. His explanation was that fiery atoms make a soul
in exactly the same way atoms and void account for any other thing. He elaborate
s on fire because of the apparent connection between life and heat, and because
fire moves.[32]
Plato's world of eternal and unchanging Forms, imperfectly represented in ma
tter by a divine Artisan, contrasts sharply with the various mechanistic Weltans
chauungen, of which atomism was, by the fourth century at least, the most promin
ent ... This debate persisted throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism
got a shot in the arm from Epicurus ... while the Stoics adopted a divine teleol
ogy ... The choice seems simple: either show how a structured, regular world cou
ld arise out of undirected processes, or inject intelligence into the system.[33
]
?R. J. Hankinson, Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought
The mechanistic materialism that originated in ancient Greece was revived and re
vised by the French philosopher Ren Descartes, who held that animals and humans w
ere assemblages of parts that together functioned as a machine. In the 19th cent
ury, the advances in cell theory in biological science encouraged this view. The
evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin (1859) is a mechanistic explanation for t
he origin of species by means of natural selection.[34]
Hylomorphism
Hylomorphism is a theory, originating with Aristotle (322 BC), that all things a
re a combination of matter and form. Biology was one of his main interests, and
there is extensive biological material in his extant writings. In this view, all
things in the material universe have both matter and form, and the form of a li
ving thing is its soul (Greek psyche, Latin anima). There are three kinds of sou
ls: the vegetative soul of plants, which causes them to grow and decay and nouri
sh themselves, but does not cause motion and sensation; the animal soul, which c
auses animals to move and feel; and the rational soul, which is the source of co
nsciousness and reasoning, which (Aristotle believed) is found only in man.[35]
Each higher soul has all the attributes of the lower one. Aristotle believed tha
t while matter can exist without form, form cannot exist without matter, and the
refore the soul cannot exist without the body.[36]
This account is consistent with teleological explanations of life, which account
for phenomena in terms of purpose or goal-directedness. Thus, the whiteness of
the polar bear's coat is explained by its purpose of camouflage. The direction o
f causality (from the future to the past) is in contradiction with the scientifi
c evidence for natural selection, which explains the consequence in terms of a p
rior cause. Biological features are explained not by looking at future optimal r
esults, but by looking at the past evolutionary history of a species, which led

to the natural selection of the features in question.[37]

Vitalism
Vitalism is the belief that the life-principle is non-material. This originated
with Stahl (17th century), and held sway until the middle of the 19th century. I
t appealed to philosophers such as Henri Bergson, Nietzsche, Wilhelm Dilthey,[38
] anatomists like Bichat, and chemists like Liebig.[39] Vitalism included the id
ea that there was a fundamental difference between organic and inorganic materia
l, and the belief that organic material can only be derived from living things.
This was disproved in 1828, when Friedrich Whler prepared urea from inorganic mat
erials.[40] This Whler synthesis is considered the starting point of modern organ
ic chemistry. It is of historical significance because for the first time an org
anic compound was produced in inorganic reactions.[39]
During the 1850s, Helmholtz, anticipated by Mayer, demonstrated that no energy i
s lost in muscle movement, suggesting that there were no "vital forces" necessar
y to move a muscle.[41] These results led to the abandonment of scientific inter
est in vitalistic theories, although the belief lingered on in pseudoscientific
theories such as homeopathy, which interprets diseases and sickness as caused by
disturbances in a hypothetical vital force or life force.[42]
Definitions
It is a challenge for scientists and philosophers to define life.[43][44][45][46
] This is partially because life is a process, not a substance.[47][48][49] Any
definition must be general enough to both encompass all known life and any unkno
wn life that may be different from life on Earth.[50][51][52] Some may even cons
ider that life is not real at all, but a concept instead.[53]
Biology
Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, the current understanding is d
escriptive. Life is considered a characteristic of something that exhibits all o
r most of the following traits:[51][54][55]
Homeostasis: Regulation of the internal environment to maintain a constant s
tate; for example, sweating to reduce temperature.
Organization: Being structurally composed of one or more cells
the basic uni
ts of life.
Metabolism: Transformation of energy by converting chemicals and energy into
cellular components (anabolism) and decomposing organic matter (catabolism). Li
ving things require energy to maintain internal organization (homeostasis) and t
o produce the other phenomena associated with life.[51]
Growth: Maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism. A growing
organism increases in size in all of its parts, rather than simply accumulating
matter.
Adaptation: The ability to change over time in response to the environment.
This ability is fundamental to the process of evolution and is determined by the
organism's heredity, diet, and external factors.
Response to stimuli: A response can take many forms, from the contraction of
a unicellular organism to external chemicals, to complex reactions involving al
l the senses of multicellular organisms. A response is often expressed by motion
; for example, the leaves of a plant turning toward the sun (phototropism), and
chemotaxis.
Reproduction: The ability to produce new individual organisms, either asexua
lly from a single parent organism, or sexually from two parent organisms,[56][57
] "with an error rate below the sustainability threshold."[57]
These complex processes, called physiological functions, have underlying physica
l and chemical bases, as well as signaling and control mechanisms that are essen
tial to maintaining life.
Alternatives

