Equivalent conductivity

Natural porous media are inherently heterogeneous.

This heterogeneity is nowadays treated stochastically
upon considering hydraulic conductivity as a random field
(more on this later). An important topic is deriving and
equivalent conductivity applicable to volumes larger
than the REV.
For perfectly stratified media, with each stratum being
homogeneous of given conductivity and thickness, an
equivalent conductivity can be evaluated
deterministically under a constant hydraulic gradient.
 Stratified aquifers (1/3)
Each stratum is homogeneous but possibily
anisotropic

Evaluate the equivalent conductivity

for flow in x direction (parallel to
layers) for given hydraulic gradient
dh/dx

In x direction the total volumetric flow per unit width [L2/T] equals the sum of the
voumetric flows through each layer, evaluated under the same hydraulic gradient dh/dx:

n
 n
 dh
 
dh
Qi   K ix d i  Q Qi   K ix d i 
dx i 1  i 1  dx
 n
 dh
In the equivalent medium the volumetric flux per unit width is:
Equating the volumetric flow one obtains
Q   K x 


i 1
d i 
 dx

n n The equivalent hydraulic conductivity in x direction is the

Kx  K ix di d i weighted arithmetic mean of individual conductivities, the
i 1 i 1 weight being the thickness
 Stratified aquifers (2/3)
Evaluate the equivalent conductivity
for flow in y direction (normal to
layers) for given hydraulic gradient
dh/dx

Consider a given length a. The volumetric flow per unit width in y direction is the same
for each stratum, and is given by its conductivity times a times the hydraulic gradient
in each stratum. Hence
Q  K iy  a  ii  K1 y  i1  K 2 y  i2  ...  K ny  in  Q a
In the equivalent medium the volumetric flux per unit width and length is: Q a  K y  i
Equating the total head drop
n  
 n  n
 n  Q a
h  
 i 1 

d i   i 
i 1

d i  ii   d i  
 i 1  K y
  di  Q a 

i 1 
K iy  and hence

d i K iy   d i  The equivalent hydraulic conductivity in y direction is the

 n
n
1 Ky   i 1
  i 1  weighted geometric mean of individual conductivities, the
weight being the thickness
 Stratified aquifers (3/3)
If the thickness of each stratum is the same, d
d i   cost
The arithmetic and geometric mean is recovered n

n n d n 1 n
K x   Kix di  di   Kix d   Kix
i 1 i 1 n i 1 n i 1

d n

1 K y   1 Kiy
n i 1
 1 n

d   1 Kiy
n i 1


 if each stratum is isotropic, i.e. Kyi = Kxi = Ki , the equvalent hydraulic conductivity in
direction x is larger than that in direction y.
 Flow in in direction y is rendered much lower if only one stratum has very low
conductivity.
 Ky = Kx only if all strata have Ki (homogeneous medium)
 Develop numerical example with K  table, ii  0.01, thicknesses of  meters
 Unconsolidated Sedimentary Materials
Hydraulic Conductivity
Material
(m/sec)
Gravel 3x10-4 to 3x10-2
Coarse sand 9x10-7 to 6x10-3
Medium sand 9x10-7 to 5x10-4
Fine sand 2x10-7 to 2x10-4
Silt, loess 1x10-9 to 2x10-5
Till 1x10-12 to 2x10-6
Clay 1x10-11 to 4.7x10-9
Unweathered marine clay 8x10-13 to 2x10-9
Sedimentary Rocks
Hydraulic Conductivity
Rock Type
(m/sec)
Karst and reef limestone 1x10-6 to 2x10-2
Limestone, dolomite 1x10-9 to 6x10-6
Sandstone 3x10-10 to 6x10-6
Siltstone 1x10-11 to 1.4x10-8
Salt 1x10-12 to 1x10-10
Anhydrite 4x10-13 to 2x10-8
Shale 1x10-13 to 2x10-9
 Crystalline Rocks
Hydraulic Conductivity
Material
(m/sec)
Permeable basalt 4x10-7 to 2x10-2
Fractured igneous and metamorphic
8x10-9 to 3x10-4
rock
Weathered granite 3.3x10-6 to 5.2x10-5
Weathered gabbro 5.5x10-7 to 3.8x10-6
Basalt 2x10-11 to 4.2x10-7
Unfractured igneous and metamorphic
3x10-14 to 2x10-10
rock

To Convert Multiply By To Obtain

m/sec 100 cm/sec
m/sec 2.12x106 gal/day/ft2
m/sec 3.2808 ft/sec
Storativity (1/4)
In a confined aquifer, storativity is defined as the volume of water released from storage
(or added to it) per unit surface area per unit decline (or rise) in hydraulic head.
Storativity is also known by the terms coefficient of storage and storage coefficient.

