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BoseEinsteinstatistics
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Inquantumstatistics,BoseEinsteinstatistics(ormorecolloquiallyBEstatistics)isoneoftwopossiblewaysin
whichacollectionofnoninteractingindistinguishableparticlesmayoccupyasetofavailablediscreteenergystates,at
thermodynamicequilibrium.Theaggregationofparticlesinthesamestate,whichisacharacteristicofparticlesobeying
BoseEinsteinstatistics,accountsforthecohesivestreamingoflaserlightandthefrictionlesscreepingofsuperfluid
helium.Thetheoryofthisbehaviourwasdeveloped(192425)bySatyendraNathBose,whorecognizedthata
collectionofidenticalandindistinguishableparticlescanbedistributedinthisway.Theideawaslateradoptedand
extendedbyAlbertEinsteinincollaborationwithBose.
TheBoseEinsteinstatisticsapplyonlytothoseparticlesnotlimitedtosingleoccupancyofthesamestatethatis,
particlesthatdonotobeythePauliexclusionprinciplerestrictions.Suchparticleshaveintegervaluesofspinandare
namedbosons,afterthestatisticsthatcorrectlydescribetheirbehaviour.Theremustalsobenosignificantinteraction
betweentheparticles.
Contents
1 Concept
2 History
3 TwoderivationsoftheBoseEinsteindistribution
3.1 Derivationfromthegrandcanonicalensemble
3.2 Derivationinthecanonicalapproach
4 Interdisciplinaryapplications
5 Seealso
6 Notes
7 References
Concept
Atlowtemperatures,bosonsbehavedifferentlyfromfermions(whichobeytheFermiDiracstatistics)inawaythatan
unlimitednumberofthemcan"condense"intothesameenergystate.Thisapparentlyunusualpropertyalsogivesrise
tothespecialstateofmatterBoseEinsteinCondensate.FermiDiracandBoseEinsteinstatisticsapplywhen
quantumeffectsareimportantandtheparticlesare"indistinguishable".Quantumeffectsappeariftheconcentrationof
particlessatisfies,
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whereNisthenumberofparticlesandVisthevolumeandnqisthequantumconcentration,forwhichtheinterparticle
distanceisequaltothethermaldeBrogliewavelength,sothatthewavefunctionsoftheparticlesarebarelyoverlapping.
FermiDiracstatisticsapplytofermions(particlesthatobeythePauliexclusionprinciple),andBoseEinsteinstatistics
applytobosons.Asthequantumconcentrationdependsontemperature,mostsystemsathightemperaturesobeythe
classical(MaxwellBoltzmann)limitunlesstheyhaveaveryhighdensity,asforawhitedwarf.BothFermiDiracand
BoseEinsteinbecomeMaxwellBoltzmannstatisticsathightemperatureoratlowconcentration.
BEstatisticswasintroducedforphotonsin1924byBoseandgeneralizedtoatomsbyEinsteinin192425.
TheexpectednumberofparticlesinanenergystateiforBEstatisticsis
withi>andwhereniisthenumberofparticlesinstatei,giisthedegeneracyofstatei,iistheenergyoftheith
state,isthechemicalpotential,kistheBoltzmannconstant,andTisabsolutetemperature.Forcomparison,the
averagenumberoffermionswithenergy givenbyFermiDiracparticleenergydistributionhasasimilarform,
BEstatisticsreducestotheRayleighJeansLawdistributionfor
,namely
History
WhilepresentingalectureattheUniversityofDhakaonthetheoryofradiationandtheultravioletcatastrophe,
SatyendraNathBoseintendedtoshowhisstudentsthatthecontemporarytheorywasinadequate,becauseitpredicted
resultsnotinaccordancewithexperimentalresults.Duringthislecture,Bosecommittedanerrorinapplyingthetheory,
whichunexpectedlygaveapredictionthatagreedwiththeexperiment.Theerrorwasasimplemistakesimilarto
arguingthatflippingtwofaircoinswillproducetwoheadsonethirdofthetimethatwouldappearobviouslywrong
toanyonewithabasicunderstandingofstatistics(remarkably,thiserrorresembledthefamousblunderbyd'Alembert
knownfromhis"CroixouPile(http://www.cs.xu.edu/math/Sources/Dalembert/croix_ou_pile.pdf)"Article).However,
theresultsitpredictedagreedwithexperiment,andBoserealizeditmightnotbeamistakeafterall.Forthefirsttime,
hetookthepositionthattheMaxwellBoltzmanndistributionwouldnotbetrueforallmicroscopicparticlesatall
scales.Thus,hestudiedtheprobabilityoffindingparticlesinvariousstatesinphasespace,whereeachstateisalittle
patchhavingvolumeh3,andthepositionandmomentumoftheparticlesarenotkeptparticularlyseparatebutare
consideredasonevariable.