See also: Entropy and life

To reflect the minimum phenomena required, other biological definitions of life
have been proposed,[58] many of these are based upon chemical systems. Biophysic
ists have commented that living things function on negative entropy.[59][60] In
other words, living processes can be viewed as a delay of the spontaneous diffus
ion or dispersion of the internal energy of biological molecules towards more po
tential microstates.[43][61] In more detail, according to physicists such as Joh
n Bernal, Erwin Schrdinger, Eugene Wigner, and John Avery, life is a member of th
e class of phenomena that are open or continuous systems able to decrease their
internal entropy at the expense of substances or free energy taken in from the e
nvironment and subsequently rejected in a degraded form.[62][63][64] At a higher
level, living beings are thermodynamic systems that have an organized molecular
structure.[61] That is, life is matter that can reproduce itself and evolve as
survival dictates.[65][66] Hence, life is a self-sustained chemical system capab
le of undergoing Darwinian evolution.[67][68]
Others take a systemic viewpoint that does not necessarily depend on molecular c
hemistry. One systemic definition of life is that living things are self-organiz
ing and autopoietic (self-producing). Variations of this definition include Stua
rt Kauffman's definition as an autonomous agent or a multi-agent system capable
of reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at least one thermodynami
c work cycle.[69]
Viruses
Electron micrograph of adenovirus with a cartoon to demonstrate its icosahedral
structure
Viruses are most often considered replicators rather than forms of life. They ha
ve been described as "organisms at the edge of life,"[70] since they possess gen
es, evolve by natural selection,[71][72] and replicate by creating multiple copi
es of themselves through self-assembly. However, viruses do not metabolize and t
hey require a host cell to make new products. Virus self-assembly within host ce
lls has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it may support the
hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules.[73
][74][75]
Living systems theories
The idea that the Earth is alive is found in philosophy and religion, but the fi
rst scientific discussion of it was by the Scottish scientist James Hutton. In 1
785, he stated that the Earth was a superorganism and that its proper study shou
ld be physiology. Hutton is considered the father of geology, but his idea of a
living Earth was forgotten in the intense reductionism of the 19th century.[76]
The Gaia hypothesis, proposed in the 1960s by scientist James Lovelock,[77][78]
suggests that life on Earth functions as a single organism that defines and main
tains environmental conditions necessary for its survival.[79]
The first attempt at a general living systems theory for explaining the nature o
f life was in 1978, by American biologist James Grier Miller.[80] Such a general
theory, arising out of the ecological and biological sciences, attempts to map
general principles for how all living systems work. Instead of examining phenome
na by attempting to break things down into component parts, a general living sys
tems theory explores phenomena in terms of dynamic patterns of the relationships
of organisms with their environment.[81] Robert Rosen (1991) built on this by d
efining a system component as "a unit of organization; a part with a function, i
.e., a definite relation between part and whole." From this and other starting c
oncepts, he developed a "relational theory of systems" that attempts to explain
the special properties of life. Specifically, he identified the "nonfractionabil
ity of components in an organism" as the fundamental difference between living s
ystems and "biological machines."[82]

A systems view of life treats environmental fluxes and biological fluxes togethe
r as a "reciprocity of influence",[83] and a reciprocal relation with environmen
t is arguably as important for understanding life as it is for understanding eco
systems. As Harold J. Morowitz (1992) explains it, life is a property of an ecol
ogical system rather than a single organism or species.[84] He argues that an ec
osystemic definition of life is preferable to a strictly biochemical or physical
one. Robert Ulanowicz (2009) highlights mutualism as the key to understand the
systemic, order-generating behavior of life and ecosystems.[85]
Complex systems biology (CSB) is a field of science that studies the emergence o
f complexity in functional organisms from the viewpoint of dynamic systems theor
y.[86] The latter is often called also systems biology and aims to understand th
e most fundamental aspects of life. A closely related approach to CSB and system
s biology, called relational biology,[87][88] is concerned mainly with understan
ding life processes in terms of the most important relations, and categories of
such relations among the essential functional components of organisms; for multi
cellular organisms, this has been defined as "categorical biology", or a model r
epresentation of organisms as a category theory of biological relations, and als
o an algebraic topology of the functional organization of living organisms in te
rms of their dynamic, complex networks of metabolic, genetic, epigenetic process
es and signaling pathways.[citation needed]
It has also been argued that the evolution of order in living systems and certai
n physical systems obey a common fundamental principle termed the Darwinian dyna
mic.[89][90] The Darwinian dynamic was formulated by first considering how macro
scopic order is generated in a simple non-biological system far from thermodynam
ic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short, replicating RNA molec
ules. The underlying order generating process for both types of system was concl
uded to be basically similar.[89]
Another systemic definition, called the Operator theory, proposes that 'life is
a general term for the presence of the typical closures found in organisms; the
typical closures are a membrane and an autocatalytic set in the cell',[91] and a
lso proposes that an organism is 'any system with an organisation that complies
with an operator type that is at least as complex as the cell.[92][93][94][95] L
ife can also be modeled as a network of inferior negative feedbacks of regulator
y mechanisms subordinated to a superior positive feedback formed by the potentia
l of expansion and reproduction.[96]
Origin
Life timeline
view
discuss
edit
-4500
-4000
-3500
-3000
-2500
-2000
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-1000
-500
0

Life
Photosynthesis
Eukaryotes
multicellular life
Land animals
Land plants
"Dinosaurs"
Mammals
Flowers
?
Formation
of Earth (-4540)
?
Meteorite bombardment
?
Atmospheric oxygen
?
Ediacara biota
?
Cambrian explosion
?
First evidence of life on Earth (-4100)
?
Modern-looking
humans
Axis scale: millions of years ago.
Dates prior to 1000 million years ago are speculative.
Main article: Abiogenesis
Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for at least 3.5 billion years,
[9][10][11][97] with the oldest physical traces of life dating back 3.7 billion
years.[12][13][14] All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms,
reflecting their common descent; based on these observations, hypotheses on the
origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a univers
al common ancestor, from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to proto
cells and metabolism. Models have been divided into "genes-first" and "metabolis
m-first" categories, but a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid models that c
ombine both categories.[98]
There is no current scientific consensus as to how life originated. However, mos
t accepted scientific models build on the following observations:
The Miller Urey experiment, and the work of Sidney Fox, show that conditions o
n the primitive Earth favored chemical reactions that synthesize amino acids and
other organic compounds from inorganic precursors.[99]
Phospholipids spontaneously form lipid bilayers, the basic structure of a ce
ll membrane.
Living organisms synthesize proteins, which are polymers of amino acids using in
structions encoded by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Protein synthesis entails int
ermediary ribonucleic acid (RNA) polymers. One possibility for how life began is
that genes originated first, followed by proteins;[100] the alternative being t
hat proteins came first and then genes.[101]
However, since genes and proteins are both required to produce the other, the pr
oblem of considering which came first is like that of the chicken or the egg. Mo
st scientists have adopted the hypothesis that because of this, it is unlikely t
hat genes and proteins arose independently.[102]

