B8.

Reproduction
8.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction
1. Define asexual reproduction as the process resulting in
the production of genetically identical offspring from one
parent.
Asexual reproduction in the process that results in the
production of genetically identical offspring from one parent.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to a species of
asexual reproduction.
The advantages are as follows:
o The process is quick.
o Only one parent is needed, therefore, no resources or
time is wasted finding a mate or in pollination.
o No gametes are needed.
o All the good characteristics of the parent are passed off
to the offspring.
o Asexual organisms usually store large amounts of food

that allow rapid growth when conditions are suitable.

The disadvantages are as follows:
o There is little variation created, so adaptation to a
changing environment (evolution) is unlikely.
o If the parent has no resistance to a particular disease,
none of the offspring will have resistance.
o Lack of dispersal can lead to competition for nutrients,
water and light.

3. Define sexual reproduction as the process involving the

fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid zygote and the
production of genetically dissimilar offspring.
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of

haploid nuclei to form a diploid zygote.

Sexual reproduction produces genetically different offspring.

4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to a species of

sexual reproduction.
The advantages are as follows:

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o There is variation in the offspring so adaptation to a
changing or new environment is likely, enabling survival
of the species.
o New varieties may be created which may have
resistance to disease.
o In plants, seeds are produced, which allow dispersal

away from the parent plant, reducing competition.

The disadvantages are as follows:
o Two parents are usually needed (although not always
some plants can self-pollinate).
o Growth of a new plant to maturity from a seed is slow.
o There are many opportunities for things to go wrong
because the process is longer.
o There is no guarantee that the organisms will pass on
the best characteristics.

8.2 Sexual

reproduction in

plants
1. Identify and draw,
necessary, the

using a hand lens if

sepals, petals,

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stamens, anthers, carpels, ovaries and stigmas of one
locally available, named insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous
flower, and examine the pollen grains under a light
microscope or photomicrographs.
2. Use a hand lens to identify and describe the anthers and
stigmas of one locally available, named, wind-pollinated
flower.

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3. State the functions of sepals, petals, anthers, stigmas
and ovaries.
Part
Petal
Sepal
Petiole
(stalk)
Stamen
Anther
Filamen
t
Carpel
Stigma

Function
The petal is often large and colored. It serves the purpose
of attracting insects.
The sepal protects the flower while in the bud.
The petiole supports the flower.
The stamen in the male reproductive part of the flower. It
is made up of the anther and filament.
The anther contains pollen sacs. Pollen grains are formed
in these sacs. Pollen contains male sex cells.
The filament supports the anther.
The carpel is the female reproductive part of the flower. It
is made up of the stigma, style and ovary.
The stigma is a sticky surface that receives pollen during
pollination.

Style

The style links the stigma to the ovary.

Ovary

The ovary contains ovules. These ovules later develop

into seed when fertilized.

4. Candidates should expect to apply their understanding of

the flowers they have studied to unfamiliar flowers.
5. Define pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from
the male part of the plant (anther of stamen) to the
female part of the plant (stigma).
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the male part
of the plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant
(stigma).
6. Name the agents of pollination.
The agents of pollination are winds, animals and water.
7. Compare the different structural adaptations of insectpollinated and wind-pollinated flowers.
Feature
Petals

Insect-pollinated
Petals are present. They
are often large and

Wind-pollinated
Petals are either absent or
small in size.

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colored.
Nectarie
s

Nectaries are present.

Nectaries are absent.

Stamens

The stamens in insectpollinated flowers are

usually present inside the
flower. They usually have
short filaments. The
anthers are attached
firmly to the filaments.

Wind-pollinated flowers
have long filaments. These
allow the anthers to hang
freely outside the flower
(so that the pollen can be
exposed to the wind).

Carpels

The stigmas usually have

a small surface area and
are inside the flower.

The stigmas are usually

large and feathery. They
hang outside the flower to
catch the pollen.

Pollen

Smell

Pollen is found in smaller

amounts. The gains are
often round and sticky.
They also tend to be
covered in spikes. These
spikes help them to latch
onto the furry bodies of
insects.
Insect-pollinated flowers
tend to smell good.

Pollen is found in large

amounts. The grains are
smooth and light. They are
like this so that they can
easily be transported by
the wind.
Wind-pollinated flowers
tend to not be scented.

