Contents
Lesson 1: Communication.......................................................................................... 3
Communication, the process, broken down into STAGES........................................4
References.............................................................................................................. 5
Lesson 2: Models of Communication..........................................................................6
Lesson 3: Forms of Communication: Verbal and non-verbal.......................................7
Types of Non-Verbal................................................................................................. 7
Differences between Verbal and non-verbal............................................................8
Functions of nonverbal language............................................................................9
Lesson 4: Contexts of Communication.....................................................................11
Lesson 5: Language.................................................................................................. 13
Characteristics of language................................................................................... 13
Lesson 6: Language Variation................................................................................... 16
Lesson 7: Rules of Language.................................................................................... 18
Lesson 8: Differences between Creole and Standard...............................................22
Examples of Creole Structures.............................................................................. 23
Lesson 9: Language in Society................................................................................. 24
Lesson 10: Language Situation in the Caribbean.....................................................26
Lesson 11: Attitudes to Language............................................................................ 27
Lesson 12: Speech/Speaking.................................................................................... 29
Lesson 13: Technology, Culture, and Communication..............................................31
Lesson 14: Research................................................................................................. 33
Lesson 1: Communication
Communication is not just about writing. That is just its latest incarnation. It is ever
changing and ubiquitous. Basic communication is an interchange of meaning
(Dunn, 1995: 23). Communication is a cyclical process of coding and decoding data
between the listener and the speaker (Dunn, 1995). When the information or
message that is coded by the speaker is decoded by the listener, communication
has successfully occurred.
Definition Communication is any process in which people share
information, ideas and feelings. This process involves not only the spoken
and written word but also body language, personal mannerisms, style, the
surrounding or environment; in fact, anything that adds meaning to a
message.
Communication is a continuous and ongoing process that involves many elements.
The sender encodes the message, sends it along a channel to the receiver, who,
if capable, decodes the information. The loop of communication is completed when
the receiver sends feedback to the sender that indicates that they understood the
message. The response could be either verbal or non-verbal.
1. Sender-receivers The people who are involved in communication, except in
the case of mass communication (television, radio) are simultaneously
sending and receiving messages. Also known as communicators.
2. The message is made up of the ideas and feelings that a sender-receiver
shares. Ideas and feelings are communicated by verbal and non-verbal
symbols.
3. Feedback is the response of the response of the receiver-sender to each
other. It is both verbal and non-verbal.
4. The channel is the means that a communicator uses to convey his message:
speech, writing and so on.
5. The setting is where the communication occurs. The physical location of the
communication
6. The Environment goes beyond the setting to include the fields of experience
that help communicators understand each other. It refers to the personal
experiences and cultural background of the participants.
Humans begin communicating from in the womb, when the baby responds to
different stimuli, and after birth we learn that crying gains attention. Acquiring
language skills or signing skills allow us to communicate in more complex ways. It is
commonplace. It occurs in the family, in the workplace, in church and in social
settings.
Humans spend 70 per cent of their time awake engaged in communication, 40 per
cent of which is spent listening, 30 per cent speaking and 15 per cent reading and
10 per cent writing.
same barriers can become facilitators if they are chosen carefully and
managed. In effective communication, the sender and receiver boths
understand the message in the same way. Its the opposite in ineffective
communication, otherwise known as a communication breakdown.
5. Feedback Communication is not linear, it is a continuous loop. So feedback
or the response to the message is just as important. It can be spoken or
written, and sometimes physical reactions can be appropriate e.g yawning to
a lecturer. No response is feedback as well. It can indicate lack of interest in
the message, that it was not understood, or that you just dont like it.
Feedback determines if there will be further communication.
6. Media, Channels and technologies Technology plays a big part in modern
communication. Innovation, the creation of new technology and ways of
looking at the world, fuels change. In ancient Egypt and China, human
messenger on foot or horseback were a common means of communication.
Books used to be handwritten by monks until the printing press came along
and allowed for newspapers and mass book printing. Then in 1835 Samuel
Morse invented Morse code which was followed by the first telegraph line in
1843. The computer is one of preferred means of communication, with access
to social media such as Facebook. Who knows what might be next?
ACTIVITY* List all modern technologies that you know.