Therefore, a possibility, first suggested by Francis Crick,[103] is that the fir

st life was based on RNA,[102] which has the DNA-like properties of information
storage and the catalytic properties of some proteins. This is called the RNA wo
rld hypothesis, and it is supported by the observation that many of the most cri
tical components of cells (those that evolve the slowest) are composed mostly or
entirely of RNA. Also, many critical cofactors (ATP, Acetyl-CoA, NADH, etc.) ar
e either nucleotides or substances clearly related to them. The catalytic proper
ties of RNA had not yet been demonstrated when the hypothesis was first proposed
,[104] but they were confirmed by Thomas Cech in 1986.[105]
One issue with the RNA world hypothesis is that synthesis of RNA from simple ino
rganic precursors is more difficult than for other organic molecules. One reason
for this is that RNA precursors are very stable and react with each other very
slowly under ambient conditions, and it has also been proposed that living organ
isms consisted of other molecules before RNA.[106] However, the successful synth
esis of certain RNA molecules under the conditions that existed prior to life on
Earth has been achieved by adding alternative precursors in a specified order w
ith the precursor phosphate present throughout the reaction.[107] This study mak
es the RNA world hypothesis more plausible.[108]
Geological findings in 2013 showed that reactive phosphorus species (like phosph
ite) were in abundance in the ocean before 3.5 Ga, and that Schreibersite easily
reacts with aqueous glycerol to generate phosphite and glycerol 3-phosphate.[10
9] It is hypothesized that Schreibersite-containing meteorites from the Late Hea
vy Bombardment could have provided early reduced phosphorus, which could react w
ith prebiotic organic molecules to form phosphorylated biomolecules, like RNA.[c
itation needed]
In
of
ry
of

2009, experiments demonstrated Darwinian evolution of a two-component system

RNA enzymes (ribozymes) in vitro.[110] The work was performed in the laborato
of Gerald Joyce, who stated, "This is the first example, outside of biology,
evolutionary adaptation in a molecular genetic system."[111]

Prebiotic compounds may have extraterrestrial origin. NASA findings in 2011, bas
ed on studies with meteorites found on Earth, suggest DNA and RNA components (ad
enine, guanine and related organic molecules) may be formed in outer space.[112]
[113][114][115]
In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time, complex DNA an
d RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have be
en formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemica
ls, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromati
c hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the Universe, may
have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according
to the scientists.[116]
According to the panspermia hypothesis, microscopic life distributed by meteoroids
, asteroids and other small Solar System bodies may exist throughout the universe.
[117]
Environmental conditions
Cyanobacteria dramatically changed the composition of life forms on Earth by lea
ding to the near-extinction of oxygen-intolerant organisms.
The diversity of life on Earth is a result of the dynamic interplay between gene
tic opportunity, metabolic capability, environmental challenges,[118] and symbio
sis.[119][120][121] For most of its existence, Earth's habitable environment has
been dominated by microorganisms and subjected to their metabolism and evolutio
n. As a consequence of these microbial activities, the physical-chemical environ
ment on Earth has been changing on a geologic time scale, thereby affecting the
path of evolution of subsequent life.[118] For example, the release of molecular

oxygen by cyanobacteria as a by-product of photosynthesis induced global change

s in the Earth's environment. Since oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at th
e time, this posed novel evolutionary challenges, and ultimately resulted in the
formation of Earth's major animal and plant species. This interplay between org
anisms and their environment is an inherent feature of living systems.[118]
All life forms require certain core chemical elements needed for biochemical fun
ctioning. These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulf
ur the elemental macronutrients for all organisms[122] often represented by the acro
nym CHNOPS. Together these make up nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, the bulk
of living matter. Five of these six elements comprise the chemical components of
DNA, the exception being sulfur. The latter is a component of the amino acids c
ysteine and methionine. The most biologically abundant of these elements is carb
on, which has the desirable attribute of forming multiple, stable covalent bonds
. This allows carbon-based (organic) molecules to form an immense variety of che
mical arrangements.[123] Alternative hypothetical types of biochemistry have bee
n proposed that eliminate one or more of these elements, swap out an element for
one not on the list, or change required chiralities or other chemical propertie
s.[124][125]
Range of tolerance
Deinococcus radiodurans is an extremophile that can resist extremes of cold, deh
ydration, vacuum, acid, and radiation exposure.
The inert components of an ecosystem are the physical and chemical factors neces
sary for life energy (sunlight or chemical energy), water, temperature, atmosphe
re, gravity, nutrients, and ultraviolet solar radiation protection.[126] In most
ecosystems, the conditions vary during the day and from one season to the next.
To live in most ecosystems, then, organisms must be able to survive a range of
conditions, called the "range of tolerance".[127] Outside that are the "zones of
physiological stress", where the survival and reproduction are possible but not
optimal. Beyond these zones are the "zones of intolerance", where survival and
reproduction of that organism is unlikely or impossible. Organisms that have a w
ide range of tolerance are more widely distributed than organisms with a narrow
range of tolerance.[127]
To survive, selected microorganisms can assume forms that enable them to withsta
nd freezing, complete desiccation, starvation, high levels of radiation exposure
, and other physical or chemical challenges. These microorganisms may survive ex
posure to such conditions for weeks, months, years, or even centuries.[118] Extr
emophiles are microbial life forms that thrive outside the ranges where life is
commonly found. They excel at exploiting uncommon sources of energy. While all o
rganisms are composed of nearly identical molecules, evolution has enabled such
microbes to cope with this wide range of physical and chemical conditions. Chara
cterization of the structure and metabolic diversity of microbial communities in
such extreme environments is ongoing.[128]
Microbial life forms thrive even in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot on the
Earth.[129][130] Microbes also thrive inside rocks up to 1900 feet below the sea
floor under 8500 feet of ocean.[129][131]
Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an un
derstanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilize to survive such
extremes, is important for the search for life beyond Earth.[118] For example,
lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment.[132][133]
Form and function
Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells arise
from pre-existing cells by division. Cell theory was formulated by Henri Dutroc
het, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others during the early nineteenth cent
ury, and subsequently became widely accepted.[134] The activity of an organism d