U w
S  10-3  10-6
A  

S is dimensionless, and is defined by

means of specific storage Ss [L-1] and
thickness b

S  Ssb

volume of water released from storage (or added to it) per unit volume per unit decline
(or rise) in hydraulic head.
Storativity (2/4)
Specific storage is related to the compressibilities of the aquifer and water as:

S s  g   ne  
where ρ is mass density of water [M/L3], g is gravity (= 9.8 m/sec2) [L/T2], α is aquifer
compressibility [T2L/M], ne is effective porosity [dimensionless], and β is compressibility of
water (= 4.4x10-10 m sec2/kg or Pa-1) [T2L/M].
Material Compressibility, α (m2/N or Pa-1)
Clay 10-8 to 10-6
Sand 10-9 to 10-7
Gravel 10-10 to 10-8
Jointed rock 10-10 to 10-8
Sound rock 10-11 to 10-9
Like T, S is an aquifer property. When hydraulic approach (2-D) is considered, T = Kb and S
should be used; with 3-D approach, K and Ss should be used. These properties are related to
different flow models !
 Material Ss (ft-1)
Plastic clay 7.8x10-4 to 6.2x10-3
Stiff clay 3.9x10-4 to 7.8x10-4
Medium hard clay 2.8x10-4 to 3.9x10-4
Loose sand 1.5x10-4 to 3.1x10-4
Dense sand 3.9x10-5 to 6.2x10-5
Dense sandy gravel 1.5x10-5 to 3.1x10-5
Rock, fissured 1x10-6 to 2.1x10-5
Rock, sound < 1x10-6

To Convert Divide By To Obtain

ft-1 0.3048 m-1

Example Calculation
Use compressibility data to estimate the storativity of a 10-m thick confined sand aquifer
(assume ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and ne = 0.3).
How much does the expansion of water contribute to the total storativity in this example?
Storativity (3/4)
In an unconfined (phreatic) aquifer, storativity Is defined by the volume of water
released from storage (or added to it) per unit surface area per unit decline (or
rise) of the phreatic surface

U w
Sy   0.2  0.3  ne
A  h

The release of water is essentially

due to the drainage from the
volume of pore space between the
two positions of the phreatic
surface. The former contribution
due to water and matrix
compressbility still exists but is
practically negligible
Storativity (4/4)
In an unconfined (phreatic) aquifer, storativity Is defined by the volume of water
released from storage (or added to it) per unit surface area of aquifer per unit
decline (or rise) of the water table

U w
Sy   0.2  0.3  ne
A  h

The release of water is essentially

due to the drainage from the
volume of pore space between the
two positions of the phreatic
surface. The former contribution S y  Sr  n where Sr is specific retention, i.e.

due to water and matrix the amount of water retained by

compressibility still exists but is capillary forces during gravity

practically negligible drainage of an unconfined aquifer

 Specific
Porosity Specific Material Specific Yield (%)
Material Retention
(%) Yield (%) Gravel, coarse 21
(%) Gravel, medium 24
Gravel, fine 28
Soil 55 40 15 Sand, coarse 30

Clay 50 2 48 Sand, medium 32

Sand, fine 33
Sand 25 22 3 Silt 20
Clay 6
Gravel 20 19 1
Sandstone, fine grained 21
Sandstone, medium grained 27
Limestone 20 18 2 Limestone 14
Dune sand 38
Sandstone Loess 18
(unconsoli 11 6 5 Peat 44

dated) Schist 26
Siltstone 12
Granite 0.1 0.09 0.01 Till, predominantly silt 6
Till, predominantly sand 16
Basalt Till, predominantly gravel 16
11 8 3
(young) Tuff 21