The Beginnings
of Philosophy
Classical
Antiquity
has made
the
pal
th
ab/
arg
The
en
ment
at
inexplicable
phenomena.
the
world,
men
increasingly
sought
This
an
problem
of
sto
the
comprehensible
of
hist
when
are
So
Eth
the
by
to
them,
while
saying
The
discovery of argument.
The
of
the
ical
wor
god
re-in
is marked
by the difference
no
CLASSICAL
The origins of Western philosophy are to be found in Ancient
Greece. The Greeks began to
express thought in philosophical
terms in c. 600 B.C This period
was characterized by far-reaching
economic and social change,
which led to a crisis of the
aristocratic state and finally to
new forms of rule (tyranny,
democracy).
the
ANTIQUITY
Presocratic philosophy centers
on the question of the basic
principle permeating the world
and the primal substance from
which the world and the things
in it arose.
The succeeding classical period
(c. 480-c.
320 B.C.) was the
heyday of Greek civilization, in
which the Greeks produced their
highest achievements in the
visual arts (enlargement of the
Acropolis under Pericles; important sculptors: Myron, Phidias,
Polycletus); literature (period of
the greatest representatives of
Attic tragedy: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides); and philosophy
(Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) Athens
Pythagoras, Engraving,
16th century,
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
nal
became the center of philosophy
at this time, and it was here that
the new form of state, the polis
or city-state, attained its highest
expression.
The Hellenistic period (323c. 1st century B.C.) was the age
in which a mixed culture arose
as the result of the absorption of
oriental elements. The Greek
influence, however, remained
paramount During this period,
the Greeks ruled over large areas
of the Middle East as far as
northern India. Science, scholarship and trade flourished The
centers of culture were Alexandria and Pergamon. Characteristic
of Hellenistic art and architecture
was the juxtaposition of different
styles. Literature and philosophy
were marked by a cosmopolitan
attitude. New philosophical
schools arose (Stoics, Epicureans).
basi
worl
scie
and
whic
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
the motherland.
particularly
and
did indeed
linguistic
themes
encompass
the
(the theory
of
forms
of
included
not
)t
and movement
it
the observation
of philosophy
JS
historical
;e
are
1y
Socrates
Greek
philosophy
areas
of
Ethics,
and
three
Ig
of
nature),
),
only
the
phenomena,
Physics
Logic.
stars
of the gods
as
Plato
1e
Ethics, and
the
Aristotle
areas to
Presocratics
creators
as
of
the
on
historians
three
so that
the
and
these
under-
based
of nature. Ancient
assign
and
time, space,
periods,
seen
of
new, reli-
and communication.
central
Physics
demand
transparent
argumentation
The
and
the city-state
able,
Physics,
founders
of
inventor
of
as the
of
he
The Presocratics
The transition
lek
from
myth
logos was a
to
of thinkers, for
in
questions about
and
about
a uniform
the
basis of the
names
of
theoretically
way,
themselves
Seven
us)
ea).
on-
gods in a recognizably
ms
ore
~ in
only
using
the
metaphorical
on
the language of myth to seek a strictly rational explanation of the world. For Thales. the
basis of creation - the origin
(arche) of the
in
and
practically,
they concerned
later,
by the
Sophists,
and
then
by
for Heraclitus,
observation
things, which
of the
multiplicity
of
that
as
eventually be subsumed
he saw
Aristotle
regarded
as
in the nar-
to find a single
unity
in the
eternal
in an all-embracing
reason
Pythagoreanssaw number
One
radical
of custom
especially
epistemological
The
and
thus
Pythagoreans
of
critic
of the
world
of opposites. The
and tradition,
anthropomorphic
skepticism.
notions
of
the founder
of
With
his thesis
and eternity of
of Eleatism, whose
founder,
Parmenides
of
developed
a static, Monistic
ontology
Group of Philosophers,
Roman mosaic from Pompeii.
1st centu ry AD,
Museo Nazionale Archeologico, Naples
The "Seven Wise Men: in fact
comprising far more than seven
statesmen in changing configurations in
the 6th and 7th centuries
were
regarded in Greek tradition as the
founders of a rule-based, and
altogether practical. form of thinking
and acting that was only later
systematized in philosohpical terms.
Handed down from them we have
such proverbial expressions as: "Know
thyself," "Nothing in excess: "Master thy
desires," "Everything in its proper time:
"Most people are bad"
Whether the Pompeian mosaic, which
is probably based on a Hellenistic
model. really does depict the "Seven
Wise Men" is questionable, but not
completely impossible, for
representations of this motif are known
from classical Antiquity (e.g. in Cologne).
