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MODULE -1
Composition of petroleum, laboratory test, refinery feedstock and product

Q1: Define specific gravity and write the relationship between specific gravity and API
gravity?
A1: The specific gravity is defined as the weight of unit volume of oil to the weight of
same volume of water at a standard temperature.The relationship between the specific
gravity and API is

Q2: What are the terms Characterization factor and correlation index.How are they
important?
A2: Characterization factor is developed by UOP (Universal Oil Products Co.).It
correlates the boiling point with specific gravity, given by:

to the following expression.

CI= (48640/TB ) +473.7 S-456.8 TB is the average molal boiling point (0F) and S is the
specific gravity at 600F. This gives a relative idea about the Parafinic, Naphthenic and
Aromatic nature of the crude oil. Correlation index (CI) developed by US Bureau of
mines. It correlates the boiling point with specific gravity, according

Q3: Define BPCD?

A3: BPCD stands for Barrels per Calendar Day. It is the measurement of the rated
capacity of a process unit of a process unit or operation. Basically it is 1/365th of the
annual throughput. This measure accounts for down time for maintenance, etc. An
alternate measure is barrels per steam day, the measure of the maximum daily
capacity. On-stream factor is the ratio of BPCB to BPSD.
Q4: What is BTX?

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A4: BTX stands for Benzene, Toluene, and Xylene. These aromatic molecules are very
important components of gasoline and petrochemicals. Benzene, the simplest aromatic
is carcinogenic and its level in gasoline is severely restricted. Toluene and xylene have
benzene rings to which are attached one or two methyl (CH3) groups, respectively.
Xylene has three isomers, with the methyls adjacent on the ring (ortho), separated by
one carbon (meta), or separated by two carbons (para).
Q5: What is performance number?
A5: Performance number = ((Octane number 100) *3) + 100
It is used to estimate knocking characteristics of aviation gasolines of octane number
higher than 100.
Q6: What is cetane number?
A6: Cetane number = % n-cetane + 0.15 (% heptamethyl nonane)
The shorter the ignition delay period, higher is the cetane number of the fuel.
Q7: What is diesel index?
A7: Diesel index is an indication of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. It can be
determined by calculation from the specific gravity and the aniline point of the sample
Diesel index = (Aniline point * API) / 100.
Q8: What is the calorific value of the fuel?
A8: It is the quantity of heat released per unit quantity of fuel, when it is burned
completely with oxygen and the products of combustion returned to ambient
temperature.Calorific value = 12400 2100 2.
Q9: What is cloud point and pour point?
A9: Cloud point of petroleum products is the temperature at which a cloud or haze of
wax crystals appears at the bottom of the test jar when the oil is cooled under
prescribed conditions. It is generally determined for products that are transparent in a
40-mm thick layer and have cloud points below 49 C.Pour point is the lowest
temperature expressed in multiple of 3C at which the oil is observed to flow when
cooled and examined under prescribed conditions.
Q10: What is SVI?
A10: SVI stands for Smoke Volatility Index. It is defined as:
SVI = smoke point + 0.42 (percent of fuel boiling below 204.4C).

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Q11: What is the world energy demand and availability of crude oil.?

A11:

During

the

474 exajoules (47410

year
18

2008,

total

worldwide

energy

consumption

was

J=132,000 TWh). This is equivalent to an average energy

consumption rate of 15 terawatts (1.5041013 W).The potential for renewable energy

is: solar energy 1600 EJ (444,000 TWh), wind power 600 EJ (167,000 TWh), geothermal
energy 500 EJ (139,000 TWh), biomass 250 EJ (70,000 TWh), hydropower 50 EJ (14,000
TWh) and ocean energy 1 EJ (280 TWh).
The estimates of remaining non-renewable worldwide energy resources vary, with the
remaining fossil fuels totaling an estimated 4 105 EJ and the available nuclear fuel such
as uranium exceeding 2.5 105 EJ.
Q12: What is the crude composition of Indian crude?
A12: Crude compositions of Indian crude are as below
C: 84-87%, H: 11-14%S: 0-5%, N: 0-1%, O: 0-2%.
Q13: What is API gravity?
A13: The density of petroleum oils is expressed in the United States in terms of API
gravity rather than specific gravity; it is related to specific gravity in such a fashion that
an increase in API gravity corresponds to a decrease in specific gravity
API=141.5/Sp.Gr-131.5.
Q14: What does pour point of an oil signify?
A14: The pour point of the crude oil, in oF or oC, is a rough indicator of the relative
paraffinicity and aromaticity of the crude. The lower the pour point, the lower the paraffin
content and the greater the content of aromatics.
Q15: What is a Characterization factor?
A15: Characterization factors: K=(TB)1/3/d. It correlates boiling point with sp.gravity
Here TB is the average boiling point in degrees Rankine and d is the specific gravity
60 oF/60oF.
Q16: How does a Characterization factor vary for different crude?
A16: Highly paraffin oils: K: 12.5 to 13.0
Cyclic (naphthenes) oils have K: 10.5 to 12.5.
Aromatics: 9.0- 10.5

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Q17: What is correlation index?