8. Investigate and state the environmental conditions that

affect germination of seeds: requirement for water and
oxygen, suitable temperature.
Environmenta
l Condition
Water

Oxygen
Suitable
Temperature

Why is it important?
Water is absorbed through the micropyle. It is
needed to activate enzymes, which convert
insoluble food stores into soluble foods needed for
growth and energy production.
Oxygen is needed for respiration, to release
energy for growth and chemical changes for
mobilization of food reserves.
A suitable temperature is needed for enzymes to
work. If the temperature is unsuitable, the
enzymes will denature and will not work properly.

9. Investigate and describe the structure of a nonendospermic seed in terms of the embryo (radicle,
plumule and cotyledons) and testa, protected by the fruit.

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After

the ovule becomes a zygote.

The zygote divides by mitosis to form an embryo plant.
The ovule is now called a seed.
The ovary becomes the fruit.

fertilization,

Part of the
Seed

Structure

Testa

The testa is the

tough protective
covering.

Function

Radicle

Food storage for the

seed.
Part of the embryo.

The testa stops the embryo

from being damaged. It also
prevents bacteria and fungi
from entering the seed.
The cotyledons contain
starch, protein and enzymes.
Grows into the root.

Plumule

Part of the embryo.

Grows in to the shoot.

This is a tiny hole in

the testa.
This is a scar near
the micropyle.

This tiny hole allows water

and oxygen to enter the seed.
This is where the seed was
joined to the pod (ovary).

Cotyledons

Micropyle
Hilum
10.

State that seed and fruit dispersal by wind and by

animals provides a means of colonizing new areas.

Dispersal of seeds is important, because it prevents too many

plants growing close together.

If this happens, they compete for light, water and nutrients, so

that none can grow properly.

Dispersal also allows the plant to colonize new areas.

11.

Describe, using named examples, seed and fruit

dispersed by wind and by animals.

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Wind Dispersed Fruit
Dandelion:
The dandelion fruit has a group of fine hairs
called a pappus.
The pappus acts as a parachute and catches
wind.
The fruit counterbalances the pappus.
Sycamore:
A sycamore seed has a wing with a large
surface area.
When it drops off the tree it spins. If caught
by wind the seed will be carried away from
the parent plant, reducing competition for
nutrients, water and light.
Animal Dispersed Fruit
Succulent fruits, such as blackberries:
They are colored, juicy and nutritious. This
causes animals to be attracted to them.
When eaten, seeds pass through the gut
without getting digested.
When the animal goes to the bathroom
these seeds are then deposited with animal
feces far away from the parent plant.
Hooked fruits, such as burrs:
Burrs catch on to an animals fur as it (the
animal) brushes past the parent plant.
Eventually the seed is dropped off and it
gets dispersed far away from the parent
plant.

8.3 Sexual reproduction in humans

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1. Identify on diagrams of the male reproductive system, the
testes, scrotum, and sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra
and penis, and state the functions of these parts.

Part
Epididymis
Penis
Prostate Gland
Scrotum
Seminal Vesicle
Sperm Duct
Testis (plural, testes)

Urethra

Function
The epididymis is a mass of tubes
in which sperm are stored.
The penis can become firm, to
insert into the vagina of the female
during sexual intercourse, to
transfer sperm.
The prostate gland adds fluid and
nutrients to sperm, to form semen.
The scrotum is the sac that holds
the testes outside the body. It
keeps them cooler than body
temperature.
The seminal vesicle adds fluid and
nutrients to sperm, to form semen.
The sperm duct is the muscular
tube that links the testis to the
urethra to allow the passage of
semen containing sperm.
These are the male gonads that
produce sperm.
The urethra is essential as it passes
semen that contains sperm,
through the penis. It also carries
urine from the bladder at different
times.

2. Compare male and female gametes in terms of size,

numbers and mobility.
Type of Gamete
Egg

Structure
Is large in size (0.1mm)

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Sperm

3. Identify

because it has all cell

components that is needed for
the cell to grow and multiply. It
also has a yolk to nourish the
embryo.
During ovulation, only one egg
is released every month.
Ovum is immobile as the
sperm moves towards it to
fertilize it.
Size is very small (0.05mm).
During ejaculation millions of
sperms are produced into the
womens vagina.
Sperms are highly mobile and
can swim towards the oviduct
with he help of its tail.
on

diagrams

of the

female

reproductive system, the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix

and vagina, and state the functions of these parts.

Part
Cervix
Funnel of the Oviduct

Function
The cervix is a ring of muscle that
separates the vagina from the
uterus.
The funnel of the oviduct directs an
ovum (egg) from the ovary into the
oviduct.