One thing to note is that Communication is Symbolic. Symbols are used to represent
things, processes, ideas or events in ways that make communication possible.
Symbols are also arbitrary, that is fickle. Symbols make up verbal language. There is
nothing about actual dogs that determines that the sound dog is used to refer to
them. That is why the animal in question is called Hund in German and chien in
French. Small children may at some point ask why hill is not called butter but the
answer is: its just the way it is. It is something that speakers of English decided
upon (convention) a long time ago. Another word would work just as well, as long as
we all agreed on it. Effective communication depends on agreement among
people about these rules. We overcome the arbitrary nature of symbols by
linguistic rules and customs. More will come later in the section called Language,
which comes in Week 5. The lesson to be learnt is that nothing should be taken for
granted. (signs, symbols and customs and convention),
References
Adler, Ronald B. and George Rodman. 2000. Understanding Human Communication.
Orlando: Harcourt College Publishers.
Dunn, Hopeton S. 1995. Policy Issues in Communications Use: Challenges and
Options. Globalization, Communications and Caribbean Identity. Edited by Hopeton
Dunn. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers.
Simon, Veronica and Sandra Osborne. 2009. Communication Studies for CAPE
Examinations. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers Limited.
Zeuscher, R. 1997. Communicating Today. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Types of Non-Verbal
There are seven types: Body language, proxemics, kinesics, chronemics, dress,
graphics and symbols and paralanguage.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
status. Are you showing respect by arriving early to an appointment for a job
interview and a lack of respect by coming a half-hour late you your study
group meeting?
Dress is one of those objects that relay a message about you. In all cultures
we are concerned with how we look and we make judgements based on looks
and dress. Artifacts such as clothing, jewellery or even an automobile can
communicate, culture or religion, social standing, or job. In Ghana, kente
cloth is worn only by certain members of society, signalling their social
position and wealth. Colour is used symbolically (red is associated with
power, blue for boy, pink for girl, black for funerals or Goths.) Hair may also
communicate belonging to a group such as dreadlocks for Rastafarianism or a
cleanly shaved head for skinheads a European racist group. School uniforms
also indicate what school, and the way it is worn indicates attitudes of
neatness or attitude to the school. Any other examples you can think of?
Graphics and symbols: Subjects like chemistry (periodic table), geography ,
mathematics (pie charts and stats)have its own symbolic forms for
interpretation. Braille is another symbolic way of communicating ideas
graphically as the dots and position of dots represent words. Semaphore is a
way of passing information through the use of flags.
Paralanguage is the nonverbal elements of communication used to modify
meaning and convey emotion. The primary instrument is the voice. Vocalics is
the use of the volume, tone, rate, pitch, and quality of your voice to give
dimension and meaning to your words. For example, you raise your pitch at
the end of a sentence to indicate a question. Laughs, cries and moans all
have meaning and communicate some feeling or emotion; these are called
vocal characterisers and often have different meanings across cultures. Vocal
segregates like ooh, eh, mmmh and hmmmm may appear incomprehensible
but each has some special meaning whether it is acceptance, agreement or
uncertainty. Interestingly, paralanguage is also revealed in text
communication and internet language. Emoticons allow the writer to express
emotions in an exciting way, the use of capitals indicate shouting, the colour
chosen for the background or the actual text can express emotion.
discussion boards and list servers. In a small group every person can
participate actively with the other members.
4. Organisational communication focuses on interpersonal, small-group, public
and mass communication as they interact in a complex, multigroup setting.
Types of organisations are school, universities, government, the bank, electric
company. Organizational communication analyzes what happens to messages
as they travel up, down, and around a large collection of individuals and
groups bound together in some formal way. It also contributes to the
effectiveness of an organisation. It is central ( of grave importance to the
running of the company), pervasive (there is a lot of it) and complex (several
patterns)
a. Downwards director or other information coming from management
to employees
b. Upward information passing up the management chain
c. Horizontal sharing information across the levels of the
organisation/institution
d. Grapevine- informal passage of information e.g in the kitchen or
around the water cooler. Sometimes it is deliberately used to pass
information around.
There are formal and informal types of communication. Informal would be
verbal, although the channels of briefings, staff meetings and project
meetings would make it formal. Formal would be through email (internet and
intranet), memos, newsletters, policy documents, and job description,
basically anything written.