A17: The correlation index is useful in evaluating individual fractions from crude oils.
The CI scale is based upon straight-chain paraffins having a CI value of 0 and benzene
having a CI value of 100 and is defined as follows:
C.I = 87552/TB + 473.7 G 456.8
Q18: What is gasoline?
A18: Gasolines are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons having typical boiling ranges
from 100 to 400 F (38 to 200 C). It is consist of mainly C5-C10 HC (mainly n-paraffins,
isoparaffins,naphthenes and aromatic hydrocarbons).
Q19: What is Light straight-run (LSR)?
A19: gasoline consists of the (C5)-190 F (C5)-88 C) fraction of the naphtha from the
atmospheric crude still.( C5)-190 F fraction means that pentanes are included in the cut
but that (C4) and lower-boiling compounds are excluded and the TBP end point is
approximately 190 F.
Q20: What is kerosene oil?
A20: Kerosene is also called paraffin or paraffin oil, is a flammable pale-yellow or
colorless oily liquid with a characteristic odor. It is intermediate in volatility between
gasoline and gas diesel oil. It is a medium oil distilling between 150oC and
300 oC(300 oF to 570 oF).(HC: C10-C14).
Q21: What is automotive diesel fuel?
A21: It is super-diesel is generally made from virgin or hydrocracker stocks having
cetane numbers above 45. It is has a boiling range from 360 to 600 F (182 to 320 C)
and is used in high-speed engines in automobiles, trucks, and buses.
Q22: What is CNG?
A22: It is mixture of hydrocarbons (80 to 90 % methane) compressed to a pressure 200
to 250 kg/cm2.
Q23: What is leaded Gasoline?
A23: It means, for labeling purposes, any gasoline or gasoline-oxygenate blend which
contains more than 0.013 gram of lead per liter (0.05 g lead per U.S. gal).The term
"leaded" shall only be used when the fuel meets specification requirements.

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Q24: What is octane rating?

A24: The octane rating is a measure of the auto ignition resistance of gasoline and
other fuels used in spark-ignition internal combustion engines
Q25: What is motor octane number?
A25: MON testing uses a similar test engine to that used in RON testing, but with a
preheated fuel mixture, a higher engine speed, and variable ignition timing to further
stress the fuel's knock resistance. Depending on the composition of the fuel, the MON
of a modern gasoline will be about 8 to 10 points lower than the RON.
Q26: What is petroleum?
A26: Petroleum is a mixture of gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbon compounds that
occur in sedimentary rock deposits throughout the world and also contains small
quantities of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur-containing compounds as well as trace
amounts of metallic constituents.
Q27: What is fraction or cut in petroleum refinery?
A27: The separation of crude oil by atmospheric and vacuum distillation into groups of
hydrocarbon compounds of different boiling point ranges called fractions or cuts.
Q28: What are the CDU and VDU in distillation unit?
A28: The first step in crude oil processing, where the first separation takes place is
called Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) Atmospheric & Vacuum Unit (AVU).
Q29: What are the product of CDU and VDU?
A29: Typical products from CDU are: Gas, LPG, naphtha, SKO/ATF, HSD and
RCO.Vacuum Distillation of RCO produces VGO (or LOBS cuts) and VR.
Q30: What are the factors deciding the complexity of a refinery?
A30: (1)Nature/source of crude oils- flexibility to process variety of crudes.(2)Demand
pattern in the markets.(3)Product quality - current/ future.(4)Production of feedstock for
downstream units.(5)Inter-fuel substitution.

Q31: What are the type of hydrocarbon found in crude oil?

A31: The hydrocarbons found in petroleum are classified into the following types:
Paraffins, cycloparaffins (naphthenes) and aromatic.

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Q32: What is the type of crude based on based on residue after distillation?
A32: There are two type of crude
Paraffin base: The presence of paraffin wax in residue is reflected in the paraffin nature
of the constituent.
Asphaltic base: High asphaltic content corresponds with the naphthene properties of the
fractions. Asphalt-base crude oils our mainly of highly Aromatic (or Naphthenes)
hydrocarbons.
Q33: What is pour point?
A33: Pour point is the lowest temperature at which oil will move, pour , or flow when it is
chilled without disturbance under definite conditions (ASTM D97)
Q34: What is carbon residue?
A34: Carbon residue is determined by distillation to a coke residue in the absence of
air. The carbon residue is roughly related to the asphalt content of the crude and to the
quantity of the lubricating oil fraction that can be recovered.
Q35: What are the methods to determine carbon residue?
A35: In most cases the lower the carbon residue, the more valuable the crude. This is
expressed in terms of the weight percent carbon residue by either the Ramsbottom
(RCR) or Conradson (CCR).
Q36: What is LPG?
A36: It is a mixture of light HCs propane and butane, gases at ambient temperature but
condensed to liquid state by applying moderate pressure. Mainly consists of propane,
propylene, butane, butene, and iso butane
Q37: What are the methods of Extraction of LPG from NG ?
A37: Compression and cooling.
Adsorption.Absorption.