epends on the total activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and
between them. Cells contain hereditary information that is carried forward as a
genetic code during cell division.[135]
There are two primary types of cells. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and other membr
ane-bound organelles, although they have circular DNA and ribosomes. Bacteria an
d Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes. The other primary type of cells are th
e eukaryotes, which have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane and membran
e-bound organelles, including mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and s
mooth endoplasmic reticulum, and vacuoles. In addition, they possess organized c
hromosomes that store genetic material. All species of large complex organisms a
re eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi, though most species of eukar
yote are protist microorganisms.[136] The conventional model is that eukaryotes
evolved from prokaryotes, with the main organelles of the eukaryotes forming thr
ough endosymbiosis between bacteria and the progenitor eukaryotic cell.[137]
The molecular mechanisms of cell biology are based on proteins. Most of these ar
e synthesized by the ribosomes through an enzyme-catalyzed process called protei
n biosynthesis. A sequence of amino acids is assembled and joined together based
upon gene expression of the cell's nucleic acid.[138] In eukaryotic cells, thes
e proteins may then be transported and processed through the Golgi apparatus in
preparation for dispatch to their destination.
Cells reproduce through a process of cell division in which the parent cell divi
des into two or more daughter cells. For prokaryotes, cell division occurs throu
gh a process of fission in which the DNA is replicated, then the two copies are
attached to parts of the cell membrane. In eukaryotes, a more complex process of
mitosis is followed. However, the end result is the same; the resulting cell co
pies are identical to each other and to the original cell (except for mutations)
, and both are capable of further division following an interphase period.[139]
Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation of colonies
of like cells. These cells can form group organisms through cell adhesion. The
individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas th
e members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specializations, maki
ng them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such organisms
are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the va
rious specialized cells that form the adult organism. This specialization allows
multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells
.[140] In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a
minor genetic change in a single molecule, called GK-PID, may have allowed orga
nisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.[141]
Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, th
ereby enhancing their adaptability. Cell signaling coordinates cellular activiti
es, and hence governs the basic functions of multicellular organisms. Signaling
between cells can occur through direct cell contact using juxtacrine signalling,
or indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the endocrine system. In mor
e complex organisms, coordination of activities can occur through a dedicated ne
rvous system.[142]
Classification
Main article: Biological classification
The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. Life i
s divided into domains, which are subdivided into further groups. Intermediate m
inor rankings are not shown.
The first known attempt to classify organisms was conducted by the Greek philoso
pher Aristotle (384 322 BC), who classified all living organisms known at that tim
e as either a plant or an animal, based mainly on their ability to move. He also
distinguished animals with blood from animals without blood (or at least withou

t red blood), which can be compared with the concepts of vertebrates and inverte
brates respectively, and divided the blooded animals into five groups: viviparou
s quadrupeds (mammals), oviparous quadrupeds (reptiles and amphibians), birds, f
ishes and whales. The bloodless animals were also divided into five groups: ceph
alopods, crustaceans, insects (which included the spiders, scorpions, and centip
edes, in addition to what we define as insects today), shelled animals (such as
most molluscs and echinoderms) and "zoophytes". Though Aristotle's work in zoolo
gy was not without errors, it was the grandest biological synthesis of the time
and remained the ultimate authority for many centuries after his death.[143]
The exploration of the American continent revealed large numbers of new plants a
nd animals that needed descriptions and classification. In the latter part of th
e 16th century and the beginning of the 17th, careful study of animals commenced
and was gradually extended until it formed a sufficient body of knowledge to se
rve as an anatomical basis for classification. In the late 1740s, Carl Linnaeus
introduced his system of binomial nomenclature for the classification of species
.[144] Linnaeus attempted to improve the composition and reduce the length of th
e previously used many-worded names by abolishing unnecessary rhetoric, introduc
ing new descriptive terms and precisely defining their meaning. By consistently
using this system, Linnaeus separated nomenclature from taxonomy.
The fungi were originally treated as plants. For a short period Linnaeus had cla
ssified them in the taxon Vermes in Animalia, but later placed them back in Plan
tae. Copeland classified the Fungi in his Protoctista, thus partially avoiding t
he problem but acknowledging their special status.[145] The problem was eventual
ly solved by Whittaker, when he gave them their own kingdom in his five-kingdom
system. Evolutionary history shows that the fungi are more closely related to an
imals than to plants.[146]
As new discoveries enabled detailed study of cells and microorganisms, new group
s of life were revealed, and the fields of cell biology and microbiology were cr
eated. These new organisms were originally described separately in protozoa as a
nimals and protophyta/thallophyta as plants, but were united by Haeckel in the k
ingdom Protista; later, the prokaryotes were split off in the kingdom Monera, wh
ich would eventually be divided into two separate groups, the Bacteria and the A
rchaea. This led to the six-kingdom system and eventually to the current three-d
omain system, which is based on evolutionary relationships.[147] However, the cl
assification of eukaryotes, especially of protists, is still controversial.[148]
As microbiology, molecular biology and virology developed, non-cellular reproduc
ing agents were discovered, such as viruses and viroids. Whether these are consi
dered alive has been a matter of debate; viruses lack characteristics of life su
ch as cell membranes, metabolism and the ability to grow or respond to their env
ironments. Viruses can still be classed into "species" based on their biology an
d genetics, but many aspects of such a classification remain controversial.[149]
In the 1960s a trend called cladistics emerged, arranging taxa based on clades i
n an evolutionary or phylogenetic tree.[150]
Linnaeus
1735[151]
Haeckel
1866[152]
Chatton
1925[153]
Copeland
1938[145]
Whittaker
1969[154]
Woese et al.
1990[147]
Cavalier-Smith
1998[155]
2 kingdoms
3 kingdoms
2 empires
4 kingdoms
5 kingdoms
3 domains
6 kingdoms
(not treated) Protista
Prokaryota
Monera Monera Bacteria
Bacteria