5. Public communication when one person talks to several others and is the
dominant focus of the communication. A good example is that of a speaker
and an audience. A single person would be talking to three or four or to three
of four thousand others.
6. Mass communication happens when messages are transmitted to large,
widespread audiences via electronic and print media.
7. Inter-cultural It looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds try
to communicate. To do this, you have to be aware of the different cultural
patterns of the world. One must be capable of accepting that there are
different ways of communicating both verbally and non-verbally and different
things are communicated by certain behaviours.
8. Academic note taking, teaching lecturing, group work, writing tests.
Lesson 5: Language
Even though you spend most of your communication time listening and thinking,
your most frequent interaction with others will probably focus on verbal messages.
To be complete, those interactions and messages will be carried on both nonverbal
and verbal channels.
The way we use words that is, verbal communication is one of the distinguishing
characteristics of our species. We acknowledged that other animals do
communicate but not like humans. We are able to turn our reactions to the world
around us into symbols, that is, not the things themselves, but symbols that stand
for the physical aspects of the world and our responses to them.
Therefore the most basic meaning of language is that it is a collection of symbols
governed by rules, and used to convey messages between individuals.
There are other accepted definitions such as: a system of communication between
humans, through written and vocal symbols; speech peculiar to an ethnic, national
or cultural group; words, especially employed in any art, branch of knowledge or
profession; a persons characteristic mode of speech; by extension, the articulate or
inarticulate expression of thought and feeling by living creatures.
We recognise some truth to each definition, being that another aspect of language
that was captured. But what it does show is that it combines a wide variety of
features and is the most precise and complex means of communication that exists.
Studies have been done and they believe that humans speak over 10,000 dialects.
A linguist, someone who studies language and communication, once quipped, A
language is a dialect with an army and navy." It is a description of the distinction
between dialect and language. It points out the influence that political conditions
can have over a community's perception of the status of a language or dialect.
The description was popularized by the Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich, who heard it
from a member of the audience at one of his lectures.
Characteristics of language
1. Uniquely human The possession of language as a communication tool has
been the main catalyst in our development as the most creative species on
earth. Parrots and parakeets can be taught to reproduce sound sequences but
they cannot be taught to respond sensibly to a verbal message. Where is the
cut-off, however? Gorillas and chimpanzees can be taught sign language and
can communicate. Are they human then? Discuss Planet of the Apes.
2. Systematic Each language has its accepted sound patterns that are easily
recognisable to its speakers. There are certain combinations of letter sounds
that appear in other languages that are not acceptable in English even
though these languages use the same writing system. E.g J sounds like H in
Spanish. Sounds take on meaning in a language only when they are
combined in certain ways that are recognisable to its speakers. Language
also uses grammar. The grammar of a language is the set of rules that govern
how the words are put together to make meaning. Word order is critical to
meaning. E.g the difference between: You are there, there you are! And are
you there? There are rules relating to which type of word can be used in a
given sentence to convey meaning. Activity 4.2
3. It is symbolic- a symbol is something that stands for something else. The
letters that spell dog have nothing in common with the shaggy canine. The
word is merely a symbol for that animal. The very letters that we use to write
in English are arbitrary. Anyone who studies Russian, Japanese, Hebrew or
Greek realizes that the sounds we make when we see our symbols, other
people make when they see other symbols. Even though there may be some
common agreement among speakers of the same language regarding the
meaning attached to symbols, we all may make different connections in
responding to a certain symbol. This is the difference between denotation
the literal definition and connotation the specific association and reactions
you may have with a word. For example Rose: the literal meaning is a flower
sometimes with different colours. The connotation can be romance, a gift,
even war. Differences in background and experience create differences in the
reactions people have to words.
4. Evolutionary Although there are dictionaries which ensure that the
symbolism of words remain consistent, there is always development and
change in aspects of all languages. It is evolutionary or changes over time.
One way is through the invention of new words. As humans invent or discover
new things and new ideas enter the world, new symbols have to be created
to represent them. There will be many new words in the next century that do
not exist now. Example, hiragana and katakana in Japanese. Or the skate
board vernacular Sketchy, stoked, dude, poser etc.