Q38: Why most of the refinery technology favors alkylation processes rather than
polymerization ?
A38: (1)Larger quantities of higher octane product can be made from the light olefins
available. (2)The alkylation product is paraffinic rather than olefinic, and olefins are
highly photo reactive and contribute to visual air pollution and ozone production.

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Q39: What is alkylate gasoline?

A39: It is the product of the reaction of isobutane with propylene, butylene, or pentylene
to produce branched-chain hydrocarbons in the gasoline boiling range.

Q40: What is ignition delay in engine?

A40: It is the time interval between injection and the onset of the pressure rise.
Distillate fuels having high cetane number will show a short ignition delay period while
those fuels with poor cetane number will give long ignition delay period.

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MODULE-2
Evaluation of crude oil properties and design of crude oil distillation
column.
Q1: Define Viscosity Index (VI). ?
A1: Viscosity Index (VI): Used to characterize a Lube oil and provides the effect of
change of temperature on the viscosity of any oil. High VI lube oils are desired.It is
defined by
VI= (L-U) 100/(L-H)
U=kinematic viscosity at 400C of the oil whose VI is to calculated.
L= kinematic viscosity at 400C of the oil whose 0 VI.
H= kinematic viscosity at 400C of the oil whose 100VI .

Q2: What are different additives, their function and composition?

A2:
Additive

Function

Composition

Anti-knock

To improve octane quality

Lead alkyls such as tetraethyl lead

compounds

and tetra methyl lead along with

scavengers

ethylene

dibromide

and ethylene dichloride

Anti-icing additives To minimize engine stalling Freezing point depressants such
and power loss due to ice as
formation in
and fuel lines
Anti-oxidants

alcohols(ethanol

or

iso

carburetors propanol) and glycols (hexylene

glycol and di propylene glycol)

To minimize gum formation Phenylene

diamine

and

alkyl

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and

improve

storage phenol compounds.

stability.
Metal deactivators

To

prevent

oxidation

catalysis

processes

deactivating

of N,N-disalicylidene-1,2by propanediamine.

metalions

such as copper.

Q3: What is the composition of kerosene oil?

A3: Kerosines are distillate fraction of crude oil in the boiling range 0f 150-2500C.There
are various types of hydrocarbon present in kerosines like paraffin, naphthenes,
aromatics, and non-hydrocarbons containing sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, and metals. In
the

hydrocarbon

tendency

to

smoke

decrease

in

the

order

Aromatics>Naphthenes>Isoparaffins>Paraffins.Kerosene is treated with sulphur dioxide

to decrease aromatic content.
Q4: What is the significance of cloud point and pour point?
A4: Cloud point generally determined for products that are transparent in a 40-mm thick
layer and have cloud point below 49oC.It gives a rough idea of the temperature above
which the oil can be safely handled without any fear of congealing or clogging. Pour point
is a well-established test to estimate the temperature at which a sample of oil becomes
sufficiently solid to prevent its movement by pumping.
Q5: What is ASTM distillation?
A5: It is a batch distillation with one equilibrium stage, no reflux and minimum
separation of the components.
ASTM method D86 (atm. Press.): Gasoline, Kerosene, gas oil and similar light
and middle distillates.
ASTM method D1160 (max. temp. 400oC, min.1mmHg): For heavy petroleum
fractions which tend to decompose at atm. Pressure

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Q6: What is TBP distillation?

A6: Distillation characteristics of a crude are assessed by performing a preliminary
distillation called True Boiling Point analysis(TBP).
It is performed in columns with 15 theoretical plates and a reflux ratio of 5. Operation at
760mm Hg for BP below 400 oC. for lighter fractions. For higher boiling point fractions,
the distillation is conducted at even 0.5mm Hg. Degree of separation for a TBP
distillation test is much higher than those of the ASTM distillation test, its IBP lower and
EP higher than ASTM.
b

TBP = a (ASTM D86)

sample distilled.

where a and b are constants varying with percent of liquid

Q7: What is ASTM gap and TBP overlap?