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Ovary
Oviduct

Urethra
Uterus
Vagina

The ovary contains follicles in

which ova (eggs) are produced.
The oviduct carries an ovum to the
uterus, with propulsion provided by
tiny cilia in the wall. The oviduct is
also the site of fertilization.
The urethra carries urine from the
bladder.
The uterus is where the fetus
develops.
The vagina receives the male penis
during sexual intercourse. This is
where sperm is deposited.

4.

D
e
s

cribe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the

uterus and ovaries.

Progesterone and Estrogen are hormones produced by the

ovaries.
LH and FSH are hormones produced by the pituitary glands.
Progesterone keeps the lining thick.
Estrogen causes the lining to thicken.

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LH and FSH cause ovulation.
5. Describe fertilization in terms of the joining of the nuclei
of

male gamete (sperm) and the female gamete (egg).

During sexual intercourse, the erect penis is inserted into

vagina.
Semen is then ejaculated into the neck of vagina.
Many sperm cluster around ovum but only one penetrates it.
A fertilization membrane is secreted around the egg once one

sperm enters.
The sperm nucleus fuses with egg nucleus to form a zygote,
this process is called fertilization.

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6. Outline early development of the zygote simply in terms
of the formation of a ball of cells that becomes implanted
in the wall of the uterus.
7. Indicate the functions of the amniotic sac and amniotic
fluid.
Structure
Amniotic Sac

Amniotic Fluid

Function
The amniotic sac is a thin membrane, formed from
cells of the embryo. It contains the amniotic fluid.
It encloses the fetus and prevents entry of
bacteria.
The amniotic fluid supports the fetus, protecting it
from physical damage. It absorbs excretory
materials (urine) released by the fetus.

8. Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord

in relation to exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and
excretory products (no structural details are required).

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The placenta brings the blood supply of the fetus close to that
of the mother, but prevents the blood from mixing.
o This is important because the fetus and mother may
have different blood groups and any mixing can result in
blood clotting.
o Also the mothers blood pressure is higher in
comparison. So, if the blood mixed, it could cause

damage to the fetal organs.

Blood from fetus passes through the umbilical cord in the

umbilical artery to the placenta.

Substances that diffuse across the placenta are as follows:
To Fetus from
Mother

Type of Substance
Respiratory Gases

Soluble Nutrients

Disease Preventing
Substances
Nitrogenous Excretory
Substances
Potentially Harmful
Substances

Oxygen

Amino acids
Glucose
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
Antibodies
Antibiotics

Alcohol
Nicotine (and
other drugs)
Viruses
Bacteria

To Mother from
Fetus
Carbon
Dioxide

Urea

9. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding compared with bottle-feeding using formula milk.
Advantages of breast-feeding over bottle-feeding are as
follows:
o There are antibodies that are present in the breast milk,
giving the baby protection against infection.
o Foodstuffs are present in breast milk in the correct
proportions.

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o There are no additives and preservatives in breast milk.
o Breast-feeding builds a bond between mother and baby.
o Breast milk does not require sterilization, as there are no
bacteria present that could cause intestinal disease.
o Breastfeeding triggers a reduction in the size of the
mothers uterus.
o Formula milk is much more expensive than breast milk

which is free.
Advantages of bottle-feeding over breast-feeding are as
follows:
o Someone else can feed the mothers baby.
o This can also help the father to bond with the baby, if he
is involved in feeding.
o Formula can provide nutrients if the mother is unable to.
o It can be more convenient to bottle feed.
o Exact quantity of the food intake can be measured.

10.

Describe the method of transmission of human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and the ways in which

HIV/AIDS can be prevented from spreading.
Methods of Transmission
Unprotected sexual
intercourse with an infected
person.
Drug use that involves sharing
a needle with an infected
person.
Blood transfusions that
contain unscreened blood.
HIV spread from the mother to
the fetus.
Feeding the baby with milk
from an infected mother.
Use of unsterilized surgical
instruments.
11.

Methods of Prevention
Using a condom or another form of
contraception during sexual
intercourse. Another method of
prevention is abstinence from sex.
Avoiding drugs use especially
drug use involving needles.
Blood should be screened before
any transfusions.
There are many medical measures
that can be taken now to make
sure that the fetus is not infected.
The baby should be fed with
bottled milk if the mother is ill.
It should be ensured that all
surgical instruments are sterilized
before use.

Outline how HIV affects the immune system in a person

with HIV/AIDS.

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HIV virus attacks some types of lymphocyte (white blood cells)

in the bloodstream.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies, which attack the antigens

present on invading microbes.

So HIV stops this happening thus the person develops

symptoms of AIDS.
Those who are infected then become vulnerable to infections

(like pneumonia, tuberculosis and cancer).

A person with AIDS then usually dies of a collection of several
illnesses.