The mosaic has also been seen as a
depiction of the Platonic Academy In
that case, Plato would be the seated
figure beneath the tree. drawing in the
sand with a stick or pointing to a ball
which might be construed as an
armillary sphere (a heavenly sphere with
the orbits of the planets) Whatever the
case, the lively picture, of a group of
sages in conversation demonstrates the
ongoing interest among educated
Romans in the philosophy which they
had originally inherited from Greece.
Be
(theory
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
strictly
His
logical
basic
thinking
and
being
always
the preceding
that
implies
to imagine,
exist
As statements
imply
the
about
non-existence
or subsequent
of
situation, there-
separation
about
mechanistically
through
or
many,
by
not
come
chance,
and
invisible
whose
mixing
action
by the
mind-spirit
is guided
and
intertnous)
cannot
be
imagined,
nor
even
unchanging
unity
which
attempted
the
but
unchanging
basic substances,
to overcome
positions
also
the contradiction
taken
by
Heraclitus
in
and
invoking a mental
or metaphysical
which
because
our
principle
by viewing
perception
as appearance, decep-
Thus thought
idoxe)
in contrast to
and empirical
experi-
Empedocles'
a
theory
of the elements
compromise
between
of empirical
portions.
the
Empedocles
of
by interpreting
explains
obviously
and
in
come
about
by chance,
which
different
results from
phenomenon
change
objects
It is the changes
which
multiplicity
mechanically
indivisible
differ in their
repre-
these elements
purely
minute
Heraclitus
elements
configurations,
guides the
sents
these
and
rescues
observable
it as the separation,
natural philosophical,
cosmological,
and onto-
they
Athens,
provoking,
extensive
who
brought
not
influence,
philosophy
least
the
by their
to
very
and Aristotelian
rise
subj
"rna
counter-movement
we know as Socratic-Platonic
of
that
are
g~
experience
of
that perceptions
are relative
Plat
and subjective,
general
for knowledge
ANTIQUITY
does
CLASSICAL
union
existence
or union
or
imagined
same,
This
meaningfully
principle,
are the
is impossible
it cannot
change
argumentation.
epistemological
and
that if something
then
linguistic
and judgments
the Sophists
position
consequence,
that
arrived
at the
no secure foundation
philosophy's
but
rather
to
persuade
by
rhetorical skill.
The
Socr
399
drin
was
with
development
philosophy
Socr
and
expansion
of communication
of
the
to th
is due to this
whic
nott
teachers
who
traveled
true
teaching
the
politically
younger
The
Socr
ing, with
is in
the
promise
that
in litigation
or
political
point
weaker
position
revise
fees which
in some
tions
a practice vehemently
grant
criticized
best-known
Among
the
foun
moral
Socra
In his opinion,
the
a statement
could
be true in
order
e
e
e
dictum
asserting
human
subjectivity as the
Socrates
locutor to adopt
of things
that
into
conversation
of targeted
questioning,
succeeds
in persuading
under
Greek
philosophy
period
(Socrates,
discussion.
Socrates was
's
condemned
to
by being
death
made to
alleged
the youth
in
crime
of Athens
His response
the aim of
but
of
his
of
dialogue.
dialectic
the
discussion
partners,
Socrates
teacher,
reflect
upon
and
convic-
me
tions which
ntly
he
had
hitherto
he
taken
for
knew
He said
only
thing
nothing.
the
is known
works
great.
their
of
his
to
Plato
Antisthenes
hedonistic
Cyrenaican
ngs.
Plato often
knowledge,
might
have
in
no
he
writings
and
other
was
extraof
his
the Cynics,
version,
the
school.
knew
of philosophy:
ave
ironically
he
pupils
schools
and Aristippus
the
us primarily
influence
Numerous
own
as
Although
the
himself as
not
ave
and about
recognized
himself
the
contemporaries),
ordinarily
ese
that
(his philosophy
founded
the
some
nearer.
off many
is induced, through
contradictions
but
self-reflection.
that
dia-
value.
understood
himself
was
a solution
frightened
but as a midwife
of critical
of
and brings
of dialogue
its educational
sees this
This form
through
is
Socrates
any unambiguous
the problem
al
in
his inter-
Socrates
or
entering
Plato,Aristotle).
ak-
about
him. By dint
of classical
er
shyness
with
Plato
used a critical
his predecessors
Heraclitus,
disputation
- in particular
Parmenides,
with
Pythagoras,
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
as immutable,
senting
material
knowledge.
contrast
as' assured
Methodological
whether
insights,
epistemological,
by
logical
(in contrast
intellect. Anyone
permanent.