A7: ASTM gap: Diff. between 5% B.P of heavy and 95% B.P. of preceding cut.
TBP overlap: Diff. between FBP and IBP of successive fractions
Q8: What is overflash?
A8: It is a portion of total vapor leaving the flash zone boiling above the nearest side
draw fraction but never included in that fraction.Increase in over-flash decreases the
side draw temperatures from the second draw onwards.
Q9: What are the different type of reflux used in distillation column?
A9: Overhead reflux: Part of light naphtha returned to column
Pump around reflux: Liquid withdrawn at a point below a side stream tray that is
cooled by thecold crude feed and then returned to the column a few trays above
the draw tray.
Pump back reflux: In this arrangement reflux is provided at regular intervals .

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MODULE-3
Furnace Design

Q1:What is naphtha?
A1: It is low boiling refinery stream. Gasoline is made by blending several virgin and
treated napthas. FCC naptha is the fraction distilling between 100F and 430F.
Q2: What are olefins?
A2: Olefins are hydrocarbon molecules containing carbon-carbon double bonds. The
name olefin comes from roots that imply oil former. The general formula for olefins is
CnH2n, where n is 1, 2, 3, etc. Olefins are not found in crude oil, but are formed during
cracking reactions in many refinery processes.

Q3: What are the major factors affecting total emissivity? The total emissivity g of a
volume of combustion gases is dependent upon?
A3: The temperature T product of partial pressure and effective path length PL .
Q4: How is total emissivity different from total absorptivity?
A4: The total absorptivity of a gas also depends upon its temperature and partial
pressure path length product, but in addition upon the temperature Ts of the source of
the radiation that is being absorbed.
Q5: Explain the condition where heat flux is independent of the gas emissivity?
A5: In the case of refractory surface, assuming no heat loses, is in equilibrium with the
gases and reradiates all the heat falling upon it. The total radiation flux within the
enclosure is equal to that emitted by a blackbody at temperature Tg . Under these
circumstances the heat flux to the sink is independent of the gas emissivity.

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Q6: Write the simplifying assumptions for well stirred furnace model?
A6: The following simplifying assumptions are made:
(1)The hot gases are perfectly mixed and at a uniform temperature, Tg.(2)The heat sink
is gray and has a uniform temperature, T1.(3)The refractory surface is radiatively
adiabatic, that is to say it radiates all the heat that is receives.
Q7: Describe in brief function and simple construction of furnaces?
A7: Furnaces are used throughout the industry to provide the heat, using the
combustion of fuels. These fuels are solid, liquid or gaseous.
Furnaces consist essentially of an insulated, refractory lined chamber containing tubes.
Tubes carry the process fluid to be heated, and sizes are device for burning the fuel in
air to generate hot gases. A great variety of geometries and sizes are used, and much
of the skill employed in their design is based on experience. However, all furnaces have
in common the general feature of heat transfer from hot gas source to a cold sink.
Q8: Describe the heat transfer process inside furnace ?
A8: The flames heat up the tubes, which in turn heat the fluid inside in the first part of
the furnace known as the radiant section or firebox. In this chamber where combustion
takes place, the heat is transferred mainly by radiation to tubes around the fire in the
chamber. The heating fluid passes through the tubes and is thus heated to the desired
temperature.
The gases from the combustion are known as flue gas. After the flue gas leaves the
firebox, most furnace designs include a convection section where more heat is
recovered before venting to the atmosphere through the flue gas stack.
Q9: What can be the possible modes of heat transfer?
A9: A fuel-fired furnace consists of a gaseous heat source, a heat sink, and a refractory
enclosure. Heat is transferred to the heat sink by radiation and convection from the hot
gases and by reradiation from the refractory walls. In developing any model of the
process, it is necessary to consider two heat transfer phenomena
(1)The heat emission from hot gases containing combustion products, i.e. the heat
source.(2)The heat absorbed by the tubes, taking into account their geometrical
configuration and material properties (the heat sink), composed of primary heat transfer
from hot gases and secondary heat exchange with the refractory walls.

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Q10: What is the arrangement of convective and radiant section in a furnace and what
can be the possible reason for this?
A10: The convection section is located above the radiant section where it is cooler to
recover additional heat
Q11: List the broad area where furnaces may find application in petrochemical industry?
A11: In petrochemical industries, furnaces are used to heat petroleum feedstock for
fractionation, thermal cracking, and high-temperature processing. Usually, these
furnaces are fired by oil or gas.
Q12: Give the percentage of excess air required to ensure complete combustion for
different fuels?
A12: Typical values are 10% for gaseous fuels, 15 to 20% for liquid fuels, and 20% for
pulverized fuel, although lower percentages can be achieved with efficient burners.
Q13: What is the reason behind luminescence in flames and what type of fuels exhibit
this behavior, explain with the help of an example?
A13: When solid particles are present in the furnace gas stream they become
incandescent, radiating both heat and light, so producing a glowing or luminous flame.
Gaseous fuels burn with a nonluminous flame, but liquid and solid fuels produce
luminous flames due to the presence of particles of carbonaceous material. For
example, soot or coke resulting from the incomplete combustion of the hydrocarbons
and mineral matter originally in the fuel. In general, solid fuel produces a more luminous
flame than does liquid fuel.
Q14: What are the main sources of radiation for nonluminous flames?
A14: Carbon dioxide and water vapor are the main sources of radiation for nonluminous
flames.
Q15: List the factors affecting rate of heat transfer by radiation from the hot gases?
A15: The rate at which heat is transferred by radiation from the hot gases to sink
depends on the emissivity of the gas emissivity of the sink surface and also on the
relative size of the sink.
This is because the unconverted refractory lining radiates back into the furnace heat
that it has received from the flame, and some of this is absorbed by the heat sink.