Purposes of language
1. Expressive used to express ones feelings, ideas or attitudes without taking
a reader or listener into consideration. In this use the speaker/writer is not
trying to effect change or get a response. He/she is venting. Diaries and
journals are examples of this.
2. Informative language is employed with the intention of conveying
information to others. E.g. a news broadcast, a bulletin board, a text book are
all example of this purpose.
3. Cognitive Used to affect the audience in some way in order to evoke some
type of response. Therefore, when it is used to persuade, entertain, stir to
anger or arouse sympathy one is using it for cognitive purposes. E.g
catharsis, push you to laugh and cry.
English. All these forms share the same structures and are considered to be
internationally acceptable, that is understood by other speakers of English around
the world. They differ mostly in Pronunciation and vocabulary. Pg. 48. Flat,
apartment, tyre-tire, autumn-fall, forehead-forehead, biscuit-cookie, puddingdessert, number plate-license plate.
It is important to understand that no one variety of a language is superior to
another and that every language is really a collection of dialects. Accents may make
it difficult for two persons speaking the same language to understand each other.
(ever heard Bajan?) An accent is simply a variation in pronunciation. There is
no person without an accent. But because it is so much a part of who you are, it is
often difficult for you to identify your own. (talk about Jamaica)
There are differences with a speech community. Pg 48.
Code switching. Varying the way you express yourself, depending on whom you are
speaking or writing to.
Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to, you instinctively vary the way
in which you express yourself. This type of language variation is called code
switching. Although you may be using the same variety.
There is a wide range of varieties that are considered standard. Look in Word
sometime and try to reset the language, and you will see the varieties. There is
British Standard English, American Standard English and even Caribbean Standard
English. All these forms share the same structures and are considered to be
internationally acceptable, that is understood by other speakers of English around
the world. They differ mostly in Pronunciation and vocabulary. Pg. 48. Flat,
apartment, tyre-tire, autumn-fall, forehead-forehead, biscuit-cookie, puddingdessert, number plate-license plate.
It is important to understand that no one variety of a language is superior to
another and that every language is really a collection of dialects. Accents may make
it difficult for two persons speaking the same language to understand each other.
(ever heard Bajan?) An accent is simply a variation in pronunciation. There is
no person without an accent. But because it is so much a part of who you are, it is
often difficult for you to identify your own. (talk about Jamaica)
There are differences with a speech community. Pg 48.
Code switching. Varying the way you express yourself, depending on whom you are
speaking or writing to.
Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to, you instinctively vary the way
in which you express yourself. This type of language variation is called code
switching. Although you may be using the same variety.
album titles in the 1950s. But kids used it for anything they considered special or
out of the ordinary or simply, good.
Notice that while some slang terms do remain in general usage, they are normally
restricted to informal language and not used in formal expression, otherwise known
as colloquial language. Colloquial means relating to conversation. If used in formal
writing, they would be placed in inverted commas to indicate they are colloquial.
Semantics the way we attach meanings to words and the rules that govern how
to put meaning into those words. Semantic rules are what make it possible for us to
agree that bikes are for riding and books are for reading, they also help us to
know who we will and wont encounter when we open doors marked men and
women. Without semantic rules, communication would be impossible, because
each of us would use symbols in unique ways, unintelligible to each other. The
meanings of words are given to those words by the users of those words. Labelling,
making common. An old dictionary functions like a history book and records how
educated speakers used words in the past. However, a dictionary cannot tell what a
particular speaker may have meant when that speaker departed from past usage.
The way that we use the word semantics is from the study of the use and misuse
of language, made popular by Alfred Korzybski (1933) and S.I. Hayakawa (1990).
For example, whats the difference between garbage man and sanitary engineer?
Same thing. Korzybski and Hayakawa felt that our misuse of symbols is partly
responsible for many social ills. They stressed that the symbol is not the thing. By
this statement, they mean that symbols are representational and artificial and not
worth fighting over. Our words, as Hayakawa point out, are like maps to a territory,
but they are not the territory itself. For example, rather than block a bill in the
legislature because it contains a socially impolite term venereal disease it was
much sounder to attack the disease. They believed that if we could change the way
we react to symbols, especially those of language, we could improve our orientation
to reality and get to work solving real problems instead of arguing about what to call
the problem.