Boseadaptedthislectureintoashortarticlecalled"Planck'sLawandtheHypothesisofLightQuanta"[1][2]and
submittedittothePhilosophicalMagazine.However,thereferee'sreportwasnegative,andthepaperwasrejected.
Undaunted,hesentthemanuscripttoAlbertEinsteinrequestingpublicationintheZeitschriftfrPhysik.Einstein
immediatelyagreed,personallytranslatedthearticleintoGerman(BosehadearliertranslatedEinstein'sarticleonthe
theoryofGeneralRelativityfromGermantoEnglish),andsawtoitthatitwaspublished.Bose'stheoryachieved
respectwhenEinsteinsenthisownpaperinsupportofBose'stoZeitschriftfrPhysik,askingthattheybepublished
together.Thiswasdonein1924.
ThereasonBoseproducedaccurateresultswasthatsincephotonsareindistinguishablefromeachother,onecannot
treatanytwophotonshavingequalenergyasbeingtwodistinctidentifiablephotons.Byanalogy,ifinanalternate
universecoinsweretobehavelikephotonsandotherbosons,theprobabilityofproducingtwoheadswouldindeedbe
onethird,andsoistheprobabilityofgettingaheadandatailwhichequalsonehalffortheconventional(classical,
distinguishable)coins.Bose's"error"leadstowhatisnowcalledBoseEinsteinstatistics.
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BoseandEinsteinextendedtheideatoatomsandthisledtothepredictionoftheexistenceofphenomenawhich
becameknownasBoseEinsteincondensate,adensecollectionofbosons(whichareparticleswithintegerspin,named
afterBose),whichwasdemonstratedtoexistbyexperimentin1995.
TwoderivationsoftheBoseEinsteindistribution
Derivationfromthegrandcanonicalensemble
TheBoseEinsteindistribution,whichappliesonlytoaquantumsystemofnoninteractingbosons,iseasilyderived
fromthegrandcanonicalensemble.[3]Inthisensemble,thesystemisabletoexchangeenergyandexchangeparticles
withareservoir(temperatureTandchemicalpotentialfixedbythereservoir).
Duetothenoninteractingquality,eachavailablesingleparticlelevel(withenergylevel)formsaseparate
thermodynamicsystemincontactwiththereservoir.Inotherwords,eachsingleparticlelevelisaseparate,tinygrand
canonicalensemble.WithbosonsthereisnolimitonthenumberofparticlesNinthelevel,butdueto
indistinguishabilityeachpossibleNcorrespondstoonlyonemicrostate(withenergyN).Theresultingpartition
functionforthatsingleparticlelevelthereforeformsageometricseries:
andtheaverageparticlenumberforthatsingleparticlesubstateisgivenby
ThisresultappliesforeachsingleparticlelevelandthusformstheBoseEinsteindistributionfortheentirestateofthe
system.[3][4]
Thevarianceinparticlenumber(duetothermalfluctuations)mayalsobederived:
Thisleveloffluctuationismuchlargerthanfordistinguishableparticles,whichwouldinsteadshowPoissonstatistics(
).Thisisbecausetheprobabilitydistributionforthenumberofbosonsinagivenenergylevelisa
geometricdistribution,notaPoissondistribution.
Derivationinthecanonicalapproach
ItisalsopossibletoderiveapproximateBoseEinsteinstatisticsinthecanonicalensemble.Thesederivationsare
lengthyandonlyyieldtheaboveresultsintheasymptoticlimitofalargenumberofparticles.Thereasonisthatthe
totalnumberofbosonsisfixedinthecanonicalensemble.ThatcontradictstheimplicationinBoseEinsteinstatistics
thateachenergylevelisfilledindependentlyfromtheothers(whichwouldrequirethenumberofparticlestobe
flexible).