Among
\.
statements
eternal and
the
knowledge
presented
as
opinion
with
sphere of perception.
(doxe),
which
the
broad
(e.q. animals
or political
concepts
concern
of
disputes
related to
is to
were
prove the
possibility
predominantly
ethics, in which
important role.
to be immortal,
from which
10
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
of a blank sheet
but
was
objective
knowledge
of truth
./
recollection (anamnesis).
is not the filling
that
axiom
with
different
perceptual
impressions of
unitary
reason
assured
nently
possible
philosophical
assured
knowledge
is
idea
of
beauty
itself
appears.
road
e
d
:s
e
of
re
.g.
Its
ld
~.g.
of
ch
Jut
is
Ility
ich
'iari
lory
'lith
ons
:e.
lility
s a
med
iatal
this
by
'ning
but
rsgi:~
ks
or
and
cally,
sci-
featureless material,
or
(derived
from
in
ation
of
r:sonpro-
is only
:iceda
tod in
values, in
of Sophists and
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
11
12
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
human
as a reasonable
self-awareness
the
goal of
thus
to
In his wide-ranging
upbringing
estates, by regulating
and
important
education
is
education
the
wider
sense
rhythm), as well
including
as
in the
poetry
four
he adds
a combination
themes
of
Plato's
natural
philosophy.
something
To explain the
structure
of the
world,
teleology not
nomena. He uncompromisingly
postulates immaterial
forms,
geometrical
rejects the
it as empty
and dodecahedron,
later known
as the
y.
1-
Id
19
:Js
of which
solids,
decided
interest
in
individual
between
potentiality.
Aristotle's philosophy
covers
an
extra-
Philosophy
range
Aristotle's
on logic
writings
are usually
differentiation
internal
methodology
consistent terminology
and
definitions
as the founder
of the historiography
of
in
philosophy, some
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
13
movement
so
gn
lo(
ad
the
principle
(the origin)
of
of movement.
or
th
explain the
phenomenon
conceivable.
be
Ar
(k
that
"movement"
the distinction
existence
which
not
and
opens
was
negation
up the
of
ge
predication,
possibility that in
In
the
oth
un
im
(an
ity
It
is the
a perceptual judgment.
(energeia,
state of the
possible
(dynamis,
actuality), or of fulfillment
elecheia/
whose
complete
formulation
reveals all
(matter).
relation,
place, time,
predicate types
quantity,
position,
quality,
situation,
Aristotle's
Metaphysics
Aristotle
recognized
no
transcendental
without
through
Aristotle's
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
ient-
(categories): substance,
14
una
Theory of Nature
between
according
to different
capacities of the
';
is the basic
other purpose.
of thought
as human
following
beings. They
reside
in the
definition of happiness: it is an
being
is eternal,
of outward features
is indispensable
perfect happiness.
It is a philosophical
basic principle
for
the
attainment
of
to
any part in it
II
between cowardice
1-
practical
or
and recklessness. By
al
lic
is
m,
es,
lily
lity
rds
lity
ien
; of
ate,
the
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
15
s
n
es
Ii
the
dianoetic,
or intellectual, virtues he
activity, which
and the
a
a
at
classical philosophy.
Ethics. They
of
e.g. the
Socrates'
Plato's
utopia,
whose
community
Cynics, who
pupil
looked
Antisthenes
or
back to
to
the
in detail,
of the separation
of powers, he distin-
a mordant
of
to
majority
of
sufficient
pragmatically
mean -
in
contrast
to
the
prevailing
of citizens.
oligarchy, in which
ANTIQUITY
by
Aristotle's
CLASSICAL
16
lato,
Stoicism
school
showed
some
affinity
with
to the Peripatetics.
all by philosophical
pleasure is without
Under-
which
foundation.
by
the
s of
configurations of atoms.