Phonologics Phonological rules govern how sounds are combined to form words.
For example, the words champagne, double, and occasion have the same
meaning in French and English, but are all pronounced differently. The way a word
sounds gives it meaning when we hear it. There are combinations and rules of
language that clarify meaning and others that create only nonsense. You recognize
train from its sounds as being different from drain, even though the sound /t/ and /d/
are nearly identical. The phonemes, or sounds, change slightly, and the meaning
changes completely. Through sound, we provide not only differences in meanings,
but also information about ourselves. Are you from Brooklyn, Atlanta, Edinburgh or
Calcutta? E.g coffee in different part of the states. We all can say the same words,
but slight variation in pronunciation give listeners quite a bit of information about
us. It is really sounds that govern meanings since written language represents the
results of our ancestors having recorded the sounds they made. Sometimes the
original spelling remains when over the years the sounds change e.g subtle. You
wont hear the b pronounced.
Next week: Creole
The term Creole comes from the Portugese word creoulo, meaning a person of
European parents who had been born and raised in a colonial territory. Later, it was
used to refer to anyone native to these countries and then it became the name of
the language spoken by these people.
Creole is a language born of contact. It is developed from a less stable form of
communication between the speakers of different cultures, such as West Africans
and Europeans. This is known as Pidgin. Pidgin develops when people who speak
different languages find themselves in a situation where they have to communicate
with each other for purpose of trade, business or survival. Pidgins are not ordinary
languages, but it can begin to be used as the first language of people in the same
community (usually children). It then acquires the more complex grammar of a full
language and is referred to as a Creole. Therefore, all Creole languages start as
Pidgins. Sometimes Creole languages are referred to as patois or patwa. However,
the word patois can be used as a synonym for any non-standard variety or local
dialect, including pidgins.
Caribbean Creole is highly varied. Although a creole has influences from several
languages in its sounds, structure and vocabulary, it is usually classified according
to what is perceived as the dominant language. So, some territories speak a Creole
whose vocabulary is based on English, while others are based on French, Spanish or
Dutch.
Creole structures differ from standard English in: Number, Possession, Gender,
person, pronoun, comparison, negation, tense, voice, and emphasis among other
things.
Howe are the following words/ phrases used in your creole? Do their creole
meanings differ from the standard? Hot, feisty, wine, soaps, malicious, you lie!,
fast
Another semantic feature is the use of calques, which are compound words
borrowed from another language as literal translations. Example, nose-hole, housebottom, eye-water, cut-eye, door-mouth, force-ripe. How would you translate them
into SE? Can you think of any others?
An understanding of the distinctions between the language varieties will help you to
be consistent in your use of either and to make fewer of the errors that result from a
mixing of Creole and Standard.
8. Mood: Creole uses would for future tense. Eg. Come for me tomorrow and I
would go
9. Voice: Passive structures differ from Standard English. E.g De school pat, De
school get paints
10.Emphasis: Creole doubles negatives and comparatives mainly for emphasis.
(see Comparison above). Duplication is another common method of showing
emphasis in Creole. Eg. What a way the man fool-fool; he like she bad bad.
Every white teenager wants to believe he is from the hood now. Those who
are proud of their language will speak it as much as possible to show their
allegiance and their belief in the higher status of the language. E.g Jamaican
dialect. Baby love.
6. Affective/expressive function Sometimes certain things cannot be expressed
as well in Standard English as in Creole, especially when it is the first
language one is exposed to. Certain \phrases as well do not take well to
translation. So it is used to express ones feelings, ideas or attitudes without
taking a reader or listener into consideration. E.g wat is dis ya tall, tall, tall?
Attitudes to language may vary from one sector of the society to another and some
people demonstrate self-conscious behaviour when speaking the standard
language. This is largely a result of the language that one speaks. This is even more
prevalent in societies with a colonial legacy, like the Caribbean, where certain
dialects are associated with the institution of slavery or conquest.
Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a persons native language is an
integral part of who that person is and marginalising that language can have severe
damaging effects on of that persons psyche. Many linguists consistently make a
case for teaching native languages alongside the target language so that children
can clearly differentiate among the codes and hence be less likely to mix the two.