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Q16: Describe briefly about furnace models and various methods used?
A16: The full mathematical description of practical furnaces is exceedingly complex,
combining aerodynamics, chemical reactions, and heat transfer, and computer
programs are necessary for detailed solutions. Advanced methods of calculation may
be divided into zone methods and flux methods.
.

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MODULE-4
Thermal and catalytic cracking
Q1: Define the term Gas Oil?
A1: It is the general term for describing any distillable refinery stream boiling above
350F. Diesel, turbine and jet fuels are blended from gas oils. Higher boiling gas oils are
called heavy gas oils.
Q2: What is HCO?
A2: HCO is the short form of the term Heavy Cycle Oil. It is the fraction of FCC product
liquid distilling above 640F.
Q3: What is LCO?
A3: LCO stands for Light Cycle Oil. It is a fraction of FCC product liquid distilling
between 430F and above 640F.
Q4: What is LPG?
A4: LPG stands for Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Generally, any light hydrocarbon fuel that
must be compressed to keep it from boiling away. Commercial LPG usually contains
mixtures of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10).
Q5: What is Visbreaking?
A5: Visbreaking is a mild form of thermal cracking, significantly lowers the viscosity of
heavy crude-oil residue without affecting the boiling point range. Residual from the
atmospheric distillation tower is heated (800-950 F) at atmospheric pressure and
mildly cracked in a heater.
Q6: What is catalytic cracking ?
A6: It major secondary refining process of conversion of heavy fractions ( vgo 3700C+)
into lighter fuel products (LPG,gasoline,diesel)circulating fluid bed reactor system
(reactor-regenerator configuration).It is a multi component catalyst system in which
catalyst tailored for each unit based on unit objectives and constraints.

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Q7: What is thermal cracking ?

A7: It is process of cracking of heavy residues under severe thermal conditions. Liquid
products are highly olefinic, aromatic and have high sulfur .Hydrogen treatment required
for the liquid products to improve properties .Thermal cracking follows free radical
mechanism.
Q8: What are the feed for vibreaking?
A8: Feed stock: Asphalt, Short residuum to residuums,and medium oil.
Q9: What are the main reaction involved in catalytic cracking?
A9: (a)Cracking of Paraffins
(b)Naphthenes and side chain of aromatics .
(c)Isomerisation of olefinsDehydrogenation of Naphthenes and Olefins
(d)Cyclization and condensation of olefins .Alkylation and dealkylation .
Q10: What are the different type of catalytic cracking used in industries?
A10: (1)Fixed bed, Houdry
(2)Moving beds-Air lift-Thermofer catalytic cracking Houdry flow.
(3)Fluidized Beds
(a)Gulf Resrearch(Fluid catalytic cracking ) FCC,UOP,Texaco.
(b)Kellog(Ortho flow)
(c)ESSO-Flexi cracking
(d)Standard Ultra cracking.
Q11: what are the different type of catalyst used in fluid catalytic cracking(FCC)?
A11:FCC catalyst is a fine powder made up primarily of silica and alumina and
containing acid sites that enable the catalyst to crack heavy hydrocarbons to gasoline
and lighter products without formation of excessive amount of coke. These were
replaced with present day zeolite catalysts with greatly increased activity, stability, and
improved selectivity.
Q12: How the olefin reactivity varies with carbon number in cracking?
A12: Olefins cracks at a much faster rate compared to paraffins and subject to rapid
isomerization.

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Q13: What are the advantages of zeolites catalyst over amorphous silica-alumina ?
A13: (1)Higher activity: factor of 100 higher than amorphous silica-alumina catalyst.
(2)Higher gasoline yield at a given conversion however octane number of gasoline
obtained from zeolite cracking is lower by 2-3 numbers compared to amorphous
catalyst.(3) Production of gasoline containing a large number of paraffin and aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Q14: What is the effect of temperature and pressure on cracking?
A14: Pressure retards cracking reactions. But in practice a positive pressure of 10 to 15
Kgs/cm2 is used to minimize coke formation. Recycling increases refractory nature of
stocks and hence recycling should not exceed 2 to 3 times of fresh stock for economic
operation
Q15: How the paraffin reactivity varies with carbon number in cracking?
A15: Rate of reaction increases with carbon number but rate of coke formation also
increases with (carbon number) molecular weight characterized by high production of
C3 and C4 in the cracked gas

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MODULE- 9
Environmental issues and new trends in petroleum refinery
operations

Q1: What is Flash pyrolysis?