Archaea
Eukaryota
Protoctista
Chromista
Vegetabilia
Plantae
Fungi Fungi
Animalia
Animalia
Main article: Kingdom (biology)
Extraterrestrial life
Main articles: Extraterrestrial
solar system

Protista

Eucarya

Protozoa

Plantae

Plantae

Plantae

Animalia
Summary

Animalia

Animalia

life, Astrobiology, Astroecology and Life in the

Earth is the only planet known to harbor life. Other locations within the Solar
System that may host microbial life include the subsurface Mars, the atmosphere
of Venus,[156] and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.[
157] Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that
could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable
zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the sta
r, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive
than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the main sequence for a
shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a small
er habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the
effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mas
s range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to dev
elop.[158] The location of the star within a galaxy may also have an impact on t
he likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heav
ier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentiall
y habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability
of hosting planets with complex life.[159] The variables of the Drake equation a
re used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilization is mos
t likely to exist.[160]
Death
Main article: Death
Animal corpses, like this African buffalo, are recycled by the ecosystem, provid
ing energy and nutrients for living creatures
Death is the permanent termination of all vital functions or life processes in a
n organism or cell.[161][162] It can occur as a result of an accident, medical c
onditions, biological interaction, malnutrition, poisoning, senescence, or suici
de. After death, the remains of an organism re-enter the biogeochemical cycle. O
rganisms may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger and leftover organic mater
ial may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detri
tus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain.
One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. Death
would seem to refer to either the moment life ends, or when the state that foll
ows life begins.[162] However, determining when death has occurred requires draw
ing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is problematic, h
owever, because there is little consensus over how to define life. The nature of
death has for millennia been a central concern of the world's religious traditi
ons and of philosophical inquiry. Many religions maintain faith in either a kind
of afterlife or reincarnation for the soul, or resurrection of the body at a la
ter date.
Extinction is the process by which a group of taxa or species dies out, reducing
biodiversity.[163] The moment of extinction is generally considered the death o
f the last individual of that species. Because a species' potential range may be
very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospec
tively after a period of apparent absence. Species become extinct when they are

no longer able to survive in changing habitat or against superior competition. I

n Earth's history, over 99% of all the species that have ever lived have gone ex
tinct;[164] however, mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providin
g opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.[165]
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organi
sms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscove
red, and their placement in fossil-containing rock formations and sedimentary la
yers (strata) is known as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fo
ssil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago.[166] Hence, fos
sils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the ol
dest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.4 billion years old.[167][168]
Artificial life
Main articles: Artificial life and Synthetic biology
Artificial life is a field of study that examines systems related to life, its p
rocesses, and its evolution through simulations using computer models, robotics,
and biochemistry.[169] The study of artificial life imitates traditional biolog
y by recreating some aspects of biological phenomena. Scientists study the logic
of living systems by creating artificial environments seeking to understand the c
omplex information processing that defines such systems. While life is, by defin
ition, alive, artificial life is generally referred to as data confined to a dig
ital environment and existence.[citation needed]
Synthetic biology is a new area of biotechnology that combines science and biolo
gical engineering. The common goal is the design and construction of new biologi
cal functions and systems not found in nature. Synthetic biology includes the br
oad redefinition and expansion of biotechnology, with the ultimate goals of bein
g able to design and build engineered biological systems that process informatio
n, manipulate chemicals, fabricate materials and structures, produce energy, pro
vide food, and maintain and enhance human health and the environment.[170]
Phanerozoic Eon
Main article: Phanerozoic
The Phanerozoic Eon is the current eon in Earth's history. The Phanerozoic began
540 million years ago and continues to the present.[171] The Phanerozoic compri
ses the Paleozoic Era, the Mesozoic Era, and the Cenozoic Era. This eon is when
the diversity of life increases dramatically, starting with the Cambrian Explosi
on.
Paleozoic Era
Main article: Paleozoic
The Paleozoic is a time in earth's history when complex life forms evolve, take
their first breath of oxygen on dry land, and when the forerunner of all life on
earth begin to diversify. There are six periods in the Paleozoic eras: the Camb
rian, the Ordovician, the Silurian, the Devonian, the Carboniferous and the Perm
ian.[172]
The Paleozoic was a time of dramatic geological, climatic, and evolutionary chan
ge. The Cambrian Period witnessed the most rapid and widespread diversification
of life in Earth's history, known as the Cambrian explosion, in which most moder
n phyla first appeared. Fish, arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, and synapsids al
l evolved during the Paleozoic. Life began in the ocean but eventually transitio
ned onto land, and by the late Paleozoic, it was dominated by various forms of o
rganisms. Great forests of primitive plants covered the continents, many of whic
h formed the coal beds of Europe and eastern North America. Towards the end of t
he era, large, sophisticated reptiles were dominant and the first modern plants
(conifers) appeared.
The Paleozoic Era ended with the largest mass extinction in Earth's history, the