ception,
Dais,
by Zeno
: to
in Athens, in
the
lut it
nickoutynic")
ld; it
iwas
toms,
upled
I,
free
d live
'. The
hich
nme
ration,
'back
selfailing
h as
was
Itv of
land
ortune,
, and
which
provides
infallibly
true
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
17
imbued
and
Chrysippus,
Ma rble statue, 3 rd centu ry Be.,
Louvre, Paris
Chrysippus was the third head of the
Stoic school in Athens. Like the other
StOICS,he divided science into physics,
ethics and logic, and believed that the
whole of nature emanated from one
rational principle. He systematized the
theses of his predecessors in numerous
writings. The statue shows in highly
impressive manner the individualizing
realism of Hellenistic art It represents a
moment of concentration, suggested
especially in the eyes and the
"speaking" hand. At the same time the
generalized, typical aspect of his
posture, the general formula of a
thinking man, is not neglected. This
formula, which also relates to the
situation of the teacher in front of
listeners, became standard for the
representation of philosophers. When
certain Roman emperors later had
themselves portrayed thus, they
underlined their claim to be
philosopher-rulers
with
by the divine
logos,
and
also
divine
providence.
logos
also
breath
(pneuma)
is totally
As the
determines
principle,
of the
determined
universal
political
worldlife,
application
necessarily
demands
the
polis
Greek
broader
a turning
("city-state")
philosophical
away from
in favor
and
of a
systematized
position, Chrysippus
ed as the second
founder
basic
mentation,
science
which,
encompassed
mology
of
is regard-
Rationalism.
impression
part
of
develops
soul
an idea (phantasia),
definitions
which
with
that
reason
gives rise to
we
form
me
the
of
which
lead to
an
Chrysippus
relates
to
of living in harmony
ac
man. Although
tho
ple
subject
human
to the
all-determining
self-determination
the founder
Greek
to
physics,
the
interest,
than
imperial
aspects.
sion
of
the
of
urges,
and
goods.
extremely
well
intellectual
the
Stoicism's
sp
its suppres-
me
In
ity
Stoic
with
co
political
put a positive
In contrast
duty,
as
he developed
political
ser
ethics,
and
ethics, with
unworldly
hitherto,
of
earlier
on pleasure
and
predecessors'
problems
rejected
of natural
of outward
his
to
thought
dialectics
its pragmatic
ascetic
judgment
began
Roman
of
with
He
rigorously
of the middle
with
centers
especially
tic'
philosophy
He is less concerned
res
co
br
Panaetius,
and
world-
self-sufficient
itself
fallible)
In
by reason.
orient
Empiricism
abstract,
this
and concepts.
period,
episte-
before
examined
Stoic
(potentially
endowed
and
With
the
compare
logic,
he combined
The
to
argu-
Stoic logic
not
and
semantics,
but
formal
and
knowledge,
through
In epistemology,
and
understood
logic
alongside
linguistics,
its
of Stoicism. The
the
theory
cosmopolitanism.
As he re-formulated
as
by
truth
to the ideal
sage
co
prevalent
all
doctrine
pr
a practical
which
went
down
Rome's
political
and
mE
c
S
p
co
ROMAN PHILOSOPHY
ve
or
Preservation
The
philosophy
of
Ancient
St
Rome
worthy
of the
characterized
schools.
As far as the
by Rome
the
to
philosophical
the
philosophy
major
thought
and to develop
formation
historical
service
philosophy
any orig-
and was
by any ongoing
concerned,
formed
name,
leant
was
tri
of
sh
is
performed
to transmit
a didactic
of
Ages.
poem, Oe rerum
St
he combined
to
work
the teaching
Atomism
of
is imbued
consistently
of Epicurus with
Democritus.
by a concern
rational
explanation
The
whole
to provide a
of natural
ANTIQUITY
et
the
18
ev
not
legacy
a Latin terminology
in the Middle
Lucretius wrote
this
Late Antiquity
son.
acity
the
Idto
lates
owes its
nony
re of
rinci-
orld-
respect above
ibility
conveyor of
having
ation
all
as a translator
Greek
philosophy,
and
iddle
In to
lught.
and
ssors'
nhics.
llitical
.sm's
and without
)pres-
moraldignity too.
ositive
sssion
It is incorporeal
ideal
valent
ictrine
precise examination
as the
down
II and
counter-arguments.
oriented himself
early
primarily
toward
individual
leant
ly orig-
said, in transcendental
(as not
nion of
Stoic sage,
gacy is
formed
passionsand composure
by strict asceticism.
.ransmit
Empire
andethics.
which
ation of
in the face of
union
with
of the
which
uswith
being condemned
rovidea
f natural
derived a cosmopolitan
ideal,
piefrom
jods.
political
the
rerum
f whole
Pseudo-Seneca,
Roman copy of Greek original, Bronze,
Museo Nazionale Archeologico, Naples
CLASSICAL
ANTIQUITY
19