A1: Flash pyrolysis is the fast thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of
oxygen. The results of this pyrolysis are: gases, biofuels and char. It takes place at
high temperature between 700-1000 0C and residence time in the reactor is below
1 second.

Q2: What is the permissible limits of pollutants in discharged water?

A2:Parameters

public sewer

irrigation water

surface water

Oil and grease(ppm)

20

20

10

BOD (ppm)

350

100

30

COD(ppm)

250

250

250

Phenol, (ppm)

Hg (ppm )

1.0

1.0

0.01

Q3: Name the process used for oxidation of sulphur? Along with the
overall reaction.
A3: Claus process :- H2S oxidation process)
Overall reaction H2S + 1/2 O2

S + H2

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Q4: Describe how presence of mercaptans can affect petroleum products?

A4:Alkyl & aromatic mercaptanes :-Important S compounds distributed in petroleum
products. Cause foul odour oxidative determination towards metals. Also mercaptans
cause oxidation determination as well as inhibit the performance of various
additives(TEL,antioxidants) in finished products. Removal of is essential (sweetening
process).
Q5: Describe mercaptans removal Process?
A5: (1)Caustic scrubbing, merox extraction.(2)Convation of mercaptous to disulfide
include doctor sweetenies ,merox sweetening ,copper chloride sweetening.(3)Acid
treating ,clay treating ,catalytic process.
Q6: What are sources of waste water generated from refinery?
A6:(1)CoolingTowers.(2)Boiler Feed water treatment units.(3)Process Units(.4)Desalter
brine.(5)Tank Farms(.6)Chemical waste.(7)Sanitary and miscellaneous use(7)Fire
protection

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MODULE -8
Lube oil manufacturing

Q1: What is the principle of propane deasphalting?

A1: Liquid propane is a good solvent for hydrocarbon oil and mainly rejects heavy
hydrocarbons(asphaltenes) and non hydrocarbons present as asphalt in the vacuum
residue. Propane has unusual solvent properties in that from 40 to 600C paraffins are
very soluble in propane, but the solubility decreases with an increase in temperature until
at the critical temperature of propane [2060F (96.80C)] all hydrocarbons become
insoluble. In the range of 100 to 2060F (40 to 96.80C) the high molecular weight
asphaltenes and resins are largely insoluble in propane. Extracted oil is known as
deasphalted oil, which is suitable

lubeoil base stock(LOBS) for making high viscos

lubricant.
Q2: Give name of the solvents being replaced due to their toxic nature?
A2: (2)Liquid SO2 need replacement with H2O solvent.(2)Phenol extraction of lubes is
being displaced by NMP.
Q3: Define waxes along with the examples?
A3: Waxes are large MW Paraffinic compounds having melting point 32- 100 C.
High viscosity Index lube oil cuts: contain large amount of wax.
Q4: Write temperature and pressure values for cold pressing technique of dewaxing
along with situation where we can not use this technique?
A4: Cold Pressing
T=-17 C (O F)
P=35C to 300C
For microcrystalline wax cold pressing cannot be used because these wax either pass
through filter on may clog it.

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Q5: Write about urea dewaxing along with its major advantage?
A5: Urea forms solid filterable complex ( adducts) at room temperature with large
paraffin ( > C18 ) HCs with no branching. To increase the rate of adduct formation some
activator ( methanol) is added.
Q6: Write briefly about solvent power and effect of temperature on it?
A6: Solvent power should have high power for aromatics would lead to lower S/F for
given aromatics extraction capability.Solvent Power generally decreases with increasing
selectivity.T increases the solvent power (exception is propane deasphaltive).
Q8: Write the impact of interfacial tension on solvent properties?
A8: (1)High IFT permits rapid settings due to easier coalescence.(2)Low IFT facilitates
dispersion (drops are smaller & more interfacial area for mass transfer) whereas too low
IFT lead to emulsification and coalescence.(3)Density difference between disperse &
continuous phase S must be large for ease of setting of phases.(4)Viscosity: High
viscosity of either phase reduces master efficiency.(5)Low viscosities are preferred for
rapid setting of phases ( more viscosity phase is usually dispersed).(6)Low viscosity is
preferred for ease of pumping.
Q9: How wax content affect the pour point?
A9:Lower wax content: lower the pour point.Dewaxing is done to lower the pour point.
Q10: List various dewaxing processes?
A10: Dewaxing Process:
(1)Chilling & Pressing (Filteration).(2)Solvent Dewaxing.
(3)Urea Dewaxing- Urea forms complex compound with large chain paraffin i.e. wax
range higher molecular weight of HCs but not within the lubrication oil some m.w
paraffins
Q11: Which is the major solvent used for dewaxing and briefly explain its action?
A11: Most widely used solvent are MEK or propane.
Ketone (MEK) used to maintain wax solubility. It Causes the wax to solidify in a easy
of filterable form.