Permian Triassic extinction event. The effects of this catastrophe were so devast
ating that it took life on land 30 million years into the Mesozoic to recover. R
ecovery of life in the sea may have been much faster.
The Cambrian period
Main article: Cambrian
Trilobites
The Cambrian spans from 540 million years to 485 million years ago and is the fi
rst period of the Paleozoic and of the Phanerozoic Eon. The Cambrian sparks a bo
om in evolution in an event known as the Cambrian Explosion in which the largest
number of creatures evolve in the history of Earth during one period. Creatures
like algae evolve, but most of the water is populated by armored arthropods, li
ke trilobites. Almost all marine phyla evolved in this period. During this time,
the super-continent Rodinia begins to break up, most of which becomes the super
-continent Gondwana.[173]
The Ordovician period
Main article: Ordovician
Cephalaspis (a jaw-less fish)
The Ordovician spans from 485.4 million years to 443.8 million years ago.[174] T
he Ordovician is a time in earths history in which many species still prevalent
today evolved, such as primitive fish, cephalopods, and coral. The most common f
orms of life, however, were trilobites, snails and shellfish. More importantly,
the first arthropods went ashore to colonize the empty continent of Gondwana. By
the end of the period, Gondwana was at the south pole, early North America had
collided with Europe, closing the Atlantic Ocean. Glaciation of Africa resulted
in a major drop in sea level, killing off all life that staked a claim along coa
stal Gondwana. Glaciation caused a snowball earth, and the Ordovician-Silurian e
xtinction in which 60% of marine invertebrates and 25% of families went extinct,
and is considered the first mass extinction and the second deadliest extinction
.[175]
The Silurian period
The Silurian spans from 440 million years to 415 million years ago.[176] The Sil
urian saw the healing of the earth that recovered from the snowball earth. This
period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jaw-less fish became more numerous, ja
wed fish evolved, and the first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such
as sea scorpions, were still apex predators. Fully terrestrial life evolved, wh
ich included early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. Also, the evolution of vasc
ular plants (Cooksonia) allowed plants to gain a foothold on land. These early p
lants are the forerunners of all plant life on land. During this time, there are
four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, Siberi
a), Laurentia (North America), Baltica (Northern Europe), and Avalonia (Western
Europe). The recent rise in sea levels provided many new species to thrive in wa
ter.[177]
The Devonian period
Main article: Devonian
Eogyrinus (an amphibian) of the Carboniferous
The Devonian spans from 415 million years to 360 million years ago.[178] Also kn
own as "The Age of the Fish", the Devonian features a huge diversification of fi
sh, including armored fish like Dunkleosteus and lobe-finned fish which eventual
ly evolved into the first tetrapods. On land, plant groups diversified incredibl
y in an event known as the Devonian Explosion where the first trees evolved, as
well as seeds. This event also diversified arthropod life. The first amphibians
also evolved, and the fish were now at the top of the food chain. Near the end o
f the Devonian, 70% of all species went extinct in an event known as the Late De
vonian extinction and is the second mass extinction event the world has seen.[17
9]
The Carboniferous period

Main article: Carboniferous

Dimetrodon
The Carboniferous spans from 360 million to 300 million years ago. During this t
ime, average global temperatures were exceedingly high; the early Carboniferous
averaged at about 20 degrees Celsius (but cooled down to 10 degrees during the M
iddle Carboniferous).[180] Tropical swamps dominated the earth, and the large am
ounts of trees created much of the carbon for the coal that is used today (hence
the name "Carbon-iferous"). Perhaps the most important evolutionary development
of the time was the evolution of amniotic eggs, which allowed amphibians to hea
d farther inland and remained the dominant vertebrates throughout the duration o
f this period. Also, the first reptiles and synapsids evolved in the swamps. Thr
oughout the Carboniferous, there was a cooling pattern, which eventually led to
the glaciation of Gondwana as much of it was situated around the south pole in a
n event known as the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation or the Carboniferous Rainfor
est Collapse.[181]
The Permian period
Main article: Permian
The Permian spans from 300 million to 250 million years ago and was the last per
iod of the Paleozoic. At the beginning, all continents formed together to form t
he super-continent Pangaea and had one ocean called Panthalassa. The earth was v
ery dry during this time, with harsh seasons as the climate of the interior of P
angaea wasn't regulated by large bodies of water. Reptiles and synapsids flouris
hed in the new dry climate. Creatures such as Dimetrodon and Edaphosaurus ruled
the new continent. The first conifers evolve, and dominate the terrestrial lands
cape. Nearing the end of the Permian, however, Pangaea got drier and drier. The
interior was nothing but dry deserts, and new species such as Scutosaurus and Go
rgonopsid filled the empty desert. Eventually, they disappeared, along with 95%
of all life on earth in an event simply known as "the Great Dying", and is the t
hird mass extinction event of the world.[182]
Mesozoic Era
Main article: Mesozoic
Also known as "the Age of the dinosaurs", the Mesozoic features the rise of rept
iles on their 150 million year conquest to rule the earth from the seas, the lan
d, and even in the air.
Mesozoic means "middle life", deriving from the Greek prefix meso-/es?- for "betw
een" and zoon/???? meaning "animal" or "living being".[2] It is one of three geo
logic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon, preceded by the Paleozoic ("ancient life") an
d succeeded by the Cenozoic ("new life"). The era is subdivided into three major
periods: the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous, which are further subdivided i
nto a number of epochs and stages.
The era began in the wake of the Permian Triassic extinction event, the largest we
ll-documented mass extinction in Earth's history, and ended with the Cretaceous Pa
leogene extinction event, another mass extinction which is known for having kill
ed off non-avian dinosaurs, as well as other plant and animal species. The Mesoz
oic was a time of significant tectonic, climate and evolutionary activity. The e
ra witnessed the gradual rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea into separate lan
dmasses that would eventually move into their current positions. The climate of
the Mesozoic was varied, alternating between warming and cooling periods. Overal
l, however, the Earth was hotter than it is today. Non-aviandinosaurs appeared i
n the Late Triassic and became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates early in the
Jurassic, occupying this position for about 135 million years until their demis
e at the end of the Cretaceous. Birds first appeared in the Jurassic, having evo
lved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs. The first mammals also appeared during
the Mesozoic, but would remain small less than 15 kg (33 lb) until the Cenozoic.
The Triassic period

Main article: Triassic

The Triassic ranges from 250
desolate transitional state
nd the lush Jurassic Period.
Middle Triassic and the Late

million to 200 million years ago. The Triassic is a

in Earth's history between the Permian Extinction a
It has three major epochs: the Early Triassic, the
Triassic.[183]