Derivation
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Withalittlethought(seeNotesbelow)itcanbeseenthatthenumberofwaysofdistributing particlesinthreesublevels
is
sothat
wherewehaveusedthefollowingtheoreminvolvingbinomialcoefficients:
Continuingthisprocess,wecanseethat
isjustabinomialcoefficient(SeeNotesbelow)
Forexample,thepopulationnumbersfortwoparticlesinthreesublevelsare200,110,101,020,011,or002foratotalof
sixwhichequals4!/(2!2!).Thenumberofwaysthatasetofoccupationnumbers canberealizedistheproductofthe
waysthateachindividualenergylevelcanbepopulated:
wheretheapproximationassumesthat
FollowingthesameprocedureusedinderivingtheMaxwellBoltzmannstatistics,wewishtofindthesetof forwhich
Wismaximised,subjecttotheconstraintthattherebeafixedtotalnumberofparticles,andafixedtotalenergy.The
maximaof and
occuratthesamevalueof and,sinceitiseasiertoaccomplishmathematically,wewill
maximisethelatterfunctioninstead.WeconstrainoursolutionusingLagrangemultipliersformingthefunction:
Usingthe
approximationandusingStirling'sapproximationforthefactorials
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gives
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WhereKisthesumofanumberoftermswhicharenotfunctionsofthe .Takingthederivativewithrespectto
settingtheresulttozeroandsolvingfor ,yieldstheBoseEinsteinpopulationnumbers:
,and
ByaprocesssimilartothatoutlinedintheMaxwellBoltzmannstatisticsarticle,itcanbeseenthat:
which,usingBoltzmann'sfamousrelationship
atconstantvolume,anditfollowsthat
becomesastatementofthesecondlawofthermodynamics
and
whereSistheentropy, isthechemicalpotential,k
isBoltzmann'sconstantandTisthetemperature,sothatfinally:
Notethattheaboveformulaissometimeswritten:
where
istheabsoluteactivity,asnotedbyMcQuarrie.[5]
Alsonotethatwhentheparticlenumbersarenotconserved,removingtheconservationofparticlenumbersconstraintis
equivalenttosetting andthereforethechemicalpotential tozero.Thiswillbethecaseforphotonsandmassive
particlesinmutualequilibriumandtheresultingdistributionwillbethePlanckdistribution.
Notes
AmuchsimplerwaytothinkofBoseEinsteindistributionfunctionistoconsiderthatnparticlesaredenotedbyidentical
ballsandgshellsaremarkedbyg1linepartitions.Itisclearthatthepermutationsofthesenballsandg1partitions
willgivedifferentwaysofarrangingbosonsindifferentenergylevels.Say,for3(=n)particlesand3(=g)shells,therefore
(g1)=2,thearrangementmightbe||,or||,or||,etc.Hencethenumberofdistinctpermutationsofn+(g1)
objectswhichhavenidenticalitemsand(g1)identicalitemswillbe:
OR
ThepurposeofthesenotesistoclarifysomeaspectsofthederivationoftheBoseEinstein(BE)distributionfor
beginners.Theenumerationofcases(orways)intheBEdistributioncanberecastasfollows.Consideragameofdice
throwinginwhichthereare dice,witheachdietakingvaluesintheset
,for
.Theconstraintsofthe
gamearethatthevalueofadie ,denotedby ,hastobegreaterthanorequaltothevalueofdie
,denoted
by
,inthepreviousthrow,i.e.,
.Thusavalidsequenceofdiethrowscanbedescribedbyanntuple
,suchthat
.Let
denotethesetofthesevalidntuples:
(1)
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Thenthequantity
(definedaboveasthenumberofwaystodistribute particlesamongthe sublevelsofan
energylevel)isthecardinalityof
,i.e.,thenumberofelements(orvalidntuples)in
.Thustheproblem
offindinganexpressionfor
becomestheproblemofcountingtheelementsin
.
Examplen=4,g=3:
(thereare
elementsin
Subset
isobtainedbyfixingallindices to ,exceptforthelastindex,
,whichisincrementedfrom to
.Subset isobtainedbyfixing
,andincrementing
from to
.Duetothe
constraint
ontheindicesin
,theindex
mustautomaticallytakevaluesin
.The
constructionofsubsets and
followsinthesamemanner.
Eachelementof
fromtheset
canbethoughtofasamultisetofcardinality
theelementsofsuchmultisetaretaken
ofcardinality
,andthenumberofsuchmultisetsisthemultisetcoefficient
Moregenerally,eachelementof
isamultisetofcardinality (numberofdice)withelementstakenfromtheset
ofcardinality (numberofpossiblevaluesofeachdie),andthenumberofsuchmultisets,i.e.,
is
themultisetcoefficient
(2)
whichisexactlythesameastheformulafor
coefficients,namely
,asderivedabovewiththeaidofatheoreminvolvingbinomial
(3)
Tounderstandthedecomposition
(4)
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orforexample,
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and
letusrearrangetheelementsof
Clearly,thesubset
asfollows
of
isthesameastheset
.