This approach has been adopted in Haiti, where schools teach both Standard French
and French Creole (Haitian) and children are expected to be fluent in both.
When a creole develops, it is usually at the expense of other languages in the area.
It also comes into conflict with the standard language of the region. There is strong
pressure on the creole speakers to move to the standard language which is
considered to be more prestigious. This process is known as decreolisation.
A post-creole continuu, the develops. At one end is the acrolect a dialect that is
closest to the standard European language, spoken by the groups in close contact
with the most power sector of the society. At the other end is the basilect a basic
form of the dialect spoken by the group at the bottom of the social ladder. The
mesolect sits at the midway point. The creole continuum is also evident in the
degree to which creole maintain their relationship with the European and African
languages from which they evolve.
Culture refers to common practices and beliefs held by a specific group. Culture is
expressed through our language; proverbs and folk tales; legends and myths; art
and music; and food and drink.
Culture unifies one group but separates it from other groups with dissimilar
practices and beliefs. The Caribbean has many different cultures, though a shared
and similar history. Each island is different than the others. The Creoles are
different due to different colonisation (English, French, Dutch, Spanish), the
celebration of Carnival or the ending of slavery is different, the folk stories are
different, the names of food and plants also differ because of the application of the
different influences (African, English, etc.).
The influence of culture on Caribbean language:
Negatives of technology:
Spam
Cyber bullying
Identity theft and fraud
No privacy sharing of information with virtual strangers normally taboo is
now considered de rigueur
Lots of information that needs to be sorted, processed, filed, responded to or
utilised
Loss of etiquette and traditional protocol such as letter writing.
Misspellings, popularity of abbreviations, lack of grammar rules, no
observance of sentence structures,
No acknowledgement of features of languages other than English, such as
French or Spanish
Need to respond to communication faster and to transfer larger amounts of
information.
The death of the traditional postal system as mail is constantly decreasing
Mistakes stay on the internet forever
The cultural practice of going to the library or exchanging books with friends
no longer has their traditional place in our lives.
Books as gifts are less popular
The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one
paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new
paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic
or a new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence
within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in a single
paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the
single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and
placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.
Elements of a Paragraph
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins
with a one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another
or wander within different ideas.
Coherence
Verbal bridges
A topic sentence
Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If
you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea
should have its own paragraph.
To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a
debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short "break" for
your readersadding these in will help your writing more readable. You would create a break
if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory
and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and
conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's
purpose.
Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are
cues that help the reader to interpret ideas a paper develops. Transitional
devices are words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to
another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another. And
finally, transitional devices link sentences and paragraphs together smoothly
so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.
There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads
readers to make certain connections or assumptions. Some lead readers
forward and imply the building of an idea or thought, while others make
readers compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.
Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue
readers in a given way.
To Add:
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further,
furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first
(second, etc.)
To Compare:
whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the
contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against,
vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast,
although this may be true
To Prove:
because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore,
moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is
To Show Exception:
yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a
while, sometimes
To Show Time:
immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later,
previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then
To Repeat:
For argument the devices characteristic of the format are evidence, facts, personal
experience, authoritative opinion, refutation of the counter argument. The devices
characteristic of persuasion are repetition, rhetorical question and emotional
appeals.
Exposition.
The word exposition comes from the word expose, which means to make known, to
disclose, to bring to light or lay open to view. Expository writing, therefore, aims to
inform or explain. The reader is expected to have a clearer understanding of the
topic after reading an expository piece. In this we are using language in an objective
way, which is characteristic of expository discourse. The methods of organising
exposition are based on logic and deals with ideas.
There are 6 devices of expository writing:
Analysis
Analysis helps one to understand a subject better; it involves dividing the
subject into its component parts and looking at each part to determine how it
relates to the whole. Most of the rhetorical methods require some form of
analysis.
There are two types:
Subject analysis involves explanations of what things are, how they are put
together, how they work.
Process Analysis can be directional or informational. It can provide a step by
step explanation of how to do something. Directional e.g a recipe.
Informational e.g how volcanoes come into being. The object is to present a
procedure in such a way that a reader can understand and follow the
directions in the case of the former or to reconstruct the event so as to be
able to provide a clear explanation in the case of the latter.