The Early Triassic lived between 250 million to 247 million years ago and was do
minated by deserts as Pangaea had not yet broken up, thus the interior was nothi
ng but arid. The Earth had just witnessed a massive die-off in which 95% of all
life went extinct. The most common life on earth were Lystrosaurus, Labyrinthodo
nt, and Euparkeria along with many other creatures that managed to survive the G
reat Dying. Temnospondyli evolved during this time and would be the dominant pre
dator for much of the Triassic.[184]
Plateosaurus (a prosauropod)
The Middle Triassic spans from 247 million to 237 million years ago. The Middle
Triassic featured the beginnings of the breakup of Pangaea, and the beginning of
the Tethys Sea. The ecosystem had recovered from the devastation that was the G
reat Dying. Phytoplankton, coral, and crustaceans all had recovered, and the rep
tiles began to get bigger and bigger. New aquatic reptiles evolved such as Ichth
yosaurs and Nothosaurs. Meanwhile, on land, Pine forests flourished, bringing al
ong mosquitoes and fruit flies. The first ancient crocodilians evolved, which sp
arked competition with the large amphibians that had since rule the freshwater w
orld.[185]
The Late Triassic spans from 237 million to 200 million years ago. Following the
bloom of the Middle Triassic, the Late Triassic featured frequent heat spells,
as well as moderate precipitation (10 20 inches per year). The recent warming led
to a boom of reptilian evolution on land as the first true dinosaurs evolve, as
well as pterosaurs. All this climactic change, however, resulted in a large dieout known as the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event, in which all archosaurs (ex
cluding ancient crocodiles), synapsids, and almost all large amphibians went ext
inct, as well as 34% of marine life in the fourth mass extinction event of the w
orld. The cause is debatable.[186][187]
The Jurassic period
Main article: Jurassic
Rhamphorhynchus
The Jurassic ranges from 200 million years to 145 million years ago and features
3 major epochs: The Early Jurassic, the Middle Jurassic, and the Late Jurassic.
[188]
The Early Jurassic spans from 200 million years to 175 million years ago.[188] T
he climate was much more humid than the Triassic, and as a result, the world was
very tropical. In the oceans, Plesiosaurs, Ichthyosaurs and Ammonites fill wate
rs as the dominant races of the seas. On land, dinosaurs and other reptiles stak
e their claim as the dominant race of the land, with species such as Dilophosaur
us at the top. The first true crocodiles evolved, pushing out the large amphibia
ns to near extinction. All-in-all, reptiles rise to rule the world. Meanwhile, t
he first true mammals evolve, but never exceed the height of a shrew.[189]
The Middle Jurassic spans from 175 million to 163 million years ago.[188] During
this epoch, reptiles flourished as huge herds of sauropods, such as Brachiosaur
us and Diplodocus, filled the fern prairies of the Middle Jurassic. Many other p
redators rose as well, such as Allosaurus. Conifer forests made up a large porti
on of the forests. In the oceans, Plesiosaurs were quite common, and Ichthyosaur
s were flourishing. This epoch was the peak of the reptiles.[190]
(Inaccurately portrayed) Stegosaurus

The Late Jurassic spans from 163 million to 145 million years ago.[188] The Late
Jurassic featured a massive extinction of sauropods and Ichthyosaurs due to the
separation of Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwana in an extinction known as the
Jurassic-Cretaceous extinction. Sea levels rose, destroying fern prairies and cr
eating shallows in its wake. Ichthyosaurs went extinct whereas sauropods, as a w
hole, did not die out in the Jurassic; in fact, some species, like Titanosaurus,
lived up to the K-T extinction.[191] The increase in sea-levels opened up the A
tlantic sea way which would continue to get larger over time. The divided world
would give opportunity for the diversification of new dinosaurs.[citation needed
]
The Cretaceous period
Main article: Cretaceous
The Cretaceous is the longest era in the Mesozoic, but has only two periods: the
Early Cretaceous, and the Late Cretaceous.[192]
Tylosaurus (a mosasaur) hunting Xiphactinus
The Early Cretaceous spans from 145 million to 100 million years ago.[192] The E
arly Cretaceous saw the expansion of seaways, and as a result, the decline and e
xtinction of sauropods (except in South America). Many coastal shallows were cre
ated, and that caused Ichthyosaurs to die out. Mosasaurs evolved to replace them
as head of the seas. Some island-hopping dinosaurs, like Eustreptospondylus, ev
olved to cope with the coastal shallows and small islands of ancient Europe. Oth
er dinosaurs rose up to fill the empty space that the Jurassic-Cretaceous extinc
tion left behind, such as Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus. Of the most succe
ssful would be Iguanodon which spread to every continent. Seasons came back into
effect an the poles got seasonally colder, but dinosaurs still inhabited this a
rea like the Leaellynasaura which inhabited the polar forests year-round, and ma
ny dinosaurs migrated there during summer like Muttaburrasaurus. Since it was to
o cold for crocodiles, it was the last stronghold for large amphibians, like Koo
lasuchus. Pterosaurs got larger as species like Tapejara and Ornithocheirus evol
ved. More importantly, the first true birds evolved which sparked competition be
tween them and the pterosaurs.[citation needed]
The Late Cretaceous spans from 100 million to 65 million years ago.[192] The Lat
e Cretaceous featured a cooling trend that would continue on in the Cenozoic per
iod. Eventually, tropics were restricted to the equator and areas beyond the tro
pic lines featured extreme seasonal changes in weather. Dinosaurs still thrived
as new species such as Tyrannosaurus, Ankylosaurus, Triceratops and Hadrosaurs d
ominated the food web. Pterosaurs, however, were going into a decline as birds t
ook to the skies. The last pterosaur to die off was Quetzalcoatlus. Marsupials e
volved within the large conifer forests as scavengers. In the oceans, Mosasaurs
ruled the seas to fill the role of the Ichthyosaurs, and huge plesiosaurs, such
as Elasmosaurus, evolved. Also, the first flowering plants evolved. At the end o
f the Cretaceous, the Deccan traps and other volcanic eruptions were poisoning t
he atmosphere. As this was continuing, it is thought that a large meteor smashed
into earth, creating the Chicxulub Crater in an event known as the K-T Extincti
on, the fifth and most recent mass extinction event, in which 75% of life on ear
th went extinct, including all non-avian dinosaurs. Everything over 10 kilograms
went extinct. The age of the dinosaurs was officially over.[193][194]
Cenozoic Era
Main article: Cenozoic
The Cenozoic features the rise of mammals on their conquest to rule the land, as
the dinosaurs have now left a huge opening as top dog. There are three division
of the Cenozoic: the Paleogene, the Neogene and Quaternary.
The Cenozoic is also known as the Age of Mammals, because the extinction of many
groups allowed mammals to greatly diversify.