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Q12: Write briefly about isodewaxing?

A12:Isomerizes a significant portion of the wax to lubes. Selective for mid distillates By
products.

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MODULE -7
Isomerization, Alkylation, and Polymerization
Q1: What is isomerization?
A1: Octane numbers of the LSR naphtha [C5-180oF (C5-82oC)] can be improved by the
use of an isomerization process to convert normal paraffin to their isomers.
Q2: Why low temperature is required for alkylation when we use H2SO4 as catalyst?
A2: Low temperature required for H2SO4 because at higher temperature forms tar due
to oxidation-reduction reactions.
Q3: What are the catalysts and conditions are used in polymerization reaction?
A3: Sulfuric acid, copper pyrophosphate, or phosphoric acids are used as catalyst in the
process at 15oC to 22oC and 150 to 1200 psi, depending on feedstock and product
requirement.
Q4: What is thermal polymerisation?
A4: Thermal polymerization is regarded not as effective as catalytic polymerization but
has the advantage that it can be used to polymerize saturated materials that cannot be
induced to react by catalysts. The process consists essentially of vapor
phase cracking of, say, propane and butane followed by prolonged periods at high
temperature (50oC to 59oC) for the reactions to proceed to near completion.

Q5: What is the feed stock for the isomerization?

A5: Lightest naphtha feed stock (SRG) with pentanes, hexanes, & small amounts of
heptanes.Feed often debutanized "Debutanized Straight Run".Sulfur& nitrogen must
be removed since catalysts employ an acid site for activity.

Q6: What are the products of isomerization?

A6: Isoparaffins&cycloparaffins and small amounts of light gasses from hydrocracking

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Q7: What is catalytic alkylation?

A7:Catalytic alkylation process is used in refineries to upgrade light olefins (produced
from catalytic crackers as well as from cokers) and isobutene into a highly branched
paraffins. In petrochemical industry It is used to produce alkylate benzenes and other
petrochemical products.
Q8: Why Alkylation is important in refining process?
A8: Alkylation is an important refining process for the production of alkylates, a highoctane gasoline blending component. Alkylate product is a mixture of branched
hydrocarbons of gasoline boiling range. Alkylatehas a motor octane (MON) of 90-95 and
a research octane (RON) of93-98. Because of its high octane and low vapor pressure,
alkylate isconsidered an excellent blending component for gasoline.
Q9: What is the feed stock for alkylation process?
A9: The feed to alkylate unit is usually cracked LPG from the FCCU unit.The FCCU's
LPG is fractionated into a C3/C4 splitter to remove propane and lighter components.
Q10: What are the catalyst used for alkylation process?
A10: Alkylation process are conducted by Lewis acids like sulphuric acid, hydrofluoric
acid, aluminium chloride (obsolete).Highly exothermic reaction HP = - ( 630 to 700
Btu/lb for isobutene alkylation).

Q11: What is polymerisation?

A11:Polymerization is a process in which a substance of low molecular weight is
transformed into one of the same composition but of higher molecular weight,
maintaining the atomic arrangement present in the basic molecule.
Q12: WhyPolymerisation is an important process in gasoline manufacturing?
A12: Most gasoline formulations require inclusion of some light naphtha to meet the
front-end distillation and octane specifications. However, C5/C6 normal paraffinsin this
boiling range have low octane, which make them very difficult to include in the gasoline
formulation. Branched chain C5 and C6 hydrocarbons have higher octane, making them
more suitable for inclusion in gasoline.

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MODULE -6
Hydrotreating and Hydrocracking

Q1: What is hydrodesulfurization?

A1: In this process sulfur is converted to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) Added hydrogen
breaks carbon-sulfur bonds & saturates remaining hydrocarbon chains.
Q2: what is hydrocracking?
A2: Distillate hydrocracking is a refining process for conversion of heavy gas oils and
heavy diesels or similar boiling-range heavy distillates into light distillates (naphtha,
kerosene, diesel, etc.) or base stocks for lubricating oil manufacture. The process
consists of causing feed to react with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst under
specified operating conditions: temperature, pressure, and space velocity.
Q3: What are the catalyst used in hydrotreating?
A3: Cobalt molybdenum : sulfur removal & olefin saturation
Nickel molybdenum: nitrogen removal & aromatic saturation
Q4: What are the catalyst used in hydrocracking?
A4: Crystalline silica alumina base with a rare earth metal deposited in the lattice
Platinum, palladium, tungsten, and/or nickel.
Q5: What is UNIONFINING?
A5: It is a fixed bed catalytic process developed by UOP adopted for diesel Hydrodesulphurization.