For both types the tone is usually impersonal and the language is means to
be objective. E.g National Geographic.
Practice yourself by writing on any of the topics. .
a) How a road is built in your territory
b) How the sun rises and sets
c) How blood flows through the body
d) How to bake a cake
e) How to prepare a speech
f) The life cycle of the butterfly
g) How a hurricane is formed
h) How to repair a broken cell phone
Classification
These are useful methods of organizing and explaining information by means
of separating a subject into parts. It makes information clearer and more
easily understood. Division separates a single subject to subunits without any
specific principle of organisation. E.g the human body can be divided into its
parts: arms, head, legs, kidneys, arteries etc. Classification separates a
subject on the basis of specific principles or common characteristics. So, in
classification, you are not only dividing but grouping. E.g the human body
categorised by systems respiratory, reproductive, digestive, circulatory.
Guidelines
1. The categories have to be mutually exclusive. (no overlapping) Do the
diagram.
2. It has to be logical and based on a common principle. Eg. P 188
3. The categories have to be meaningful and not superficial. P. 189.
4. Categories can be further divided into sub-categories.
Definition
One way of clarifying or exposing something is by defining it ( explaining its
meaning). A definition essay is a personal, in-depth explanation and commentary on
what a word, term or concept means. Generally definition essays deal with abstract
concepts that lend themselves to personal interpretation rather than with physical
objects that a have a universal, agreed definition. Pointless to define a tree or chair
but definition of love or the perfect vacation would vary widely since perspectives of
these topics are based on opinion and personal experience.
Types or ways:
Definition by synonym is providing an explanatory statement which includes a
synonym, an alternative term with which the reader may be more familiar.
3. In organising, try to make the links obvious either by working forward from
cause to effect or to present effects and trace backwards to the related
causes.
Page 222. Examples.
First, try to find the main idea in the reading; its usually in the first paragraph. Next,
skim through the article, glancing at any headings and graphics. Then, read the
conclusion. The intent here is both to give yourself a review of the work and t o
effectively engage yourself with it.
Now go back and read the original text carefully, jotting down notes on or
highlighting the important points. Write the central idea and the authors reasons
(purpose and intent) for holding this viewpoint. Note the supporting elements the
author uses to explain or back up her/his main information or claim.
Make an outline that includes the main idea and the supporting details. Arrange your
information in a logical order, for example, most to least important or chronological.
Your order need not be the same as that in the original, but keep related supporting
points together. The way you organize the outline may serve as a model for how you
divide and write the essay.
Listening
Listening and hearing are not the same thing. Hearing is the process in which sound
waves strike the eardrum and cause vibrations that are transmitted to the brain.
Listening occurs when the brain reconstructs these electrochemical impulses into a
representation of the original sound and then gives them meaning. Barring illness,
injury or earplugs, hearing cant be stopped. Listening, however, isnt automatic.
Many times we hear but do not listen. (remember the stages of communication.
Where would listening be important?)
There are four different reasons we listen:
Appreciation: for recreation, which means that your enjoyment of the event is
your primary purpose. E.g music
Empathy- Empathy means to feel within someone elses emotional state.
Empathic listening means trying to both understand the content of the
message and relate to the feelings of that message. E.g a friend sharing his
troubles with you and you respond by giving him time and attention.
Comprehension Your classroom listening is a clear example of listening for
comprehension and is directly related to academic success. You take notes,
listen to the lectures or discussions in order to understand the material.
Criticism Critical listening means taking information and looking at it
carefully. It means being able to analyze he content and form of the message
so that you making informed decision about the value of the information for
you. For example, listening to commercials you do not blindly believe the
spokesperson, you realise this is a sale pitch designed to get you to spend
money.
o Listen for information before making judgements. Paraphrasing or
summarizing helps in this because it forces you to be objective when
translating the speakers ideas into your own words.
o Evaluate the speakers credibility: Are they competent, meaning do
they have authority to speak on the topic? Is the speaker impartial or
biased?
o Is the evidence reliable and from a reliable source? Is it true? Is it
enough? Is it up to date? Can it be interpreted in more way than one?
Improve your listening by becoming a skilled note taker. Focus on key ideas, and jot
down information in a format that keeps ideas and relationship connected and in
order.