Early in the Cenozoic, following the K-Pg event, the planet was dominated by rel
atively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. F
rom a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals and birds to grea
tly diversify in the absence of the large reptiles that had dominated during the
Mesozoic. Some flightless birds grew larger than the average human. These speci
es are sometimes referred to as "terror birds," and were formidable predators. M
ammals came to occupy almost every available niche (both marine and terrestrial)
, and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's ter
restrial mammals.
The Paleogene period
Main article: Paleogene
The Paleogene spans from the extinction of the dinosaurs, some 65 million years
ago, to the dawn of the Neogene twenty three million years ago. It features thre
e epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.
Basilosaurus
The Paleocene ranged from 65 million to 55 million years ago. The Paleocene is a
transitional point between the devastation that is the K-T extinction, to the r
ich jungles environment that is the Early Eocene. The Early Paleocene saw the re
covery of the earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all co
ntinents (and India) were separated from each other. Afro-Eurasia is separated b
y the Tethys Sea, and the Americas are separated by the strait of Panama, as the
isthmus has not yet formed. This epoch features a general warming trend, with j
ungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the
large reptiles that had once ruled went extinct. Archaic mammals filled the wor
ld such as creodonts and early primates that evolved during the Mesozoic, and as
a result, there was nothing over 10 kilograms. Mammals are still quite small.[1
95]
The Eocene Epoch ranged from 55 million years to 33 million years ago. In the Ea
rly-Eocene, life was small and living in cramped jungles, much like the Paleocen
e. There was nothing over the weight of 10 kilograms.[196] Among them were early
primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At th
e top of the food chains were huge birds, such as Gastornis. It is the only time
in recorded history that birds ruled the world (excluding their ancestors, the
dinosaurs). The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradi
ent from pole to pole. In the Mid-Eocene, the circum-Antarctic current between A
ustralia and Antarctica formed which disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a
result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles. This allowed mamm
als to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales which are, by now, almost ful
ly aquatic. Mammals like Andrewsarchus were now at the top of the food-chain and
sharks were replaced by whales such as Basilosaurus as rulers of the seas. The
Late-Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-li
ke areas, along with the evolution of grass.[197][198]
The Oligocene Epoch spans from 33 million to 23 million years ago. The Oligocene
feature the expansion of grass which had led to many new species to evolve, inc
luding the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still
prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved in this period too, such a
s the evergreen trees. A cooling period was still in effect and seasonal rains w
ere as well. Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger. Paraceratherium,
the largest land mammal to ever live evolved during this period, along with man
y other perissodactyls in an event known as the Grand coupre.[199]
The Neogene period
Main article: Neogene
Animals of the Miocene (Chalicotherium, Hyenadon, Entelodont ...)
The Neogene spans from 23 million to 3 million years ago, and is the shortest ge
ological period in the Phanerozoic Eon. It features 2 epochs: the Miocene, and t

he Pliocene.[174]
The Miocene spans from 23 to 5 million years ago and is a period in which grass
spreads further across, effectively dominating a large portion of the world, dim
inishing forests in the process. Kelp forests evolved, leading to new species su
ch as sea otters to evolve. During this time, perissodactyls thrived, and evolve
d into many different varieties. Alongside them were the apes, which evolved int
o a staggering 30 species. Overall, arid and mountainous land dominated most of
the world, as did grazers. The Tethys Sea finally closed with the creation of th
e Arabian Peninsula and in its wake left the Black, Red, Mediterranean and Caspi
an Seas. This only increased aridity. Many new plants evolved, and 95% of modern
seed plants evolved in the mid-Miocene.[200]
The Pliocene ranges from 5 to 2 million years ago. The Pliocene features dramati
c climactic changes, which ultimately leads to modern species and plants. The mo
st dramatic are the formation of Panama, and the accumulation of ice at the pole
s, leading to a massive die-off, India and Asia collide forming the Himalayas, t
he Rockies and Appalachian mountain ranges were formed, and the Mediterranean Se
a dried up for the next several million years. Along with these major geological
events, Australopithecus evolved in Africa, beginning the human branch. Also, w
ith the isthmus of Panama, animals migrate across North and South America, wreak
ing havoc on the local ecology. Climactic changes bring along savannas that are
still continuing to spread across the world, Indian monsoons, deserts in East As
ia, and the beginnings of the Sahara desert. The earth's continents and seas mov
e into their present shapes, and the world map hasn't changed much since.[201][2
02]
The Quaternary period
Main article: Quaternary
The Quaternary ranges from 3 million to present day, and features modern animals
, and dramatic climate changes and features two epochs: the Pleistocene and the
Holocene.
Mega-fauna of the Pleistocene (Mammoths, cave lions, woolly rhino, Megaloceros,
American horses
The Pleistocene lasted from 3 million to 12,000 years ago. This epoch features t
he ice ages which is a result from the cooling effect that started in the Mid-Eo
cene. As the ice progressively migrated towards the equator, the areas north and
south of the tropic line featured intense winters yet mild summers. Meanwhile,
Africa experienced terrible droughts which resulted in the creation of the Sahar
a, Namib, and Kalahari deserts. To cope, many animals evolved including Mammoths
, Giant ground sloths, Dire wolves and most famously Homo sapiens. 100,000 years
ago marked the end of one of the worst droughts of Africa, and the expansion of
primitive man. As the Pleistocene draws to a close, one of the largest die-outs
causes many mega-fauna to die off, including the last hominid species (excludin
g Homo sapiens). All continents are affected, but Africa less than others.[203]
The Holocene ranges from 12,000 years ago to present day. Also known as "the Age
of Man", the Holocene features the rise of man on his path to sentience. All re
corded history and "the history of the world" lies within the boundaries of the
Holocene epoch.[204] Human activity, however, is being blamed for a die-out that
has been going on since 10,000 B.C.E. commonly referred to as "the Sixth Extinc
tion" with an estimated extinction rate of 140,000 species per year