Bydeletingtheindex
(showninredwithdoubleunderline)inthesubset
of
,oneobtainstheset
.
Inotherwords,thereisaonetoonecorrespondencebetweenthesubset
of
andtheset
.Wewrite
.
Similarly,itiseasytoseethat
(emptyset).
Thuswecanwrite
ormoregenerally,
(5)
andsincethesets
arenonintersecting,wethushave
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(6)
withtheconventionthat
.
(7)
Continuingtheprocess,wearriveatthefollowingformula
Usingtheconvention(7)2above,weobtaintheformula
(8)
Itcanthenbeverifiedthat(8)and(2)givethesameresultfor
(9)
,etc.
Interdisciplinaryapplications
Viewedasapureprobabilitydistribution,theBoseEinsteindistributionhasfoundapplicationinotherfields:
Inrecentyears,BoseEinsteinstatisticshavealsobeenusedasamethodfortermweightingininformation
retrieval.ThemethodisoneofacollectionofDFR("DivergenceFromRandomness")models,[6]thebasicnotion
beingthatBoseEinsteinstatisticsmaybeausefulindicatorincaseswhereaparticulartermandaparticular
documenthaveasignificantrelationshipthatwouldnothaveoccurredpurelybychance.Sourcecodefor
implementingthismodelisavailablefromtheTerrierproject
(http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk/terrier/doc/dfr_description.html)attheUniversityofGlasgow.
Theevolutionofmanycomplexsystems,includingtheWorldWideWeb,business,andcitationnetworks,is
encodedinthedynamicwebdescribingtheinteractionsbetweenthesystem'sconstituents.Despitetheir
irreversibleandnonequilibriumnaturethesenetworksfollowBosestatisticsandcanundergoBoseEinstein
condensation.Addressingthedynamicalpropertiesofthesenonequilibriumsystemswithintheframeworkof
equilibriumquantumgasespredictsthatthe"firstmoveradvantage,""fitgetrich(FGR),"and"winnertakesall"
phenomenaobservedincompetitivesystemsarethermodynamicallydistinctphasesoftheunderlyingevolving
networks.[6]
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Seealso
BoseEinsteincorrelations
Einsteinsolid
Higgsboson
Parastatistics
Planck'slawofblackbodyradiation
Superconductivity
FermiDiracStatistics
MaxwellBoltzmannStatistics
Notes
1. Seep.14,note3,ofthePh.D.ThesisentitledBoseEinsteincondensation:analysisofproblemsandrigorousresults,
presentedbyAlessandroMichelangelitotheInternationalSchoolforAdvancedStudies,MathematicalPhysicsSector,October
2007forthedegreeofPh.D.See:http://digitallibrary.sissa.it/handle/1963/5272?show=full,anddownloadfrom
http://digitallibrary.sissa.it/handle/1963/5272
2. TodownloadtheBosepaper,see:http://www.condmat.unioldenburg.de/TeachingSP/bose.ps
3. Chapter7ofSrivastava,R.K.Ashok,J.(2005).StatisticalMechanics.NewDelhi:PHILearningPvt.Ltd.
ISBN9788120327825.Citeerror:Invalid<ref>tagname"sriva"definedmultipletimeswithdifferentcontent(seethe
helppage).
4. TheBEdistributioncanbederivedalsofromthermalfieldtheory.
5. SeeMcQuarrieincitations
6. Amati,G.C.J.VanRijsbergen(2002)."Probabilisticmodelsofinformationretrievalbasedonmeasuringthedivergence
fromrandomness(http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=582416)"ACMTOIS20(4):357389.Citeerror:Invalid<ref>tag
name"bia"definedmultipletimeswithdifferentcontent(seethehelppage).
References
Annett,JamesF.(2004).Superconductivity,SuperfluidsandCondensates.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
ISBN0198507550.
Bose(1924)."PlancksGesetzundLichtquantenhypothese",ZeitschriftfrPhysik26:178181.
doi:10.1007/BF01327326(Einstein'stranslationintoGermanofBose'spaperonPlanck'slaw).
Carter,AshleyH.(2001).ClassicalandStatisticalThermodynamics.UpperSaddleRiver,NewJersey:Prentice
Hall.ISBN0137792085.
Griffiths,DavidJ.(2005).IntroductiontoQuantumMechanics(2nded.).UpperSaddleRiver,NewJersey:
Pearson,PrenticeHall.ISBN0131911759.
McQuarrie,DonaldA.(2000).StatisticalMechanics(1sted.).Sausalito,California94965:UniversityScience
Books.p.55.ISBN1891389157.
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