Q6: Why Hydro processing ?

A6: Need to increase automotive fuel yield & quality .Petroleum fractions contain
organic Sulfur, Nitrogen etc. which cause Increased air pollution Equipment corrosion.
Difficulties in further processing (catalyst poisoning etc.)

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Q7: what are the main reaction involve in hydrocracking?

A7: Hydrocracking reactions can be divided into two groups: (1) desulfurization and
denitrification hydrogenation of polyaromatics and monoaromatics are favored by the
hydrogenating function of the catalyst (metals) and (2) hydrodealkylation,
hydrodecyclization, hydrocracking, and hydroisomerization reactions are promoted by
the acidic function of the catalyst (support).

Q8: What is H-Oil process?

A8: This is used for desulphurising and demetallising residue as well as the produce
low sulphur cat cracker feed stocks. It has the advantage of functioning as hydro
desulphurization unit or hydrocracker unit.
This uses ebullatedbed in which feed stock and hydrogen pass upward through catalyst
bed.
Q9: What is Union Oil process?
A9: This is also called Uni-cracking Hydro Desulphurization process. it is a fixed bed
catalytic process mainly suitable for atmosphere and vacuum residue. In this process
formation of light fractions is not allowed,and the process is conducted at relatively low
operating conditions.

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MODULE -5
Catalytic Reforming

Q1: What are Lewis and Bronested acid sites.

A1: An acid site on a catalyst where the acidic entity is a positive ion(cataion) such as
Al3+ rather than ionisable hydrogen. On the other hand bronested acid site has acidic
entity in the form of ionisable hydrogen like mineral acis sulfuric acid.
Q2: What is gas oil.?
A2: General term for a product boiling above 1800C. Diesel , turbine and jet fuels are
blended from gas oil.
Q3: What is typical feed range used for reforming?
A3: Typically, the feed to a cat reformer unit for gasoline production is heavy
straight-run naphtha with an initial boiling point (IBP) of 194F and final boiling
point (FBP) of 284F. Benzene is an undesirable component in the gasoline
because of environmental pollution concerns. It is therefore important to
minimize or exclude any benzene precursors in the cat reformer feed by
keeping the feed IBP higher than 1800F. The cat reformer feed is
hydrotreated in a naphtha hydrotreater unit to remove any sulfur, nitrogen,
and other impurities which can poison the reforming
Q4: What is steam reforming and why it is important in petroleum refining
process?
A4: Hydrocarbon steam reforming is an important process for hydrogen
production. Hydrogen is a valuable raw material for chemical and
petrochemical industry and it is also used as a clean combustible. Steam
reforming process transforms a liquid hydrocarbon stream into a gaseous
mixture constituted by CO2, CO, CH4, and H2.

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Q5: What is catalytic reforming?

A5: Catalytic reforming is a chemical process used to convert petroleum
refinery naphthas, typically having low octane ratings, into high-octane liquid
products called reformates which are components of high-octane gasoline
(also known as petrol)
Q6: What are the catalyst used in reforming?
A6: Most catalytic reforming catalysts contain platinum or rhenium on a silica
or silica-alumina support base, and some contain both platinum and rhenium.
Q7: What is the purpose of reforming process?
A7: The purpose of Reforming process is to produce high octane number
reformate reformate, which is a main component for motor fuel, aviation
gasoline blending or aromatic rich feedstock. Hydrogen rich gas hydrogen
gas Due to the nature of the reactions, reforming process produces LPG.
Q8: What are the desirable reaction during reforming?
A8:Naphthenes dehydrogenation
Paraffin's Dehydrocyclization
Linear Paraffin Isomerization
Naphthenes Isomerization
Q9: What is the effect of pressure on reforming?
A9: Low pressure encourage dehydrogenation reaction ,while no noticeable
effect of pressure on isomerization may be expected. Coke formation is more
at low pressure. Increase in pressure causes dealkylation very much.
Hydrocracking and elimination reaction are directly related to partial pressure
of hydrogen.
Q10:What is effect of temperature on reforming?
A10:Except hydrogenation reaction which exothermic all other reaction are
favoured by increasing temperature. With increase of temperature, chance of
degradation of product, and coke deposition are likely.
Q11:What is Rhein Forming?
A11: This is a fixed bed regenerative reforming process. Rhenium-platinum
combination are used as catalyst which are quite good in resisting fouling.
This can be operated at press below 20 atm.

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Q12: What is Power forming?

A12: Power forming process is designed to operate in cyclic or semi
regenerative unit. Reformate of octane value 85to102+ are common product
of this process

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